Melanitta fusca -- (Linnaeus, 1758)ANIMALIA -- CHORDATA -- AVES -- ANSERIFORMES -- ANATIDAECommon names: Velvet Scoter;

European Red List AssessmentEuropean Red List Status

VU -- Vulnerable, (IUCN version 3.1)

Assessment InformationYear published: 2015Date assessed: 2015-03-31Assessor(s): BirdLife InternationalReviewer(s): Symes, A.Compiler(s): Ashpole, J., Burfield, I., Ieronymidou, C., Pople, R., Wheatley, H. & Wright, L.Assessment RationaleEuropean regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

Within Europe and the EU27 the winter population of this seaduck has undergone rapid declines. Although these may have now levelled off, the species still warrants classification as Vulnerable (A2abcde).

OccurrenceCountries/Territories of OccurrenceNative:Armenia; Austria; Azerbaijan; Belarus; Belgium; Bulgaria; Croatia; Czech Republic; Denmark; Estonia; Finland; France; Georgia; Germany; Hungary; Ireland, Rep. of; Italy; Latvia; Lithuania; Montenegro; Netherlands; Norway; Poland; Romania; Russian Federation; Serbia; Slovakia; Slovenia; Spain; Sweden; Switzerland; Turkey; Ukraine; United KingdomVagrant:Bosnia and Herzegovina; Faroe Islands (to DK); Greenland (to DK); Greece; Iceland; Luxembourg; Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Svalbard and Jan Mayen (to NO); Portugal

PopulationIn Europe the breeding population is estimated at 72,000-94,900 pairs, which equates to 144,000-190,000 mature individuals. In the EU27 the breeding population is estimated at 11,800-24,100 pairs, which equates to 23,500-48,200 mature individuals. In winter the minimum European populationis estimated at 322,000-549,000 individuals, which equates to 214,000-366,000 mature individuals. The minimum winter population in the EU27 is estimated at 302,000-518,000 individuals, which equates to 201,000-345,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF.

TrendIn winter, although the current population size trend is estimated to be fluctuating, the population size in Europe and the EU27 is estimated to have decreased by 30-49% during 1991-2014 (three generations). In the EU27 the breeding population is estimated to be decreasing by 30-49% in 22.5 years (three grenerations). In Europe the breeding population size is estimated to be decreasing by less than 25% over the same period. For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF.

Habitats and EcologyThis species winters mainly at sea, most commonly along exposed shores or offshore, although it is occasionally recorded inland during this period. Breeding occurs at middle to high altitudes in boreal forest and wooded tundra near to fresh water (Tucker and Heath 1994) and begins from mid-May (Madge and Burn 1988). A small relict population in Turkey is recorded breeding at around 3000 m on islands in high-altitude water-bodies, including crater lakes. It breeds in solitary pairs or loose groups and is seasonally monogamous (del Hoyo et al. 1992, Kear 2005). Nests are a shallow depression on the ground, poorly lined with plant matter and down and found among vegetation. Clutch size is normally seven to nine eggs (Carboneras and Kirwan 2014). It feeds on molluscs, crustaceans, echinoderms, annelids, insects and small fish. In addition it

may also consume plant material while on its breeding grounds. The species is migratory and small populations winter in the North Sea, the north-west Mediterranean, the Black Sea, along the Atlantic coast to Spain, and less commonly in freshwater lakes in central Europe. However the majority winter in the Baltic Sea (Tucker and Heath 1994).Habitats & Altitude

Habitat (level 1 - level 2) Importance OccurrenceForest - Boreal suitable breedingGrassland - Tundra suitable breedingMarine Neritic - Macroalgal/Kelp major non-breedingMarine Neritic - Seagrass (Submerged) major non-breedingMarine Neritic - Subtidal Loose Rock/pebble/gravel major non-breedingMarine Neritic - Subtidal Rock and Rocky Reefs major non-breedingMarine Neritic - Subtidal Sandy major non-breedingMarine Neritic - Subtidal Sandy-Mud major non-breedingWetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Lakes (over ha) major breedingAltitude max. 3000 m Occasional altitudinal limits

ThreatsMoulting and wintering concentrations of this species are very susceptible to oil spills and other marine pollutants (Gorski et al. 1977, Kear 2005, UICN France 2011, Carboneras and Kirwan 2014) (an oil spill could destroy a large proportion of the global population if it occurred in a key moulting or wintering area (Madge and Burn 1988)). The species is also susceptible to the effects of commercial exploitation of marine benthic organisms and shellfish (Kear 2005), and is threatened by drowning in fishing nets (Carboneras and Kirwan 2014, Kear 2005). It is threatened by habitat degradation as a result of the human exploitation of natural resources in the taiga and lower tundra regions of its breeding range (Kear 2005), and by lake drainage for irrigation and hydroelectric power production (Armenia) (Balian et al. 2002). It is susceptible to disturbance from tourism in remote coastal and freshwater habitats in its breeding range (Kear 2005), as well as disturbance from wind farms (wind turbines) (Garthe and Huppop 2004). The species suffers predation from American mink (Neovison vison) on islands (Nordstrom et al. 2002) and is also susceptible to avian influenza, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006). The species is a target of hunters in some areas (e.g. Bregnballe et al. 2006).Threats & Impacts

Threat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and StressesBiological resource use

Fishing & harvesting aquatic resources (unintentional effects: (large scale) [harvest])

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Majority (50-90%) Slow, Significant

DeclinesMedium Impact

StressesSpecies mortality

Biological resource use

Hunting & trapping terrestrial animals (intentional use - species is the target)

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Minority (<50%) Negligible declines Low Impact

StressesSpecies mortality

Climate change & severe weather

Habitat shifting & alteration

Timing Scope Severity ImpactFuture Whole (>90%) Unknown Unknown

StressesEcosystem degradation; Indirect ecosystem effects

Energy production & mining

Oil & gas drilling Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant

DeclinesLow Impact

StressesEcosystem conversion; Ecosystem degradation; Species disturbance

Energy production & mining

Renewable energy Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Minority (<50%) Negligible declines Low Impact

StressesSpecies disturbance

Threats & ImpactsThreat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and Stresses

Human intrusions & disturbance

Recreational activities

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Minority (<50%) Negligible declines Low Impact

StressesSpecies disturbance; Reduced reproductive success

Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases

American Mink (Neovison vison)

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant

DeclinesLow Impact

StressesSpecies mortality; Reduced reproductive success

Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases

Unspecified species Timing Scope Severity ImpactFuture Majority (50-90%) Rapid Declines Low Impact

StressesSpecies mortality; Reduced reproductive success

Natural system modifications

Abstraction of surface water (agricultural use)

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant

DeclinesLow Impact

StressesEcosystem conversion; Ecosystem degradation

Natural system modifications

Large dams Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant

DeclinesLow Impact

StressesEcosystem conversion; Ecosystem degradation

Pollution Industrial & military effluents (type unknown/unrecorded)

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Majority (50-90%) Negligible declines Low Impact

StressesIndirect ecosystem effects; Species mortality; Reduced reproductive success

Pollution Oil spills Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Majority (50-90%) Slow, Significant

DeclinesMedium Impact

StressesSpecies mortality; Reduced reproductive success

ConservationConservation Actions UnderwayNo targeted conservation actions are known for this species, although numbers in some parts of its range (accounting for most of the population) have received monitoring in recent decades and it occurs in some protected areas. An EU Management Plan for 2007-2009 was published.

Conservation Actions ProposedContinue to monitor numbers in both its breeding and wintering range. Carry out research into the causes of the recently detected decline. Increase the area of breeding habitat that is protected. Tackle potential causes of mortality in wintering birds, such as drowning in fishing nets.

BibliographyBalian, L.V., Ghasabian, M.G., Adamian, M.S. and Klem Jr, D. 2002. Changes in the waterbird community of the Lake Sevan-Lake Gilli area, Republic of Armenia: a case for restoration. Biological Conservation 106(2): 157-163.Bregnballe, T., Noer, H., Christensen, T.K., Clausen, P., Asferg, T., Fox, A.D. and Delany, S. 2006. Sustainable hunting of migratory waterbirds: the Danish approach. In: Boere, G., Galbraith, C. and Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 854-860. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh, UK.Carboneras, C. and Kirwan, G.M. 2014. Velvet Scoter (Melanitta fusca). In: del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., Sargatal, J., Christie, D.A. and de Juana, E. (eds.) 2014. Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. (retrieved from http://www.hbw.com/node/52922 on 15 January 2015).

BibliographyDelany, S. and Scott, D. 2006. Waterbird population estimates. Wetlands International, Wageningen, The Netherlands.del Hoyo, J., Elliot, A. and Sargatal, J. 1992. Handbook of the Birds of the World, vol. 1: Ostrich to Ducks. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain.Garthe, S. and Hüppop, O. 2004. Scaling possible adverse effects of marine wind farms on seabirds: developing and applying a vulnerability index. Journal of Applied Ecology 41(4): 724-734.Gorski, W., Jakuczun, B., Nitecki, C. and Petryna, A. 1977. Investigation of oil pollution on the Polish Baltic coast in 1974-1975. Przeglad Zoologiczny 21(1): 20-23.Kear, J. 2005. Ducks, geese and swans volume 2: species accounts (Cairina to Mergus). Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K.Madge, S. and Burn, H. 1988. Wildfowl. Christopher Helm, London.Melville, D.S. and Shortridge, K. F. 2006. Migratory waterbirds and avian influenza in the East Asian-Australasian Flyway with particular reference to the 2003-2004 H5N1 outbreak. In: Boere, G., Galbraith, C. and Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 432-438. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh, UK.Nordström, M., Högmander, J., Nummelin, J., Laine, J., Laanetu, N. and Korpimäki, E. 2002. Variable responses of waterfowl breeding populations to long-term removal of introduced American mink. Ecography 25: 385-394.Tucker, G.M. and Heath, M.F. 1994. Birds in Europe: their conservation status. Cambridge, UK: BirdLife International (BirdLife Conservation Series no. 3).UICN France, MNHN, LPO, SEOF & ONCFS 2011. La Liste rouge des espèces menacées en France [The Red List of threatened species in France]. Paris, France.

Map (see overleaf)