Modern Japan and Natsume Sōseki

Modernity, Buddhism and Literature

Modernity, Buddhism and Literature

What constitutes “modernity” and “Modern Japan”? How are we to define “modernity”?

Adoption of modern political and economic systems: capitalism, democracy

Rationalization (“Disenchantment of the world” Weber), Secularism, Individualism

A “modern” attitude: “radicalized consciousness which frees itself from all specific historical ties” (Habermas) “abstract temporality of qualitative newness” (Koselleck)

Buddhism and Modern Japan:

What role did Buddhism play in the rise of Modern Japan?

What role did Buddhism play in secularism? Lafleur: Buddhist critique of symbols

Modernity and Buddhism in the Literary arts of Japan: How did Literature both express and become the means to effect these

changes? What role does Buddhism play “in” modern literature?

The Coming of the West

Meiji 明治 : The Age of Enlightened

Rule Sonnō jōi “Revere the Emperor,

Expel the Barbarians” ( 尊皇攘夷 )

Meiji Restoration of 1868: restoration of the Imperial power, Emperor Meiji (r. 1868-1912) All domains under Imperial

control, modern nation-state

Abolish class system, samurai

Promulgation of the Meiji Constitution in 1889: constitutional monarchy, parliament

Cultural Struggles during Meiji

1868-mid 1880’s Imitating the West Missions to the West: Iwakura Mission in 1871-3

Bunmei kaika “Civilization and Enlightenment” 文明開化 Introduction of Western technology, politics and

economics

Introduction of Western customs: dress, meat-eating

1880’s Reaffirming and Redefining Japan Leadership concerned over liberalism, individualism

Conflict between public good and strong self-interests

Imperial Rescript of Education in 1890

Invention of Japan and “Japaneseness”

From Heretics to Martyrs Critiques of Buddhism during the Tokugawa period

Nativist scholars criticized Buddhism as a “foreign religion”

Separation of Buddhism and Shinto in 1868: both redefined by their seperation

Persecution of Buddhism: Haibutsu kishaku “Abolish Buddhism, Destroy Sakyamuni” 廃仏毀釈

Disestablishment of Buddhism in 1871-2

Refiguring of the Buddhist tradition: A tool to resist Western hegemony, Christianity; essence of pan-Asian spirituality

Translation and Transformation

Translating the West: Early translations of Political treatises

Samuel Smiles Self-help 1871; John Stuart Mill’s On Liberty 1872

Translations and Adaptations of Western Literature

Edward Bulwer-Lytton Ennest Maltravers 1878

New Words and Disciplines: Neologisms: kojin “individual” 個人 ; shakai “society” 　社会 ;

kenri “human rights” 権利 ; jiyū “freedom” 自由 ; kokumin “nation” 国民

New disciplines: bungaku “literature” 文学 ; kagaku “science” 科学 ; tetsugaku “philosophy” 哲学

New usages: shūkyō “religion” 宗教 ; shōsetsu “novel” 小説

Transformations: Language and Literature

Tsubouchi Shōyō’s Shōsetsu Shinzui (“The Essence of the Novel” 1885): praises the “novel” 小説 as a literary form Criticizes didacticism, weak characterization and loosely constructed plots

Advocates analyses of personality, realistic portrayal of society

Praised Japan’s tradition of the novel: Tale of Genji, Saikaku

Genbun itchi 言文一致 movement: unification of the written and spoken word, use of colloquial language Japan’s 1st modern novel: Futabatei Shimei Ukigumo “Floating Clouds”

1887

Characteristics the Japanese novel: Plot: Loose, episodic—serialization in literary journals

Characterization: Less defined characters—obscure outlining of the “self”

Narrative perspective: predominance of the speaker’s point of view

The rise “I-novel” 私小説 shishōsetsu as a dominant form writing/reading

Natsume Sōseki (1867-1916)

Born in 1867, large family, failed adoption

Entered Tokyo Imperial University in 1884: studies architecture, shifts to English literature

Met Masaoka Shiki in 1887, tutored in Haiku

Entered graduate school: English Literature Department in 1890

Became an English teacher in the provinces: Matsuyama, Kumamoto

Sent to England to study English literature in 1901-03

Sōseki: Literary Career

Early publications of haiku in the literary journal Hototogisu

“I am a Cat” Wagahai wa Neko de aru (1905) Satirical account of Meiji society

from the perspective of a Cat

Kushami Sensei: individualism

“Little Master” Botchan 1906 Comedic first person account of a

young teacher in a provincial high school

Botchan: optimism, innocence

“Grass Pillow” Kusamakura 1906 A plotless, eventless haiku

shōsetsu

Later Novels Abandons his University post in 1907 for a position at Asahi Shinbun,

becomes professional writer

Trilogy: Sanshiro (1908), And Then (Sore kara, 1909), The Gate (Mon, 1910). Relation and conflict between Western and Japanese culture

Characters caught in between tradition and modernity

The Gate: Sōsuke visits Zen monastery: gate is closed, fails to solve koan

Until the Equinox (1912), The Wanderer (1913), Kokoro (1914) More experimental: alternating narrative perspective, lack of narrative

omniscience

Central themes: modern man’s isolation and alienation, egoism

The Wanderer: Keine Brucke fuhrt von Mensch zu Mensch” (There is no bridge leading from one man to another”)

Grass on the Wayside (Michikusa, 1915): I-novel

Light and Darkness (Meian, 1916): alternating narrative voices

Sōseki and Individualism

Watakushi no Kojinshugi “My Individualism” 1914 Part One: describes his discovery in England:

“my only hope for salvation lay in fashioning for myself a conception of what literature is, working from the ground up and relying on nothing but my own efforts.”

Critical of imitation, authority of the West

Part Two: Ethical Individualism

Critical of “unrestrained self-assertion” and “cliquism”

Development of individuality entails respect of the individuality of others—liberty/duty

Loneliness of individualism: misses the comfort of allies

“We who are born into this age of freedom and independence and the self must undergo loneliness. It’s the price we have to pay for these times of ours.” (30)

Questions for Kokoro What do make of the title Kokoro?

“heart/mind” こころ “ heart of things” 心

What do you make of the relationships of the novel? Relationships: I-Sensei, Sensei-K, father-I, Sensei-Shizu

What makes Kokoro a “Japanese” novel? A “modern” novel? Do you find any parallels with earlier literature?

What do you make of the suicides of the novel? General Nogi, K, Sensei

What role does Buddhism play “in” the Novel? Ideas of karma, rebirth, attachment, non-self