Military Space Operations. Military Space Military rocket development began before WW II with short-range rocket artillery, jet-assisted takeoff (JATO)

Military Space Military Space OperationsOperations

Military SpaceMilitary Space

Military rocket development began before WW II with Military rocket development began before WW II with short-range rocket artillery, jet-assisted takeoff (JATO) short-range rocket artillery, jet-assisted takeoff (JATO) boosters, then guided missiles in the 1940sboosters, then guided missiles in the 1940s

Jet Propulsion Lab worked with the Army Air Force in the Jet Propulsion Lab worked with the Army Air Force in the 1940s to develop the Corporal guided missile, and the 1940s to develop the Corporal guided missile, and the Sergeant missile in the 1950s Sergeant missile in the 1950s

Long-range missiles developed by the Nazis in WW II were Long-range missiles developed by the Nazis in WW II were recognized as the key to future advance weaponsrecognized as the key to future advance weapons• Captured by the Soviets, the U.S., and BrittanCaptured by the Soviets, the U.S., and Brittan• Upper atmosphere research experiments were carried out Upper atmosphere research experiments were carried out

with the captured V-2 missileswith the captured V-2 missiles• Research programs also used to improve capabilities to Research programs also used to improve capabilities to

carry heavy payloads and atomic weapons carry heavy payloads and atomic weapons

Early Rockets

In the U.S. and a decade after Goddard’s In the U.S. and a decade after Goddard’s first liquid fuel rocket launch, the first liquid fuel rocket launch, the Guggenheim-funded aeronautical Guggenheim-funded aeronautical laboratory (GALCIT) at Caltech (California laboratory (GALCIT) at Caltech (California Institute of Technology) began a Institute of Technology) began a propulsion and rocket research group propulsion and rocket research group inspired by Theodore von Kaman and inspired by Theodore von Kaman and Caltech graduate studentsCaltech graduate students

Early Rockets

JPL was founded by Von Karman and a number JPL was founded by Von Karman and a number graduate students at Caltech/GALCIT including:graduate students at Caltech/GALCIT including:• Frank MalinaFrank Malina• Weld ArnoldWeld Arnold• Apollo M. O. SmithApollo M. O. Smith• Tsien Hsue-shenTsien Hsue-shen• Jack ParsonsJack Parsons• Edward FormanEdward Forman

Early Rockets

• Tsien Hsue-shen who helped Tsien Hsue-shen who helped design the early JPL-Army design the early JPL-Army missiles, was caught in missiles, was caught in Senator Joseph McCarthy Senator Joseph McCarthy political purges in 1950political purges in 1950

• Released from house arrest in Released from house arrest in 1955 and immediately returned 1955 and immediately returned to Chinato China

• Started China’s first missile Started China’s first missile development efforts in 1955development efforts in 1955

• Considered the father of Considered the father of Chinese rocketryChinese rocketry

Early Rockets

The GALCIT rocket experiments The GALCIT rocket experiments included liquid fuel motors first included liquid fuel motors first launched in 1938launched in 1938

Von Kaman arranged for funding Von Kaman arranged for funding by the U.S. Army in 1939 for the by the U.S. Army in 1939 for the GALCIT rocket team to develop GALCIT rocket team to develop jet-assisted takeoff (JATO) jet-assisted takeoff (JATO) rocket motorsrocket motors

The new JATO rocket effort was The new JATO rocket effort was converted into the Aerojet converted into the Aerojet Corporation that is still in Corporation that is still in existenceexistence

Early Rockets

A separate Army contract for small missiles A separate Army contract for small missiles was arranged by von Karman through the was arranged by von Karman through the Caltech university in 1943Caltech university in 1943

This was the birth of the Jet Propulsion Lab This was the birth of the Jet Propulsion Lab (JPL) (JPL)

Today, JPL designs and operates a number Today, JPL designs and operates a number of exploration spacecraft and programs for of exploration spacecraft and programs for NASANASA

Early Rockets

JPL’s Army missiles JPL’s Army missiles were solid and liquid were solid and liquid rockets that began rockets that began with the “Private” with the “Private” solid fuel 2-stage solid fuel 2-stage rocket first launched rocket first launched in 1944in 1944• 16 km (10 mi) range16 km (10 mi) range• Tiny Tim solid fuel Tiny Tim solid fuel

11stst stage (ground-to- stage (ground-to-ground missile ground missile shown on the right)shown on the right)

• JATO solid fuel JATO solid fuel booster 2booster 2ndnd stage stage

Early Rockets

JPL’s “Corporal” was the first JPL’s “Corporal” was the first American guided missile started American guided missile started in 1945 but did not complete in 1945 but did not complete testing for deployment as a testing for deployment as a surface-surface missile until 1955surface-surface missile until 1955

WAC Corporal was a 2-stage WAC Corporal was a 2-stage sounding rocket that was the first sounding rocket that was the first American rocket to reach space American rocket to reach space altitudesaltitudes• Tiny Tim 1Tiny Tim 1stst stage stage• Later launched on a V-2 booster Later launched on a V-2 booster

to reach 250 mi altitude at to reach 250 mi altitude at speeds > Mach 5 (Bumper speeds > Mach 5 (Bumper rocket)rocket)

Early Rockets

JPL’s “Sargent” solid fuel surface-JPL’s “Sargent” solid fuel surface-to-surface missile was a longer-to-surface missile was a longer-range missile designed to replace range missile designed to replace the Corporalthe Corporal

Deployed in Europe in 1963 as a Deployed in Europe in 1963 as a tactical weapontactical weapon

Scaled-down Sargent solid fuel Scaled-down Sargent solid fuel motors were used for the 2motors were used for the 2ndnd, 3, 3rdrd, , and 4and 4thth stages of the Jupiter-C stages of the Jupiter-C rocket that launched Americas first rocket that launched Americas first satellite – Explorer 1satellite – Explorer 1

Military Space

Early history - Weapons Race

Began in earnest after the close of WW II

Western allies (U.S.) and the Eastern-block (USSR) that were unified to beat the Nazis became distrustful over weapons buildup

Cold War ensued after the Soviet’s detonation of their first nuclear weapon in 1949

Stalin’s paranoia exacerbated the standoff which accelerated the missile and weapons race

Military Space

Early history

Intelligence on the Soviet military was difficult to collect because of the fear of Stalin’s cruel dictatorship within the USSR• Spy network weak• Overflights difficult• Balloons had uncontrolled

flight and were easily foiled

U-2s launched over the USSR in 1956 and continued until the shootdown of Francis Gary Powers in 1960• Later used in Cuba, Vietnam,

and other hot spots• Still flown by NASA for high-

altitude atmospheric observations and sampling

Military Space

Early history

The inaccessibility of the interior of the USSR could be solved with the development of satellites that could return images of the surface of Soviet Union and China

Pro: • Access to all of Soviet Union

Con:• Provoke the Soviets to prohibit satellite overflights

Solution:• Launch scientific satellite for International

Geophysical year (IGY 1957-1958)

Military Space

Early history

RAND’s study called Project Feedback, along with the Technological Capabilities Panel, outlined satellite reconnaissance and research satellite development

Provided the ability to declare “freedom of space” for satellite overflights, both civil and military

IGY satellite project announced in 1954

Pied Piper was the first reconnaissance satellite project initiated in 1956

Military Space

Early historyEarly history

Military boosters were under consideration for Earth satellites and lunar reconnaissance by the Army (Army Ballistic Missile Agency - ABMA) and the Air Force • Army Air Forces was created in 1941 from the

Army Air Corps to accommodate expansion due to WW-II

• The U.S. Air Force was separated from the Army Air Forces in 1947 as a separate armed service

ABMA’s Horizon project was to launch exploration missions to the Moon on heavy-lift boosters• Directed by Wernher von Braun

Military Space

Early history Air Force project Lunex was to construct a lunar missile outpost on the

far side of the Moon for surprise attacks on the enemy

Some collaboration was made with the ABMA to develop a heavy-lift booster for both lunar projects

Military Launchers

Military Space

Early history

Development of these first large military boosters began in the planning process for the Army’s Super-Jupiter, and the USAF's huge F-1 rocket engine

Need for large launchers was recognized well before the launch of the first satellite by the Soviets in 1957

A Department of Defense agency called the Advanced Research Projects Agency, or ARPA was created to facilitate new weapons and missile programs• Now called the Defense Advanced Research Projects

Agency, or DARPA• Directed funding to deliver a high-thrust booster for

military use as quickly as possible

Military Space

Early history

ARPA mandated that a 1 million lb thrust engine be developed quickly, along with the rest of the booster, but had limited funding

Army Ballistic Missile Agency that included von Braun as head of development configured a cluster of four Jupiter engines and seven tanks taken from the already successful Redstone and Jupiter missiles

Led to the rapid development of the heavy-lift launcher called the Juno V

Juno I (Jupiter-C) and Juno V were redesignated Saturn (implying a step beyond Jupiter)

Military Boosters

Redstone missile

Redstone was the first IRBM developed by the ABMA

Led by von Braun and the German rocket teams

Based on V-2 design

Engine developed by North American Aviation• Adapted from Navajo

engine design• Based on original V-2

Vehicle further developed for Jupiter design

Military Boosters

Jupiter missile

Joint Army-Navy design that was based on the Redstone

Intended for use as a surface IRBM and a submarine-launched missile

Not adopted by the Navy

Deployed briefly as an IRBM in Europe by the Army

Ultimately used as an interplanetary launcher (Juno II)

Military Boosters

Thor IRBM

Thor was developed as an enhanced IRBM

Desire to build reconnaissance satellite launchers quickly led to the design and development Thor and other launchers in the 1950s

Already-developed technology used for the Thor• Rocketdyne LD-79 engine

was derivative of the Navajo engine and adopted from the Jupiter missile

• A single Thor engine (also called S-3D) was used on the Atlas ICBM with two outboard guidance and thruster engines

Reconnaissance Satellites


Corona

Two-stage Thor was used to launch the first reconnaissance satellites• Second stage Agena

included Corona reconnaissance equipment with booster stage

Corona satellites were the first U.S. spy satellites• Used film cameras with

recoverable film canisters

• Required orbital entry and parachute descent

• Corona launches were listed under the name Discoverer


Corona’s first launch as Discoverer 1 in January 1959 was unsuccessful as were more than a dozen to follow

Discoverer 14 was the first successful U.S. spy satellite• Launched August 18, 1960

First electronic imaging satellites named SAMOS (Satellite and Missile Observation System) were developed for the USAF and launched on the Thor-Agena boosters

Limited success SAMOS satellites were adopted for the NASA Lunar Orbiter imaging system

Reconnaissance SatellitesReconnaissance Satellites


Larger Thor booster payloads were developed by adding solid boosters and additional stages • Thrust Augmented Thor – TAT• Long-Tank Thrust Augmented Thor - LTTAT

Atlas ICBM was mated with the Agena upper stage for heavier Department of Defense (DoD) satellite payloads• Larger payloads were also delivered with the

Titan-Agena booster

Key Hole satellite series was larger and heavier than Corona• Used on new heavy-lift Atlas and Titan launchers

that were introduced in the mid 1960s


Key Hole satellites include a variety of models and capabilities

• KH-1 through KH-4 launched on Thor multi-stage launchers

• KH-5 (Argon) included electronically scanned film• KH-6 (Lanyard)• KH-7 (Gambit)• KH-8 (Gambit) – most flights of the early KH series

• KH-9 (Big Bird) – about the size of the Shuttle’s payload bay and about the size of the Hubble Space Telescope

• KH-12 – last of the “Big Bird” series


Key Hole satellites

KH-9 (Big Bird) – about the size of the Shuttle’s payload bay and about the size of the Hubble Space Telescope

KH-12 – last of the “Big Bird” series


Key Hole satellites were followed by the L-series that contained no information on the model or application of the satellite, only the sequence number• L-1 (Nemesis, also listed as USA 179) was

launched in 2004 • Placed in a Molniya (12 hr, high-latitude) orbit

L-1 was a contraction of NRO Launch 1 (NRO is the acronym for the National Reconnaissance Office)


L-21 (USA 193) was launched December 14, 2006

• Launch to orbit of the new technology satellite on a Delta-II was successful, but loss of control produced a decaying orbit for the L-21 spy satellite

• Reentry was projected for January 2008

• 2007 Chinese anti-satellite shootdown of their weather satellite triggered a similar response from the Department of Defense to prove their antisatellite capabilities


L-21 (USA 193)

Missile intercept and destruction of the satellite before reentry was announced as a defensive intercept to protect the world from the satellite’s toxic propellant (hydrazine)

• Hundreds of satellites had reentered the Earth’s atmosphere with onboard toxic chemicals previously without death or injury except from solid debris

• Actual intent was to prevent capture of any parts as occurred with the KH-4A spy satellite in 1964 (and prove we could shootdown a satellite like the Chinese)

• Resulted in the addition of thousands of pieces to the space debris problem in LEO

Reconnaissance SatellitesL-21

Successful antisatellite shootdown resulted in the addition of thousands of pieces to the space debris problem in LEO

Reconnaissance SatellitesElectronic Intelligence (ELINT)

Satellites

Used for surveillance of the interior, border regions, and marine communication of adversaries

Developed in the cold war for monitoring the USSR and China

Initial ELINT satellites relayed information on the Soviet radars

Later included communications signal relay

Higher orbit and wider coverage possible since the information was not images, but electronic signals

Soviet Reconnaissance Satellites

Reconnaissance Satellites Like the U.S., the first

Soviet reconnaissance satellites were film-camera systems

Film retrieval was made by deorbiting the satellite and recovering the film

Balance needed:• Longer missions =

more film, slower response

• More satellite launches = faster response but higher cost


First models were called Zenit (zenith)• Same design as the first Soviet manned capsules

named Vostok

Later models named Soyuz after their manned capsule


Soviet naval reconnaissance satellites were developed to monitor entire ocean surface• Lack of a robust navy in the Cold War led the USSR

to put up a wide coverage satellite constellation• Small Soviet navy was because Russia has few ice-

free ports

The solution for tracking enemy naval vessels was to use imaging radar to penetrate frequent cloud cover


Imaging radar (synthetic aperture radar, or SAR) requires high power levels for satellites because of the large distance from orbit to the surface and back (power needed is proportional to 1/r4)

• Soviets elected to use nuclear reactors to power their naval surveillance satellites

• U.S. used photovoltaic arrays (PVAs) but experimented with reactors


Nuclear reactors require efficient cooling because of extreme heat generated• 100 kW reactor at 10% efficiency (more often 5%)

develops 1 MW of heat

Reactor core cooled by water (too bulky in space), or by high-pressure gas, or by liquid metal (used for space reactors)• Soviets chose liquid sodium metal• Liquid metals (sodium, liquid lithium, or mercury)

are made radioactive by being in/near the reactor and extremely hazardous


Soviet satellite reactors were designed for placing the reactor core in higher orbit • Deorbit would take 5,000-10,000 years• Most of the radioactivity would have decayed

All of the liquid metal coolant would be put into LEO as the reactor is separated from the spacecraft and the coolant lines are severed

Produces large and small radioactive space debris


This technology has proven to be extremely hazardous because of the collisional hazard of the liquid metal coolant and the satellite parts that are ripped apart by the separation pyrotechnics

Radioactive hazard much less serious since most of the material is vaporized on reentry

Soviet satellite reactors are still producing debris hazards in LEO


Cosmos 954 Cosmos 954 was a

Soviet naval tracking (SAR) satellite launched September 1977 powered by an onboard nuclear reactor

Satellite failure was followed by a failed reactor boost to higher orbit and was tracked for reentry


Cosmos 954

Landed in the Northwest Territories in Canada in January, 1978

Response team cleaned up debris over more than 800 km

Soviets refused to take responsibility, or to pay for cleanup until 1980, and then only ½ of cost

International agreements within the United Nations were set in place to prevent similar hazards in the future


U.S. launched one reactor into orbit in 1965

SNAP-10A (SNAPSHOT) was a military experimental reactor

Failure detected in system placed reactor in 1,300 km orbit

4,000 yr orbit lifetime still presents a hazard to space operations safety

Other Reconnaissance Satellites


Early warning satellites are used to detect hostile missile launches from around the world

Cold War era was a period of high risk and the possibility that missiles could be coming from the USSR, or from China, or for a brief period, from Cuba

Infrared imaging used to detect missile exhaust plumes

Extremely difficult to positively identify hostile missile plumes because of a wide variety of variables (Sun, stars, aircraft, atmospheric affects, etc.)


Defense Meteorological Satellites (DMS) are high-resolution satellites that provide world-wide weather coverage

Polar orbits required for whole-Earth coverage

Now under Dept. of Commerce, as are civil NOAA satellites


Defense Navigation Satellites

Began with Navy Transit satellites• Triangulation and timing of signals used to locate

position on Earth (2-dimensional)

NAVSTAR Global Positioning System• 3-dimensional navigational system for surface, air,

or LEO navigation

Manned Reconnaissance Satellites


Manned reconnaissance satellite efforts began in the late 1950s with the first Air Force manned space project – the X-20 Dyna Soar

Winged reentry vehicle was to be launched on a Titan booster

Provided orbital support for reconnaissance missions and reentry capability

Terminated in 1963

Reconnaissance Satellites The USAF Manned Orbital

Laboratory (MOL) followed the X-20

Used NASA Gemini hardware including the Titan booster and Gemini capsules

30-day design lifetime would have required frequent launches

Cancelled in 1969

Reconnaissance Satellites Soviet manned satellites

were flown as part of their Salyut space station series • 7 total Salyut stations

Military version named Almaz (“Diamond”)• 3 Almaz reconnaissance

stations placed into orbit • 2 were successful

Proved too expensive • Converted into a synthetic

aperture radar orbital platform

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Military Space Operations. Military Space Military rocket development began before WW II with short-range rocket artillery, jet-assisted takeoff (JATO)