Morphosyntax of Magindanao Nouns and Adjectives

8/11/2019 Morphosyntax of Magindanao Nouns and Adjectives

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The Morphosyntaxof

Maguindanao Nouns and Adjectives

by

JONEL NICOLE ANG JAO2008-52228

Mary Ann Gaitan-Bacolod, Ph.D. Adviser

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillmentof the requirements for theDegree of Bachelor of Arts

in Linguistics

University of the PhilippinesDiliman, Quezon City 1101

October 2012


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Acknowledgements

This humble thesis would have not been possible without these people.

First of all, I would like to thank my thesis adviser, Prof Mary Ann Gaitan-Bacolod. Thankyou for guiding me throughout this semester although I might have sought your advice more than Ishould have. This thesis would have been non-existent without you.

Sukran to my two informants, Nasrudin Datucali and Asnin Pendatun! I would never havedared study this rich language without your encouragement. I know I have taken a lot of your precioustime, but Im really grateful that you two were always there to answer my questions right away eventhough youre both so busy.

Also, thank you Russel Nasir of the Islamic Studies Library for introducing me to Kuya Dhatz,and for welcoming me into your community.

Thank you to Michael Wilson Rosero, who was tireless in answering all my questions,although most of them are quite silly. You dont know how much relief I always feel when I talk toyou.

Thank you to all my dedicated professors who taught me Linguistics, and all the professors inthe Department. I owe all I know about this awesome field to you.

Thank you to my family, especially my lovely brother Jofree, who let me stay in his lovelyroom until late in the evening while I type away my thesis.

Thank you to my lovely blockmates who are still in the University, Gela, Pachie, Nichie, Lai,Shai, and Jessa. Thanks for believing in me.

Thank you to my thesis mates, Gela, Aya, Ann, Lianne, Danielle, and Zara. Guys, finally!

Last but not the least, I thank the Lord for your unending support and blessings. Everythingwould not have been possible without you.


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Abbreviations

- morpheme boundary< > infix= enclitic~ reduplication1 1st person1.2 dual person2 2nd person3 3rd personADJ adjectival affixCOMP completedCONT contemplatedSPEC specificDIST distalINCM incompleted

INT intransitiveLKR linkerMED medial

NOM nominalizing affix NONSPEC non-specificOBL obliqueORD ordinalPL pluralPOSS possessive casePROX proximalPRT particleTOP topic markerTR transitive


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Contents

Acknowledgements List of Abbreviations

Introduction 1 I. Background Information 1 II. Previous Studies 2 III. Background of the Study 3

A. Rationale 3 B. Objectives 3 C. Methodology 3

i. Data 3 ii. Informants 4 iii. Analysis 4

D. Scope and Limitation 5 E. Review of Related Literature 5 F. Theoretical Framework 6

1 Maguindanao Nouns and their Morphosyntax 8 1.1 Types of Maguindanao Nouns 8

1.1.1 Simple Nouns 8 1.1.2 Derived Nouns 8 1.1.3 Compound Nouns 11

1.2 Subclasses of Nouns 13 1.2.1 Concrete and Abstract Nouns 13 1.2.2 Proper and Common Nouns 14 1.2.3 Count and Mass Nouns 14

1.3 Case Markers of Maguindanao Nouns 171.3.1 Determiners 18 1.3.2 Pronouns 23

1.4 Modification Construction 26 1.4.1 Noun Head with Demonstrative Modifier 26

1.4.2 Noun Head with Adjective Modifier 27 1.4.3 Noun Head with Numerals 27 1.4.4 Noun Head with Verbal Modifier 30 1.4.5 Noun Head with Adverbial Modifier 31 1.4.6 Noun Head with Possessive Modifier 32 1.4.7 Complex Modification Construction 34

1.5 Distribution of Maguindanao Nouns 36 1.5.1 Maguindanao Nouns as Subjects and Objects of Clauses 36 1.5.2 Maguindanao Nouns as Heads of Noun Phrases 37 1.5.3 Maguindanao Nouns as Predicate Nominal Clauses 37

1.6 Pluralization of Maguindanao Nouns 38 1.7 Summary of Maguindanao Nouns 39


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2 Maguindanao Adjectives and their Morphosyntax 40

2.1 Types of Adjectives 40 2.1.1 Root-Adjectives 40 2.1.2 Ma-Adjectives 41

2.1.3 Derived Adjectives 41 2.2 Degrees 43

2.2.1 Dimunitive 43 2.2.2 Elative 44 2.2.3 Comparative 45 2.2.4 Contrastive 46 2.2.5 Superlative 47

2.3 Distribution of Maguindanao Adjectives 47 2.3.1 Maguindanao Adjectives as Head s of Predicate Adjective 47 2.3.2 Maguindanao Adjectives as Descriptive Modifier of a Noun Phrase 48

2.3.3 Maguindanao Adjectives as Nominalized Topics 49 2.4 Pluralization of Maguindanao Adjectives 49 2.5 Summary of Maguindanao Adjectives 50

3 Distinctive Characteristics of Maguindanao Nouns and Adjectives 52

4 Conclusion and Recommendation 58

Appendix 60 References 79


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Introduction

I. Name of the Language & Genetic Affliation

Maguindanao (mdh) , which literally means people of the flood plains, is a Malayo -Polynesian language spoken in the southern Philippines. It is also a name of a region in the southernPhilippines. The language is also known as Magindanaon, Magindanaw, and Maguindanaw.Maguindanao has about one million speakers (NSO, 2000) which populate the regions ofMaguindanao, North Cotabato, South Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat, and Zamboanga del Sur provinces.Below is a linguistic map of the said language.

Figure 1: Linguistic Map of Maguindanao Language

According to Ethonologue, Maguindanao belongs to the Greater Central Philippines languagefamily, specifically under the Danao languages subgroup with Maranao-Iranon, spoken in the Lanao

provinces and Malaysia-Sabah respectively. Figure 2 shows the genetic affiliation of Maguindanaoaccording to Ethnologue.

Figure 2 Ethnologue 2009

AustronesianMalayo-Polynesian

PhilippineGreater Central Philippine

DanaoMagindanaoMaranao-Iranon


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On the other hand, McFarland (1994) placed it in the Southern Philippine language family,under the same Danao languages group with Maranao and Ilanum. Figure 3 shows the geneticaffiliation of Maguindanao according to McFarland s subgrouping of the Philippine language s.

Figure 3 McFarland 1994

Southern PhilippineDanao

MaranaoIlanumMagindanao

There are 6 dialects of Maguindanao, (1) Laya, (2) Ilud, (3) Biwangan, (4) Sibugay, (5)Iranun (Ilanon, Illanon, Ilanum, Iranon), and (6) Tagakawanan (Ethnologue, 2009). It further statesthat it has 84% intelligibility with the Iranun dialect, and 96% with Illanun of Sabah, Malaysia. Thereis erroneous data however, as it mentions two figures of intelligibility with Maranao, 60% and 95%.

The informants had their own classification of dialects. The first informant stated 2 dialects,(1) Laya and (2) Ilud while the other informant stated 3, (1) Laya, (2) Ilud and (3) Matenggawanen.According to the informants, Ilud is spoken in Cotaboto City, Sultan Kudarat and, Maguindanao;while Laya and Matenggawen in North Cotabato, furthermore, the informants stressed that the onlydifference these dialects have is their intonation, rather than their lexicon or syntax.

In literature, it is the Pulangi River that serves as a marker that separates Ilud from Laya. TheIlud people live north of the Pulangi River while the Laya people live south of the said river. This can

be confirmed with the etymology of the words ilud and laya which means upstream anddownstream respectively. It is also written that Ilud people speak more softly and slowly compared

to Laya, who speak hardly and rapidly (Peralta, 2002).II. Previous Studies

Although the 11 th most spoken Philippine language (NSO, 2000), published linguistic studiesin Maguindanao is limited. There is only one grammar sketch available, Gramatica de la lengua demaguindanao segun se habla en el centro y en la costa sur de la isla de Mindanao (1892) written inSpanish by Juanmarti, a Jesuit priest. This was translated to English in 1905 as A grammar of the

Maguindanao tongue according to the manner of speaking it in the interior and on the south coast ofthe island of Mindanao . In this sketch, the morphology and syntax of Maguindanao were only brieflyexplained, and the analysis was based excessively on the Indo-European context of English andSpanish.

There are two dictionaries available in print, Diccionario Moro-Maguindanao-Espanol (1892) by the same author of the above mentioned grammar, and A Maguindanaon Dictionary (1986),compiled by Sullivan, OMI. The earlier was inaccessible to the researcher, while the latter dictionarycontains Maguindanao-English, English-Maguindanao entries and is said to be based on the earlierwork of Juanmarti (1892). Sullivan has expanded his work through several native informants with theguidance of SIL. The dictionary s entries inclu de the words part of speech and their stress. Someentries contain sample sentences, synonyms, and derivations.

The first part of A Maguindanaon Dictionary (1986) contains three articles on Maguindanaoverbal structure, Fleishman s Maguindanaon verbal inflection , Moe s How to find verb roots and

Wein s An alternative classification of Maguindanao conjugation. Fleishman s work lists all the possible verbal affixes in Maguindanao according to inherent and inflectional categories. The


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meanings of each division were discussed however there were no explanations as to how the authorhas concluded this distribution. On the other hand, Moe s article was based on Fleishman s,

presenting all the affixes alphabetically. He listed strategies on how to find verb roots in Maguindanao.Lastly, Wein s work classifies Maguindanao verbs into eight categories and their conjugations, withthe classification mostly based on their phonology (e.g. vowel vs consonant initial).

There are only four linguistic articles about Maguindanao published in academic journals,three of them about phonology and one on verbs. They are Lee s On non-syllabic high vocoids in

Maguindanao (1962), Maguindanao /l/ (1964), Non-focus verbs in Maguindanao (1964) and Eck s Magindanao penultimate vowels (1974) . Lee s Non-focus verbs in Maguindanao describes the focusmarking in Magindanao verbs, listing five categories: subject, object, referent, instrumental and non-focus. The rest of the articles were not available to the researcher.

III. Background of the Study

A. Rationale

Although the 11th

most spoken Philippine language (NSO, 2000), only little linguisticliterature is available about Maguindanao. So far in the knowledge of the researcher, none has beenwritten intensively about Maguindanao nouns and adjectives. A brief encounter with the languageduring the researcher s first year of linguistic studies sparked her interest, however at that time, shehad limited linguistic knowledge to make any in-depth study about it. Although still lacking, with thenew knowledge she gained over the past three years, the researcher now attempts to study thelanguage once more.

B. Objectives

This study aims to present the morphosyntax of the nouns and adjectives in Maguindanao,specifically to describe the structure and distribution of the said lexical categories. It also aims toidentify characteristics distinct to Maguindanao nouns and adjectives. It is the researcher s hope thatthrough this work, more people will engage in studying the Maguindanao language in the future.

C. Methodology

i. Data

This study is mainly corpus based and utilized data from existing elicted and written texts.

Data were gathered from the following:

(1) A Maguindanaon Dictionary (1986)

(2) SEAlang Library Maguindanao Resources (2010) available online inhttp://sealang.net/maguindanao/

(3) Ipembibitiyala sa basa a Magindanawn, Pilipinu, endu Ingglis sa uman gay (1981),an SIL publication

(4) Batang nu Basa a Maguindanaon: The Letters of the Maguindanaon Language, AGuide to Teaching the Sounds of the Maguindanaon Language (2011), acollaborative publication SIL, the Department of Education, and Save the Children.

(5) Maguindanao translation of Constantino s 559-sentence list, and 200-word andsentence list, available in the archives of the Main Library, UP Diliman.

All these were chosen because of their availability and their reliability. (1) A Maguindanaon Dictionary (1986) was the only dictionary available at the researcher s disposal. Although compiled


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by a non-linguist, the author has consulted and collected data from several reliable informants.Moreover, its making was overseen by the Summer Institute of Linguistics, a leader in theidentification and documentation of the world's languages. The organization also does linguisticresearch, translation, training and materials development.

The (2) corpus data of SEAlang Library (South East Asian Language Library) available in theWorld Wide Web was also utilized. SEAlang Library is a language reference material sourceestablished in 2005. It is a collaborative effort between CRCL 1 and the University of Wisconsin-Madison Center for Southeast Asian Studies. Its Maguindanao resources include bilingual dictionaries,monolingual text corpora, aligned bitext corpora, and a variety of tools for manipulating, searching,and displaying complex scripts. SEAlang s Maguindanao data were developed through a team headed

by Dr. Jessie Grace Rubrico, a consultant on Philppine languages and linguistics, and in Cebuano andSouthern Philippine languages.

On the other hand, (3) and (4) were chosen because they were designed for nativeMaguindanao speakers meaning they should be understood by Maguindanao speakers, aside from this,

these books were published by SIL.Lastly, Const antino s (5) eliciting materials has been one of the standard material used by the

Department of Linguistics in the past decades and has been tried and tested. Because Constantino sdata were from the 1960s, the researcher decided to reconfirm the translations with a native speakerand appropriate changes were made.

ii. Informants

Two native speakers were consulted to confirm the data collected for this study, they werechosen based on these criteria: (1) they are natives of the place; (2) they are knowledgeable abouttheir native culture; and (3) they know how read and write Maguindanao. The two informants are the

following:1) Nasrudin Datucali, 23 years old, native of Kabakan, North Cotabato. Transferred to

Manila this year (2012) to pursue a Master s Degree in Islamic Studies in UP Diliman.Speaks the Laya dialect.

2) Asnin Pendatun, 20 years old, native of Tacurong, Sultan Kudarat. Transferred toManila last 2008 to pursue university studies. Currently a BA Sociologyundergraduate in UP Diliman. Speaks the Ilud dialect.

Mr Datucali was consulted regularly via visitations while Mr Pendatun was consultedregularly via email. These informants are native speakers of Maguindanao and mainly speakMaguindanao at home and in their community when still living in their respective towns. Bothinformants currently live in Metro Manila.

iii. Analysis

The researcher analyzed the noun data as follows: nouns were first collected and analyzed bymorpheme, creating the categories of simple, derived, and compound. Nominalizing affixes andcompound nouns were extracted from the dictionary manually. The meanings of the affixes andrelationship of the compound nouns were analyzed respectively and confirmed with the informants.They are presented in the format of discussion of Schachter & Otanes (1972) nominalization affixesand compound nouns. Nouns were further categorized according to the universal categories ofconcrete/abstract, count/mass, proper/common for easy reference in the discussion of the structure and

1 The website has not given what CRCL stands for


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distribution. Collected sentences were then used to analyze the case markers of nouns: determinersand pronouns based on the ergative-absolutive framework. The expansions of nouns were thenanalyzed in the format of Shachter & Otanes (1972) work. Finally, the distribution of the nouns insentences was analyzed.

On the other hand, adjectives were first divided and discussed into the categories of bareadjectives, ma-adjectives and derived adjectives. Derivational adjectival affixes were extracted fromthe dictionary manually, these were analyzed then confirmed with the informants. The constructionsof the different degrees of Maguindanao adjectives were described, data here were mostly elictedsince they were not available in the corpus. Finally, the distribution of Maguindanao adjectives insentences was discussed.

The observations made were then further analyzed to point out the unique structure anddistribution of Maguindanao nouns and adjectives.

D. Scope and Limitation

This study describes the morphosyntax of the nouns and adjectives in Maguindanao.Maguindanao verbs are excluded from this study.

The derivations of nouns and adjectives were presented however the morphophonemics werenot discussed thoroughly since data for an in-depth morphophonemic analysis is deemed lacking. Thestructural and distributional properties of the said lexical categories were also explored, however theanalysis on distributional properties where each category appear was limited to simple sentences.Compound, complex, and negative sentences were not included in this undertaking. Glossing of theverbs were only limited to transitivity.

The data is limited to A Maguindanaon Dictionary (1986), Constantino s eliciting materials,(the Maguindanao 559-sentence list and 200-word and sentence list), the Maguindanao corpus data ofSEAlang Library, and the SIL publications Ipembibitiyala sa basa a Magindanawn, Pilipinu, endu

Ingglis sa uman gay (1981), and Batang nu Basa a Maguindanaon (2011). This study is mainlycorpus based, however further data not available in the corpus were elicited from the informants ifdeemed necessary. There were only two key informants consulted for this study. The informantsspeak different dialects, thus whenever data were elicited, subtle dialectal differences (mostly lexical)were observed. These differences were all noted in this study but were not further explored.

The researcher can only account for the observations made from the available data, there willdefinitely be other patterns but that is beyond the means of this study.

E. Review of Related Literature

There is only one literature that discusses nouns and adjectives in Maguindanao, availablefrom the only known grammatical sketch of the said language, Juanmarti s Gramatica de la lengua de

Maguindanao segun se habla en el centro y en la costa sur de la isla de Mindanao (1892). Nouns andadjectives were put into the big umbrella of nouns, under the name substantive noun and adjectivenoun respectively. In the same literature, pronouns and determiners were categorized into six cases,

Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, Vocative, and Ablative. The description of the determinersand the pronouns are clearly framed on the Latin script, which the researcher deems confusing andfind inapplicable to Maguindanao.

The syntax of Maguindanao is also briefly discussed descriptively in the grammatical sketch.The grammar sketch is one attempt to describe the language of Maguindanao. The description of thesyntax, although discussed only briefly, was quite substantive. However, there are some


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generalizations that have blocked other possible constructions. For example, it was said that A pronoun is required only to appear as the subject of the verb (p.60) , this is not the case though, asgenerally, pronouns can replace NPs, whether or not they are subjects or objects of the verb (Payne,1997).

Other available literatures have mainly discussed verbs, which will not be reviewed since is itis not the main endeavor and was not deemed useful for this study.

F. Theoretical Framework

The researcher believes that one cannot fully understand morphology by itself without it being in syntax. Morphology and syntax are inseparable. They work hand in hand .

The main framework selected for this study is Descriptive Linguistics, the main reference being Payn e s Describing Morphosyntax. Payne s aim was to describe languages yet unknown to theworld, his approach is claimed to be universal, if not, applicable to most languages. This study will beone of the many testing grounds of his approach. If the patterns that Payne has pointed out are indeed

universal, then it must be also applicable to Maguindanao.Using this framework, the researcher analyzed the morphosyntax of nouns and adjectives in

Maguindanao. Payne describes two types of morphosyntactical properties: (1) structural and (2)distributional. Structural properties are the internal properties of the word itself, for example, nounsin Philippine languages are always case marked by determiners (e.g. su wata the child , si Abdul Abdul ) and can have genitive pronouns, ( alat nin his basket , ina nami our mother ). On theother hand, distributional properties are how words are distributed in phrases, clauses, and texts. Forexample, nouns can be found as subjects or objects of a sentence (e.g. Keman si Salma nu saging Salma ate banana )

Payne describes nouns as the most time-stable concepts, they do not considerably vary overtime. For example, when talking about a tree in discourse, the tree will always refer to the sametree throughout. Structural properties of prototypical nouns that Payne pointed out include: (1) the

possibility of taking descriptive modifiers (2) the use of genitive case pronouns, (3) the ability to pluralize, (4) the taking of determiners, and (5) the ability to take a wide range of descriptivemodifiers. On the other hand, distributional properties of nouns include: (1) as subjects and objects ofclauses, (2) as heads of noun phrases, and (3) as topics of texts.

On the other hand, pronouns are free words that function alone to fill the position of a noun phrase in a clause. They normally have all the distributional properties of noun phrases. Some of thedistinctions that pronouns express are person, number, gender, noun class, grammatical relations,semantic roles, definiteness, and honorifics. Languages select which distinction it will express, inmost of the Philippine languages, it is person, number and grammatical relations that are expressed in

pronouns.

For Payne, adjectives are words the express a property of a noun. They belong with non-numeral quantifiers and numerals and are all termed as modifiers. Adjectives are problematic inalmost every language as it stands in between nouns and verbs. However, if established as a category,adjectives can express age, dimension, value, color, physical characteristics, shape, human propensity,and speed of nouns. Some of the structural properties of adjectives include its ability to expressvarying degrees. On the other hand, distributional properties of an adjective include it being: (1) a

predicate adjective and (2) a descriptive modifier in an NP.

Relations between arguments (usually nouns) and predicates (eg. subject, direct object,indirect object etc.), can be indicated by means of case marking, participant reference marking on


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verbs, and constituent order. Sentences are usually composed of a verb and argument/s. Verbs can betransitive or intransitive. Transitive verbs are those verbs with two arguments while intransitive arethose with only one. Arguments are traditionally named as subjects or objects in the sentence, but forthe purposes of this study, the three distinctions, S, A, and P will be used. S is the only argument of anintransitive clause, A is the most agent-like argument of the transitive clause and P is the least agent-

like argument in the transitive clause. S and A are the traditi onal subject while P is the traditionalobject . Languages in the world are usually classified into the nominative-accussative or ergative-absolutive system. Nominative-accusative languages mark S and A the same, and P another way,while ergative-absolutive languages use the same marking for S and P, while a different marker for A.

Philippine languages are said to follow the VAP/VS typology, following the order verb, A, Pfor transitive sentences and verb, S for intransitive sentences.


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1 Maguindanao Nouns and their Morphosyntax

Nouns are the most time-table concepts (Payne, 1997) and they refer to places, persons, things,concepts, and entities we want to talk about (Nolasco, 2010). Maguindanao nouns can be simple,

derived or compound. They also include the subclasses of concrete or astract, proper or common andmass or count. In Maguindanao, like other Philippine languages, nouns are easy to identify since theyare usually accompanied by grammatical markers, called determiners (see section 1.3.1 for discussion)(Nolasco, 2010).

This chapter will explore Maguindanao nouns and their morphosyntax. The first part of will be describing the types of nouns: simple, derived, and compound. The second will be exploring thesubclasses of nouns while the third will be discussing its case markers. The fourth section will beexploring the modified contructions of nouns while the last part will be describing the distribution ofMaguindanao nouns in simple sentences.

1.1 Types of NounsMaguindanao nouns have three types: simple, derived, and compound. It is simple if it is

composed only of a root; derived if it composed of a root plus a derivational affix; and compoundwhen it is composed of two or more distinct words forming a noun. This section is divided into three

parts, discussing the simple, derived and, compound nouns in Maguindanao respectively.

1.1.1 Simple Nouns

The first type of nouns are simple nouns. Simple nouns are composed only of a root, a singlemorpheme. A simple noun cannot be broken down into a simpler component. Below are some of theMaguindanao simple nouns extracted from the dictionary.

(1) dayag territory (2) kayu tree (3) mamis sugar (4) salig trust (5) wata child

Samples (1-5) cannot be broken down into simpler components making them simple nouns.

1.1.2 Derived Nouns

The second type of nouns are derived nouns. The morphological process of affixation can be

used to derive a noun from other categories such as adjectives or verbs, or from the same category ofnouns, the formed word is called a derived noun. Derived nouns are thus nouns composed of a root

plus a derivational affix. Below are the derivational affixes found in Maguindanao nouns extractedfrom the dictionary. These were confirmed with the native speakers.

A. Base + -an a place associated with what the base designates

Base + -an = Derived noun6 bilanggu prisoner + -an = bilanggu an prison 7 buwaya crocodile + -an = buwaya n a place of crocodiles 8 panulat writer + -an = panulat an a place for writing 9 titi urine + -an = titi an urinal 10 lameng to keep for a long time + -an = lameng an storage house


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In sample (6), bilanggu prisoner is suffixed with an forming bilangguan prison . T hederived noun bilangguan prison is a place associated with the base bilanggu prisoner sincebilangguan prison is a place where a bilanggu prisoner is imprisoned. In sample (9), titi urine issuffixed with an forming titian urinal . T he derived noun titian urinal is a place associated withthe base titi urine since titian urinal is a place where a person expels his titi urine . This process

applies to the rest of the samples.

B. dama - + Noun place where the Noun is abundant , only occurs with inanimate nouns produced by nature

dama- + Noun = Derived noun11 dama- + kayu tree = dama kayu forest 12 dama- + legen grass = dama legen grassland 13 dama- + palay rice = dama palay rice field 14 dama- + pamulan plant = dama pamulan plantation 15 dama- + tebu sugar = dama tebu sugar plantation

In sample (11), dama- is prefixed to kayu tree forming damakayu forest . The derived noundamakayu forest expresses a place where the noun kayu tree is abundant. In sample (12), dama- is

prefixed to legen grass forming damalegen grassland . T he derived noun damalegen grasslandexpresses a place where the noun legen grass is abundant. This process applies to rest of the samples.

Notice that all nouns that occur with the nominalizing affix dama- are inanimate nouns produced bynature ( kayu tree , legen grass , palay rice , pamulan plant , and tebu sugar ).

C. taga - + Base a person who is a native of or resides in th e Base

taga- + Base = Derived noun

16 taga- + baba below = taga- baba someone who lives below the mountains 17 taga- + ilud downstream = taga- i lud someone who lives downstream 18 taga- + laya upstream = taga- laya someone who lives upstream 19 taga- + Maynila Manila = taga- Maynila someone who lives in Manila 20 taga- + palau mountain = taga- palau someone who lives in the mountains

In sample (16), taga- is prefixed to the base baba below forming the word taga-babasomeone who lives below the mountains . Taga-baba is person who is a native of, or resides in baba below , in this case, below the mountains. In sample (19), taga- is prefixed to the base Maynila Manila forming the w ord taga-Maynila someone who lives in Manila . Taga-Maynila is personwho is a native of, or resides in Maynila Manila . This process applies to the rest of the samples.

D. ka - + Adjective Root derives adjective roots to nouns

ka- + Base = Derived noun21 ka- + lembeg tall = kalembeg tallness 22 ka- + nisan beautiful = kanisan beauty 23 ka- + ilaw raw, not cooked = kailaw rawness 24 ka- + kiput tight; narrow = kakiput tightness; narrowness 25 ka- + lendu long = kalendu longness

In sample (21), ka- is prefixed to the adjective root lembeg tall forming the noun kalembeg

tallness . In sample (22), ka- is prefixed to the adjective root nisan beautiful forming the nounkanisan beauty . This process applies to the rest of the samples.


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E. Verb + -in- dish processed by means of the Verb

Verb + -in- = Derived noun26 gaga to stew + -in- = g inaga dish prepared by stewing 27 lepet to wrap with leaves + -in- = l inepet rice wrapped with banana leaves 28 likin to make jam or jelly + -in- = l in ikin durian fruit cooked with sugar 29 pamilit to cook something

mixed with coconut juice + -in- = p inamilit vegetables cooked with coconut

juice 30 tapa to grill, to roast + -in- = t inapa grilled fish

In sample (26), -in- is infixed to the verb gaga to stew forming the word ginaga . Thederived noun ginaga is a dish processed by means of the verb gaga to stew thus it has the meaningof dish prepared by stewing . In sample (27), -in- is infixed to the verb lepet to wrap with leavesforming the word linepet . The derived noun linepet is a dish processed by means of the verb lepet towrap with leaves thus it has the meaning of dish prepared by wrapping with leaves . However in thiscase, the dish is limited to rice, thus linepet has the meaning of rice wrapped with banana leaves .

The same process applies to the rest of the examples.

F. pa - + RED + Verb a person whose expertise is the Verb or habitually does the Verb The first syllable (C1V1) of the Verb is reduplicated, and then pa- is prefixed.

pa- + RED (C1V1) Verb = Derived noun31 pa- + bu bulang to cockfight = pabu bulang cockfighter 32 pa- + la languy to swim = pala languy swimmer 33 pa- + la langut to be drunk = pala langut drunkard 34 pa- + pu pula to paddle = papu pula paddler

35 pa- + tu tuges to fish = patu tuges fisherman

In sample (31), the first syllable of the verb bulang to cockfight is reduplicated formingbubulang , then pa- is prefixed to it forming pabubulang . The derived noun pabubulang is a personwhose expertise is the verb bulang to cockfight thus having the meaning cockfighter . In sample(32), the first syllable of the verb languy to swim is reduplicated forming lalanguy , then pa- is

prefixed to it forming palalanguy . The derived noun palalanguy is a person whose expertise is theverb languy to swim thus having the meaning swimmer . The same process applies to the rest of theexamples.

G. ka- + Verb the act of the Verb

ka- + Verb = Derived noun36 ka- + dalung to hide, to conceal = kadalung the act of hiding 37 ka- + kalang to calculate = kakalang the act of calculating 38 ka- + ledtu to fly = kaledtu the act of flying 39 ka- + tapa to grill = katapa the act of grilling 40 ka- + utas to cut off completely = kautas the act of cutting completely

In sample (36), ka- is prefixed to the verb dalung to hide, to conceal forming the wordkadalung. The derived noun kadalung expresses the act of doing the verb dalung to hide, to concealthus having the meaning of the act of hiding . In sample (37), ka- is prefixed to the verb kalang tocalculate forming the word kakalang. The derived noun kakalang expresses the act of doing the verb


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kalang to calculate thus having the meaning of the act of calculating . The same process applies tothe rest of the samples.

H. kag- + nominalized ma- adj the possibility to become the adjective

kag- + Nominalized ma-adj = Derived noun41 kag- + kabagel str ength = kag kabagel the possibility to become strong 42 kag- + kadalem depth = kag kadalem the possibility to become deep 43 kag- + kalemek softness = kag kalemek the possibility to become soft 44 kag- + kamut fragrance = kag kamut the possibility to become fragrant 45 kag- + kaputi whiteness = kag kaputi the possibility to become white

In sample (41), kag- is prefixed to the nominalized ma- adjective kabagel strength formingkagkabagel. The derived noun kagkabagel has the meaning of the possibility to become the adjectivemabagel strong . In sample (44), kag- is prefixed to the nominalized ma-adjective kamut fragrance

forming kagkamut. The derived noun kagkamut has the meaning of the possibility to become theadjective mamut fragrant . The same process applies to the rest of the examples.

I. ka- + Noun + -an group of things or people that the Noun designates

ka- -an + Noun = Derived noun46 ka- -an + adat custom = kaadat an customs 47 ka- -an + lukes old person = kalukes an old people 48 ka- -an + palaw mountain = kapalaw an group of mountains 49 ka- -an + asal habit, practice = katupu an folkways

50 ka- -an +

walay house =

kawalay an group of houses

In sample (47), ka- -an is circumfixed to the noun lukes old person forming the wordkalukesan . The derived noun kalukesan expresses a group of the noun lukes old person , thus havingthe meaning of old people . In sample (48), ka- -an is circumfixed to the noun palaw mountainforming the word kapalawan . The derived noun kapalawan expresses a group of the noun palaw mountain , th us having the meaning of group of mountains . The same process applies to the rest ofthe examples.

1.1.3 Compound Nouns

The third type of nouns are compound nouns, they are formed by combining two or moredistinct words together to form a noun. For example begas a mama intelligent, honorable man iscomposed of two distinct words begas rice and mama man . Maguindanao compound nouns areformed by connecting two distinct words using the linkers a (section A. descriptive) , possessivemarker a/na (section B. possessive) , and the case markers na and sa (section C. objective).

The meaning of a compound noun may or may not be deducible from the components of thecompound noun. For example, while one can infer the meaning of ig a madalem deep water from itscomponents ig water and madalem deep , one cannot guess ayaw na kilat shrub from ayawsupressor and kilat lighting .

The Maguindanao compound nouns below are manually extracted from the dictionaryavailable from the researcher s disposal. They were confirmed as compounds (rather than modified


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constructions, see section 1.4) based on these criterias, (1) the components are inseparable, (2) thecomponents are not interchangeable, and (3) the meaning of the compound cannot always be derivedfrom the components. An example for criteria (1) will be when the compound noun tatawa a mailaw scornful laugh is possessed by nengka you . Y our scornful laugh cannot be expressed as * tatawanengka a mailaw , but always tatawa a mailaw nengka, where the two elements tatawa laugh and

mailaw raw are together. As for criteria (2), taking the same sample, tatawa a mailaw cannot beexpressed as * mailaw a tatawa since it will be interpreted as a modified construction and it will haveanother meaning. For criteria (3), again, taking the same example, one cannot literally derive themeaning of tatawa a mailaw from tatawa laugh and mailaw raw since tatawa a mailaw does notmean raw laugh but rather scornful laugh . Through these criterias, t he collected compounds wereconfirmed with the informants.

There are three types of relationships within a compound noun seen in Maguindanao: (A)descriptive, (B) possessive, and (C) objective.

A. Descriptive: The second element describes the first element. The first element is a noun andthe second element is an adjective. They are connected by the particle a.

First Element Noun +

Second ElementAdjective = Compound Noun

51 ulan rain + daladag sparse = ulan a daladag rainshower 52 tatawa laugh + mailaw raw = tatawa a mailaw scornful laugh 53 kalatas paper + makapal thick = kalatas a makapal cardboard 54 ig water + madalem deep = ig a madalem deep water

55 tiuba catastrophe + masela great = tiuba a masela misfortune, greatdisaster

In sample (51), the second element, the adjective daladag sparse describes the first element,ulan rain , a noun . They are connected by the linker a , forming the compound noun ulan a daladag sparse rain . In sample ( 52), the second element mailaw raw , an adjective, describes the firstelement, tatawa laugh , a noun. They are connected by the linker a, forming the compound nounmailaw a tatawa scornful laugh (lit. raw laugh) . This process applies to the rest of the samples.

B. Possessive : The first element expresses something possessed by the second. The two elementsare connected through the possessive marker a/na 2.

First Element

Possessed+ Second Element

Possessor= Compound Noun

56 gay day + babay girl = gay na babay menstruation 57 lig neck + banggala shirt = lig na banggala collar 58 mata eye + telak truck = mata na telak headlight 59 pused navel + lagat sea = pused a lagat high seas 60 talumpa shoes + kuda horse = talumpa na kuda amor seco

In sample (56), the first element, gay day is possessed by t he second element babay girl .They are connected by the possessive marker na, producing gay na babay menstruation (lit. girl sday) . In sample (57), the first element lig neck is possessed by the second element banggala shirt .

2 The informants said that a and na are interchangeable, a being more informal than na . Based on the limited data, there isalso no environment seen where a and na are in complementary distribution.


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They are connected by the possessive marker na, producing lig na banggala collar (lit. shirt s neck) . The same process applies to the rest of the samples.

C. Objective : The first element expresses an activity, instrument, etc. and the second expressesits object or goal. They are connected by na, or sa .

First elementActivity, Instrument +

Second ElementObject/Goal = Compound Noun

61 ayaw suppressor + kilat lightning = ayaw na kilat shrub

62 tulak to push away + bala disaster = tulak bala offerings in the formof money or in kind to ward offmischief

63 bungkas to make an opening, orhole in the wall + bilik room =

bungkas sa bilik a part of thedowry given to the owner of thehouse where the bride stays a fewdays before or during thewedding ceremony

64 nadtimuan to gather + ginawa self = nadtimuan na ginawa firmdecision 65 puyu to carry with a blanket + titi urine = puyu na titi bladder

In sample (62), the first element tulak to push away expresses an activity while the secondelement bala disaster expresses the object of the first element. The two elements are connectedforming the compound noun tulak bala offerings in the form of money or in kind to ward offmischief (lit. to push away disaster) . In sample (65), the first element puyu to carry with a blanketexpresses an activity while the second element titi urine expresses the object of the first element.The two elements are connected by na , forming the compound noun puyu na titi bladder (lit. to carry

urine with a blanket) . The same process applies to the rest of the samples.1.2 Subclasses of Nouns

In this section, the subclasses of nouns will be explored to help with the better understandingof the structure and distribution of noun phrases that will be discussed in the next sections. The first

part discusses the concrete and abstract nouns, the second explores proper nouns and common nouns,and the last part talks about mass and count nouns.

1.2.1 Concrete and Abstract Nouns

Concrete nouns are tangible, things one can see, hear, smell, taste and touch. Opposed tothese are abstract nouns, intangible things, which are mostly concepts, those that one cannot see, hear,smell, taste and touch.

Below are some of the examples of concrete and abstract nouns in Maguindanao taken fromthe dictionary. Samples (66-67) and (72-73) are simple nouns; samples (68-69) and (74-75) arederived nouns; while (70-71) and (76-77) are compound nouns.

Concrete Nouns

(66) asu dog (67) kantil bed (68) bilangguan prison (69) patutuges fisherman (70) mata na telak headlight (71) kalatas a makapal cardboard


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Abstract Nouns

(72) pitua advice (73) salig trust (74) kanisan beauty (75) kaadatan customs (76) tatawa a mailaw scornful laugh (77) nadtimuan na ginawa firm decision

Concrete nouns such as the examples (66-71) above are tangible. For example, one can see,smell, and touch an (66) asu dog ; one can see and touch a (69) patutuges fisherman ; and one cansee and touch a (70) mata na telak headlight . On the other hand, abstract nouns are intangible thingslike the above examples in (72-77). One can neither see, hear, smell, taste nor touch (72) pituaadvice , (73) salig trust , (74) kanisan beauty (75) kaadatan customs , (76) tatawa a mailaw scornful laugh and, (77) nadtimuan na ginawa firm decision .

1.2.2 Proper Nouns and Common Nouns

Proper nouns are specific places and individuals that both the speaker and hearer can identify(Payne, 1997). On the other hand, common nouns are those that denote objects or states of affairs orindividual representatives such as animals or humans (Bussmann, 1996).

However, rather than having a distinction between proper nouns and common nouns,Philippine languages mark differences between personal nouns and other nouns. This could be seen inthe determiners of these nouns respectively. Personal nouns take the determiners si, ni, and kani,while other nouns take the determiners i, su, na, nu, sa, and kanu. Personal nouns are nouns which arenames of people, used to address and identify specific people (e.g. Abdul, Ibrahim, Fatima, Salim,Salma ), on the other hand, other nouns include: (1) common nouns, those nouns that are unspecific(e.g. wata child , dulsi candy , and walay house ), (2) other proper names like specific places ( e.g,

Maynila Manila , Sultan Kudarat, Amerika America ), and (3) abstract nouns (e.g. salig trust ,kanisan beauty , tatawa a mailaw scornful laugh ).

In the samples below, personal nouns and other nouns are placed with determiners.

(78) si Erham, ni Salim, kani Salma(79) su Erham*, sa Salim*, kanu Salma*(80) su wata, sa Maynila, kanu kanisan(81) si wata*, ni Maynila*, kani kanisan*

In sample (78), Erham, Salim and Salma are all personal nouns thus marked by si, ni, andkani. On the other hand, (79) is ungrammatical since su, sa, and kanu are common noun markers. In(80), wata, Maynila and kanisan are all not personal names but other nouns, thus marked by su, sa,and kanu . (81) is ungrammatical since si, ni, and kani are markers for personal names.

In Maguindanao, like other Philippine languages, determiners also contain the case of thenoun it attaches to. Determiners will be further explored in section 1.3.1.

1.2.3 Count and Mass Nouns

Count nouns refer to things that can be counted and mass nouns are those that refer to

substances, like water, sand, air, wood, etc., in short, those that cannot be counted in one, two or three(Payne, 1997). Mass nouns are usually liquids, powders, substances and abstract nouns.


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Below, count mass will be discussed first, followed by the mass nouns.

Count Nouns

(82) kakaba cockroach (83) kulsa chair

(84) liblu book (85) asu dog (86) mama man

In the above examples (82-86), count nouns kakaba, kulsa, liblu, asu, and mama can becounted and directly be attached to numerals through the linker ka. These are shown below.

(87) pat ka kakaba four LNK cockroachfour cockroaches

(88) lima ka kulsa five LNK chairfive chairs

(89) sapulu ka liblu ten LNK bookten books

(90) telu ka asu three LNK dog three dogs

(91) dua ka wata mama two LNK child man two boys

In the above examples (87-91), the count nouns (in bold) are counted by the cardinalnumerals pat, lima, sapulu, telu and dua respectively. As the above examples show, the cardinalnumeral appears first then ka is attached before the noun, making the rule,

Rule 1: cardinal numeral + ka + count noun

Although the numbers given above in (87-91) express plural in number, the plural markermanga is optional, for example, (89) sapula ka liblu can be expressed as sapulu ka manga liblu , while(91) dua ka wata mama can be expressed as dua ka manga wata mama. Thus revising Rule 1, wehave the rule for counting count nouns as,

Rule 2: cardinal numeral + ka + (manga ) + count noun

Mass Nouns

Oppossed to count nouns are mass nouns, which cannot be readily counted. Some requirequantifiers, like containers, where liquids or powders could be stored 3, while other mass nouns can

3 See appendix for list of quantifiers


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never be really counted like abstract nouns such as kapasang hardship . Below are some examples ofcount nouns in Maguindanao:

(92) pedtad sand (93) ig water (94) begas rice (95) sambel wind

As mentioned above, mass nouns usually require quantifiers, such as as containers. Whenquantifying mass nouns, the quantifier comes first, followed by the linker a, and then the mass noun.This process is shown in Rule 3. Samples are shown in (97), (100), and (105) below.

Rule 3: quantifier + a + mass noun

When with quantifiers, the quantified mass noun can be counted, through the quantifier. Tounderstand this more, the above examples (93) and (94) are shown with quantifiers and cardinalnumerals below:

ig water

(96) *duwa ka ig two LNK watertwo waters

(97) basu a ig cup LNK water

cup of water

(98) duwa ka basu a ig two LNK cup LNK watertwo cups of water

In samples (96-98), the liquid mass noun ig water cannot be counted, so when accompanied by just a numeral as in (96), it is ungrammatical. In (97), ig water is accompanied by the quantifierbasu cup , forming basu a ig cup of water . As mentioned a while ago, mass nouns can be countedthrough their quantifier, as in (98), where ig water is counted through its container basu cup

forming duwa ka basu a ig two cups of water . Another example is shown below:

begas rice

(99) *telu ka begas three LNK ricethree rice

(100) gunu a begasgrain LNK rice

grain of rice


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(101) telu ka gunu a begasthree LNK grain LNK ricethree grains of rice

(102) saku a begas

sack LNK ricesack of rice

(103) telu ka saku a begas three LNK sack LNK ricethree sacks of rice

In (99-103), the mass noun begas rice cannot be readily counted as in (99). It can benumerated if with the quantifier gunu grain or with the container saku sack as shown in (101) teluka gunu a begas three grains of rice and (103) telu ka saku a begas three sacks of rice respectively.

Again, rather than the mass noun itself, it is the quantifier that is counted. The rule for countingquantified mass nouns is as follows,

Rule 4: cardinal number + ka + [quantifier + a + mass noun]

1.3 Case Markers

Nouns are usually arguments in sentences. Relations between arguments and predicates (eg.subject, direct object, indirect object etc.), can be indicated by means of case marking, participantreference marking on verbs, and constituent order (Payne, 1997). Based on the data, in Maguindanao,

these relations can be identified by means of case marking and participant reference marking on verbs.Constituent order does not seem to have any effect on Maguindanao grammatical relations, as long asthe verb appears sentence-initially in simple sentences. For example in Minenggay si Salim sa kendikanu babai / Minenggay si Salim kanu babai sa kendi / Minenggay sa kendi si Salim kanu babai allmeans Salim gave candy to the girl , as long as the noun stays with its case marker, the grammaticalrelations of the arguments are still the same.

Sentences are usually composed of a verb and argument/s. Verbs can be transitive orintransitive. Transitive verbs are those verbs with two arguments while intransitive are those with onlyone. Arguments are traditionally named as subjects or objects in the sentence, but for the purposes ofthis study, the three distinctions, S, A, and P will be used. S is the only argument of an intransitive

clause, A is the most agent-like argument of a transitive clause and P is the least agent-like argumentin a transitive clause. S and A are the traditional subject while P is the traditional object .Languages in the world are usually classified into the nominative-accussative or ergative-absolutivesystem. Nominative-accusative languages mark S and A the same, and P another way, while ergative-absolutive languages use the same marking for S and P, while a different marker for A. Of the twosystems, Maguindanao exhibits the ergative-absolutive marking based on the data.

In Maguindanao, determiners and personal pronouns are used as case markers. Determinersand personal pronouns in Maguindanao mark three cases, (1) absolutive, (2) ergative, and (3) oblique.(1) Absolutive is where the S and P are marked the same. Again, S is the only argument in anintransitive clause while P is the least-agent like argument in a transitive clause. On the other hand, (2)ergative is where A is marked, A is the most agent-like argument in a transitive clause. Lastly, (3)


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oblique is where an optional participant in a clause is marked, obliques usually lack grammaticalrelations to the predicate.

The two case determiners in Maguindanao, determiners and personal pronouns, will bediscussed in detail in sections 1.3.1 and 1.3.2 respectively.

1.3.1 Deteminers

Determiners are category of words that specify a noun more closely (Bussmann, 1996). Theydirectly express something about the identifiability and/or referentiality of a noun phrase (Payne,1997).

Below is a table showing the determiners in Maguindanao.

Table 1: Maguindanao Determiners

Non-personal Nouns Personal NounsSpecific Non-specific Singular Plural (And Company)

Absolute (S/P) su i si siaErgative (A) nu na ni nilaOblique kanu sa kani kanila

There are two sets of determiners in Maguindanao as mentioned in section 1.2.2, those thatintroduce personal nouns ( si, ni, kani, sia, nila, kanila ) and those that mark non-personal nouns ( su,nu, kanu, i, na, sa ). Non-personal noun determiners are further distinguished whether the noun theyare refering to is specific ( su, nu, kanu ) or non-specific ( i, na, sa ), that is, whether they are known tothe speaker or not. On the other hand, personal name determiners also have two forms: one is where itdetermines just the personal name ( si, ni, kani ) while the other determines the personal name and his

company ( sia, nila, kanila ).

Determiners in Maguindanao also have different forms in the cases of absolutive, ergative,and oblique as mentioned in the introduction (section 1.3). Absolutive case ( su, i, si, sia ) is when thenoun being determined is the S or the P of the verb. S is the only argument of an intransitive verbwhile P is the least-agent like argument of a transitive verb. Ergative case ( nu, na, ni, nila ) is when thenoun being marked is the A of the verb, that is, the agent of the transitive verb. Oblique case ( kanu, sa,kani, kanila ) is used when the noun being marked is an optional participant in the clause.

One interesting distribution of Maguindanao determiners is that instead of the non-personalnoun determiner, personal noun determiners are usually used when marking a family member ( ama,

ina, apo, wata father, mother, grandparent, child ), whether or not that family member is related tothe speaker.

The noun phrases in bold in samples (104-106) below present the non-personal noundeterminers in the absolutive case in Maguindanao. Again, the determiner is in the absolutive casewhen the noun being determined is the S or the P of the verb. S is the only argument of an intransitiveverb while P is the least-agent like argument of a transitive clause.

(104) Naka-ledtu su tagenek sa padsudanINT.COMP-fly ABS.SPEC mosquito OBL foot.of .mountainThe mosquito flew to the foot of the mountain


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(105) enggay nami su asu sa lekanilangive 1ERG.EXC.PL ABS.SPEC dog OBL 3OBL.PLWe gave the dog to them.

(106) Kan na papanuk i

eat ERG.NONSPEC bird ABS.NONSPEC nanas

pineappleA bird ate a pineapple.

In sample (104) above, su specifies tagenek mosquito , which is the S of the intransitive verbnakaledtu flew . In (1 05), su specifies asu dog , which is the P of the transitive verb inenggay gave .Both tagenek and asu are identifiable to the speaker since su implies specificity. On the hand in (106),i specifies nanas pineapple , the P of the transitive verb kinan ate . In this sentence, the speakerknows that a papanuk bird ate a nanas pineapple , but cannot identify which specific pineapple

since the specifier i is used to imply non-specificity.The noun phrases in bold in samples (107-109) below are non-personal noun determiners in

the ergative case in Maguindanao. Again, the determiner is in the ergative case when the noun beingspecified is the A of the verb, that is, the agent of a transitive clause.

(107) Tuka nu kalasan a manuk su limapeck ERG.SPEC rooster ABS.SPEC handku1POSS.SGThe rooster pecked my hand.

(108) Dukut nu manga tulisan su kaltidasteal ERG.SPEC PL robber ABS.SPEC walletku1POSS.SGThe robbers stole my wallet.

(109) ebut aku na lapinig bite 1ABS.SG ERG.NONSPEC beeA bee bit me .

In sample (107) and (108), nu specifies kalasan a manuk rooster and manga tulisanrobbers , the A of the transitive verbs tinuka pecked and dinukut stole respectively . Both therooster and the robbers are known to the speaker as implied by the specific determiner nu. On theother hand in (109), na specifies lapinig bee , which is the A of the transitive verb inebut bit . The

bee is not known to the speaker, he is not sure which specific bee bit him, as entailed by the non-specific determiner na .

The noun phrases in bold in samples (110-116) below show non-personal noun determiners inthe oblique case in Maguindanao. Again, the determiner is in the oblique case when the noun beingspecified is an optional participant in the clause.


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(110) Na-ulog su babai kanu paliungan INT.COMP-fall ABS.SPEC girl OBL.SPEC windowThe girl fell from the window.

(111) Na-ulog su babai sa paliungan

INT.COMP-fall ABS.SPEC girl OBL.NONSPEC windowThe girl fell from a window.

(112) Nang-uta sa lugo su pendaloINT.COMP-vomit OBL.NONSPEC blood ABS.SPEC sick personThe sick person vomited blood

(113) *Nang-uta kanu lugo su pendaloINT.COMP-vomit OBL.SPEC blood ABS.SPEC sick personThe sick person vomited blood

(114) Min-enggay si Salim sa kendi INT.COMP-give ABS name OBL.NONSPEC candykanu babai OBL.SPEC girlSalim gave candy to the girl.

(115) Min-enggay si Salim sa kendi INT.COMP-give ABS name OBL.NONSPEC candylu sa babai

DEM.OBL.DIST OBL.NONSPEC girl Salim gave candy to the girl.

(116) *Min-enggay si Salim kanu kendi INT.COMP-give ABS name OBL.SPEC candylu sa babaiDEM.OBL.DIST OBL.NONSPEC girl Salim gave candy to the girl.

In samples (110) and (111), the intransitive verb naulog fell predicates its S babai girl ,marked by su. Extra information on the location of her falling is expressed through the oblique kanu

paliungan and sa paliungan the/a window respectively . In (110), since the oblique specific markerkanu is used, one can infer that the speaker knows which specific window the girl fell from. On theother hand, in (111), since the non-specific oblique marker sa is used, one can infer that although thespeaker knows that the girl fell from a window, he does not know which specific window the girl fellfrom.

Samples (112-113) are antipassives constructions, they are detransitivized sentences(transitive sentences that became intranstive) where the absolutive patient-like argument (object) is

put in the oblique case and the ergative agent is promoted as an absolutive subject. In sample (112),the original object is lugo blood but has been put to the oblique case and has become an oblique

object. The once ergative agent pendalu is promoted as an absolutive subject (S). The oblique objectlugo blood is specified by the non -specific sa, however, as one can see in (113), the specific kanu


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cannot be used to determine lugo blood . This might be because antipassive oblique objects receivea nonspecific interpretation , this phenomena has also been observed in other languages (see Aldridge,2005). Since sa is nonspecific, it is allowed to determine the oblique object lugo blood but sincekanu is a specific determiner, it is not allowed to determine lugo blood .

Basing from the samples that are ungrammatical in (113) and (116), the specific obliquemarker kanu can only be used for locational, directional or oblique source, interchangeable with sa.Oblique objects such as those in samples (113) kanu lugo and (116) kanu kendi cannot be used withkanu . For example, in (110-111), the location of the falling is the paliungan window and can bespecified by the determiner sa and kanu . In (114-115), the direction of the kendi candy is the babai girl and as seen in the samples, kanu and sa can be used to determine the babai girl . In (115), theoblique distal demonstrative pronoun lu is attached before sa to avoid ambiguity, since there isanother sa in the sentence (determining candy). On the other hand, the antipassive sentences (112-113), lugo blood is specified by sa (112) but sa cannot be replaced by kanu (113) . In these sentences,lugo blood is functioning semantically as the object of the verb nanguta vomit ted . This

phenomenon can also be observed in sentences (114-116), where kendi candy can only be specified by sa and not kanu . In these sentences, kendi candy is fu nctioning semantically as the direct objectof the verb minenggay gave .

The noun phrases in bold in samples (117-119) below show personal noun determiners in theabsolutive case in Maguindanao. Again, the determiner is in the absolutive case when the noun beingdetermined is the S or the P of the verb. S is the only argument of an intransitive verb while P is theleast-agent like argument of a transitive clause.

(117) Naka-ilay si Anas sa maitem a kudaINT.COMP-see ABS name OBL black LNK horseAnas saw a black horse

(118) alab nu bagisan si Fatima eat ERG.SPEC shark ABS nameThe shark ate Fatima

(119) alen nin si ina nin arestrain 3ERG.SG ABS mother 3POSS.SG LNK

peng-ganatINT.COMP-leaveHe restrained his mother from leaving.

In samples (117-119) above, the personal noun determiner si specifies Anas, Fatima, and ina nin his mother respectively. In ( 117), Anas is the S of the intransitive verb nakailay saw . In (1 18),

Fatima is the P of the transitive verb inalab ate . In (119 ), ina mother is the P of the transitive verbinalen restrained . As mentioned in the introduction of Maguindanao determiners (1.3.1), one of itsinteresting distribution is that instead of a non-personal noun determiner, personal noun determinersare usually used when marking a family member ( ama, ina, apo, wata father, mother, grandparent,child ), whether or not that family member is related to the speaker. This can be observed in sentence(119), where ina mother , a family member, but not related to the speaker, is marked by the personal

noun determiner si.


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The noun phrases in bold in samples (120-122) below show personal noun determiners in theergative case in Maguindanao. Again, the determiner is in the ergative case when the noun beingspecified is the A of the verb, that is, the agent of a transitive clause.

(120) Kua ni Abdul su pinsil kutake ERG name ABS.SPEC pencil 3POSS.SGAbdul took my pencil.

(121) agaw ni Mustapha su sundanggrab ERG name ABS.SPEC swordlu kanu pakat nin DEM. OBL.DIST OBL friend 3POSS.SGMustapha grabbed the sword from his friend.

(122) enggay i nia ba sa lakigive ABS DEM.ABS.PROX PRT OBL 1OBL.SGni Salim kageyERG name yesterdaySalim gave this to me yesterday.

In the samples (120-122) above, ni determines the personal nouns Abdul, Mustapha, and Salim , the A of the transitive verbs kinua took , inagaw grabbed , and inenggay gave respectively.

The noun phrases in bold in samples (123-125) below show personal noun determiners in theoblique case in Maguindanao. Again, the determiner is in the oblique case when the noun being

specified is an optional participant in the clause.

(123) Ini-pusaka ni apu a mama su alamatanTR.COMP-give.as.inheritance ERG grandfather ABS.SPEC horoscopenin kani Fatima3POSS.SG OBL nameMy grandfather gave his horoscope as an inheritance to Fatima.

(124) Na-masa aku sa dusi kani Abdul INT.COMP-buy 1ABS.SG OBL candy OBL name

I bought candy from Abdul.

(125) Min-andung su wata kani ama ninINT.COMP-move near ABS.SPEC child OBL father 3POSS.SGThe child moved near to his father.

In samples (123-125), kani specifies the personal names Fatima and Abdul . In (123), Fatima is the direction of the giving of the horoscope as inheritance. In (124), Abdul is the source of thecandy. In (125), kani specifies the family member ama father , which is the direction of themovement of the child.


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1.3.2 Pronouns

Aside from determiners, pronouns also show the case markings of Maguindanao nouns.Pronouns are free forms (as opposed to affixes) that function alone to fill the position of a noun phrasein a clause. They normally have all the distributional properties of noun phrases (Payne, 1997). Inthis study, only personal pronouns will be discussed.

Personal pronouns are words that replace personal nouns, be they proper or common.Maguindanao personal pronouns usually take the place of the entire noun phrase in most cases (e.g. suwata the child > sekanin he/she , not * su sekanin ), but they do not in oblique phrases (e.g. sa wata `to the child > sa lekanin `to him/her. ).

In Philippine languages, personal pronouns are distinguished according to (1) person, (2)number, and (3) case (grammatical relation) (Nolasco, 2010). This is also observed in Maguindanao

personal pronouns. Below is a table showing the personal pronouns in Maguindanao, these were allextracted from Constantino s 559 -sentence list.

Table 3: Maguindanao Personal Pronouns

Number Person AbsolutiveS/PErgativeA Oblique

Topical Nominal

SingularFirst aku ku laki sakiSecond ka nengka leka sekaThird sekanin nin lekanin sekanin

Dual First & Second ta ta lekita sekita

Plural

First Inclusive tanu tanu lekitanu sekitanuFirst Exclusive kami nami lekami sekamiSecond kanu nu lekanu sekanuThird silan nilan lekanilan sekanilan

Maguindanao pronouns distinguish between first, second and third person . Aside from these, person in Maguindanao pronouns also express inclusive/exclusive distinction in the first person . First person inclusive refers to the speaker and hearer and may or may not include a non-speech act participant. It also has an inclusive dual form which includes only the speech act participants, thespeaker and the hearer, excluding all non-speech act participants. It could be translated in English asthe two of us . The first person exclusive on the other hand, excludes the hearer, only including thespeaker and other non-speech act participant/s.

Number in Maguindanao pronouns consist of singular, dual and plural. Singular consists ofone person, while plural consists of two or many. Dual consists of two people, but it is limited to thespeaker and hearer, discussed in the previous paragraph.

There are four sets of pronouns in Maguindanao, three of which express the absolutive,ergative, and oblique case respectively. The other set is always found as a topic in a topicalizedsentence.

The samples that will be used to show the difference between the four types of pronouns will be the first person singular pronouns, aku, ku, laki, and saki which are absolutive, ergative, obliqueand topical nominal respectively.

Samples (126-128) below show personal pronouns found in the absolute case, which are the S,and P. Again, S is the only argument of an intransitive clause, while P is the least agent-like argumentin a transitive clause.


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(126) Na-masa aku sa kalikamINT.COMP-buy 1ABS.SG OBL very.red.clothI bought a very red cloth.

(127) ebut aku na lapinigbite 1ABS.SG ERG.NONSPEC beeA bee bit me.

(128) Pa-mandu aku ni inateach 1ABS.SG ERG motherI was taught by my mother.

Sample (126) is an intransitive sentence, the only argument S of the intransitive verb namasabought is represented by aku. Samples (127-128) are transitive sentences, where the least-agent likeargument P is represented by aku. In (127) the one who got bit and got hurt was aku while in (128),the one that benefited from the teaching was aku .

Samples (129-131) below present personal pronouns found in the ergative case, whichconsists of A, the most agent-like argument in a transitive clause.

(129) Ini-simbul ku su mamis kanu petiTR.COMP-mix 1ERG.SG ABS.SPEC sugar OBL.SPEC whitena niugPOSS coconutI mixed sugar with the coconut juice.

(130) Papait-an ku si ina sa sulatsend-TR.CONT 1ERG.SG ABS mother OBL letterI will send my mother a letter.

(131) Kan-en ku i mangga nilaeat-TR.CONT 1ERG.SG ABS.NONSPEC mango 3POSS.PLI will eat their mango

In samples (129-131) above, ku is the A of the transitive verbs inisimbul mixed , papaitan

will send , and kanen will eat , where ku is the agent doing the mixing, the sending and the eatingrespectively.

Samples (132-134) below show personal pronouns in the oblique case. Obliques do not havean argument in the sentence, be it transitive or intransitive. Personal pronouns in the oblique form arealways accompanied by the oblique determiner sa.

(132) Ini-pangalit nin sa laki suTR.COMP-shift.the.blame 3ERG.SG OBL 1OBL.SG ABS.SPEC

ping-gula ninTR.COMP-do 3POSS.SGHe shifted to me the blame for what he did.


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(133) Ini-udas nin sa laki su liduTR.COMP-refer 1ERG.SG OBL 1OBL.SG ABS.SPEC problemnu ginawa nin.POSS self 3POSS.SGShe refered her problem to me.

(134) I-pusaka ni ama sa laki suTR.CONT-give.as.inheritance ERG father OBL 1OBL.SG ABS.SPECwalay nin a ma-salig.house 3POSS.SG LNK ADJ-bigMy father will give me his big house as my inheritance.

In (132-134), the oblique personal pronoun laki expresses the direction of the P pinggula nin things he did , lidu nu ginawa nin his problem , and walay nin a masela his big house , of thetransitive verbs inipangalit shifted the blame , iniudas refered , and ipusaka give as inheritance

respectively . Also, notice that the oblique determiner sa appears before the pronoun laki. Maguindanao pronouns are special in that they have separate sets of pronouns that appear in

the topic or fronted constructions. For example,

(135) Saki i pinab-paigo ni Abdul sa suka1TOP.SG ABS TR.COMP-bathe ERG name OBL vinegarI was the one that Abdul poured vinegar on

(136) Saki i badal nu egkaunutan nami1TOP.SG ABS representative POSS leader 1POSS.EXC.PLI am the representative of our leader

(137) Saki a ped-tulog den1TOP.SG TOP INT.CONT-sleep PRTI will sleep now.

In samples (135-137) above, saki is topicalized and given emphasis in the sentences,appearing sentence-initially. If this was in Tagalog, sentence (135) will be Ako ang pinaliguan ni

Pedro ng suka I was the one that Abdul poured vinegar on . In Tagalog, the topicalized pronoun akohas the same form as the absolutive ako . In Maguindanao, they have different forms, saki and akurespectively. The distinctiveness of this property of Maguindanao pronouns compared to Tagalog will

be discussed further in section 3.

Like most pronouns in Philippine languages, Maguindanao personal pronouns cliticizes. Forexample,

(138) alab nu bagisan si Fatimaeat ERG.SPEC shark ABS nameThe shark ate Fatima

(139) alab nin si Fatima

eat 3ERG.SG ABS nameHe /She ate Fatima


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(140) alab sekanin nu bagisaneat 3ABS.SG ERG.SPEC sharkThe shark ate him/her

In samples (138-140), the original sentence is (138), where all the arguments are presented in

full noun form. In (139), the A of the transitive verb inalab ate , nu bagisan shark is represented bythe pronoun nin. In (140), the P of the transitive verb inalab ate , si Fatima is replaced by the

pronoun sekanin. Notice that both pronouns in (139) and (140) cliticizes to the verb inalab ate .

1.4 Modification Constructions

A simple Maguindanao noun phrase construction is usually only composed of a determinerand a noun head ( su wata the child ). However this can be expanded by the addition of modifierssuch as adjectives, possessive nouns etc. (e.g. su manisan a wata nin your beautiful child ), withwata child still acting as the head noun, because the whole phrase still refers to wata child as theentity. Noun heads can be modified by the following: demonstratives, adjectives, numerals, verbs,adverbs, and possessives. This section will explore these modified expansions in Maguindanao noun

phrases.

1.4.1 Noun Head with Demonstrative Modifier

Noun heads can be modified by demonstratives. Demonstratives express distance, ororientation with respect to the speaker/hearer (Payne, 1997). In Maguindanao, demonstratives havethree degrees of distance, in proximal, medial, and distal. Proximal ( nia ) is when the noun beingreferred to is close to the speaker. Medial ( nan ) is expressed when the noun is far from the speaker butnear the hearer. Distal ( entu ) is expressed when the noun is far from both the speaker and the hearer.In Maguindanao noun phrases, demonstratives are placed after the noun linked by the particle a. For

example,(141) tali a nia

string LNK DEM.PROXthis string

(142) asu a nandog LNK DEM.MEDthat dog (near you)

(143) babai a entu

girl LNK DEM.DISTthat girl (over there)

In samples (141-143) above, the nouns tali string , asu dog , and babai girl are modified by the demonstratives nia, nan and entu respectively. (141) suggests that the tali string is near thespeaker through the proximal demonstrative nia . In (142), the phrase suggests that the asu dog isnear the hearer but far from the speaker through the medial demonstrative nan . Lastly, in (143), thebabai being refered to is both far from the speaker and hearer as suggested by the distal demonstrativeentu .


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1.4.2 Noun Head with Adjective Modifier

Noun heads can be modified by adjectives (see whole section 2 for an in-depth discussion ofadjectives). Adjectives are connected to nouns by means of the linker a. The position of the noun anddescriptive adjective is not restricted, as shown in samples (144-149) below. However, the formwhere the adjective comes first followed by the noun appear more usually in the corpus.

(144) matenggaw a ig cold LNK watercold water

(145) ig a matenggawwater LNK cold cold water

(146) masela a kayu

big LNK tree big tree

(147) kayu a masela tree LNK big big tree

(148) magangu a seda dried LNK fishdried fish

(149) seda a magangu fish LNK drieddried fish

In samples (144), (146) and (148) above, the adjectives matenggaw cold , masela big , and magangu dried , appear before the nouns they describe, ig water , kayu tree , and seda fish ,connected by the linker a respectively. On the other hand, in samples (145), (147), and (149), thenouns ig water , kayu tree , and seda fish appear before the adjectives that describe them,matenggaw cold , masela big , and magangu dried , connected by the linker a respectively.

According to the informants, there is no difference in meaning whether the noun or adjective comesfirst. However, based on the corpus, samples like (144), (146), and (148) where the adjective comesfirst followed by the noun appear more usually.

1.4.3 Noun Head with Numerals

Noun heads can be modified by numerals. Numerals designate numbers, quantities, and anyother countable divisions (Bussmann, 1996). In this section, the numerals in the form of cardinals andordinals that modify noun heads in Maguindanao will be discussed. Cardinals 4 are numbers used incounting or expressing quantity while ordinals are numbers used to denote the order or the rank ofthings (Schachter & Otanes, 1972). In Maguindanao, ordinals are expressed by adding the word ika-

before cardinals.

4 See appendix for list of cardinals in Maguindanao


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In samples (153-155), the ordinals ikaduwa second , ikatelu third , and ikapat fourthmodify the count nouns lantay floor , gay day , and taw person respectively. The ordinals come

before the count noun and the two are linked by the particle a .

On the other hand, mass nouns, as opposed to count nouns in samples (150-155), cannot be

readily counted and must be accompanied by quantifiers (as mentioned in section 1.2.3). Whenquantified, the mass noun can be counted through the quantifier. Rule 7 below shows how to constructa mass noun with a quantifier and cardinal modifier. The cardinal comes first followed by thequantified mass noun, they are connected through the particle ka. A quantified mass noun consist of aquantifier followed by the mass noun, the two being connected by the particle a .

Rule 7: cardinal + ka + [quantifier + a + mass noun]

Samples (156-158) are quantified mass nouns with cardinal modifiers.

(156) duwa ka lata a gatas two LNK can PRT milktwo cans of milk

(157) pat ka basu a ig four LNK glass PRT waterfour glasses of water

(158) lima ka saku a begasfive LNK sack PRT ricefive sacks of rice

In samples (156-158), the cardinals duwa two , pat four , and lima five , modify thequantified mass nouns, lata a gatas can of milk , basu a ig cup of water , and saku a begas sack ofrice respectively. The cardinals come before the quantified mass nouns and they are linked by the

particle ka. In these samples, it is not the mass nouns that are counted but rather their quantifiers.

Lastly, Rule 8 below shows how quantified mass nouns are modified by ordinals. The ordinalcomes first followed by the quantified mass noun, they are connected through the particle a . Aquantified mass noun consist of a quantifier followed by the mass noun, the two being connected bythe particle a .

Rule 8: ordinal + a + [quantifier + a + mass noun]

Samples (159-161) below are quantified mass nouns modified by ordinals.

(159) ika-duwa a lata a gatas ORD-two LNK can PRT milksecond can of milk

(160) ika-pat a basu a ig ORD-four LNK glass PRT waterfourth glass water


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(161) ika-lima a saku a begas ORD-five LNK sack PRT ricefifth sack of rice

In samples (159-161), the ordinals ikaduwa second , ikapat fourth , and ikalima fifth ,

modify the quantified mass nouns, lata a gatas can of milk , basu a ig cup of water , and saku abegas sack of rice respectively. The ordinals come before the quantified mass nouns and they arelinked by the particle a. Again in these samples, it is not the order or rank of the mass nouns that areexpressed but rather their quantifiers order or rank.

1.4.4 Noun Head with Verbal Modifier

Noun heads in Maguindanao can also be modified by a verb, where originally, the verbalmodifier is the predicate of the sentence. In constructions where noun heads are modified by verbalmodifiers, the noun head always comes first, followed by the linker a , and then by the verbal modifier.

In the examples below, the noun head is in bold.(162) Kan na papanuk su nanas

eat ERG.NONSPEC bird ABS.SPEC pineappleThe pineapple was eaten by the bird

becomes

(163) nanas a kan na papanuk pineapple LNK eat ERG.NONSPEC birdpineapple the bird ate

In the samples above, (162) is the original sentence while (163) is the modified sentence from(162). In (162), the predicate of the sentence is kinan na papanuk was eaten by the bird while thenoun head is su nanas the pineapple . Sentence (162) is transformed into (163), a noun phrase, wherethe noun head nanas pineapple is modified by the verbal predicate in the original sentence kinan na

papanuk was eaten by the bird forming nanas a kinan na papanuk pineapple the bird ate . As onecan observe, the noun head nanas pineapple came before the verbal modifier and in between them isthe linker a. Below are more examples:

(164) Padtud na gansu su utan root ERG.NONSPEC swan ABS.SPEC grassThe grass was rooted by a swan

becomes

(165) utan a padtud na gansugrass LNK root ERG.NONSPEC swangrass a swan rooted

In the samples above, (164) is the original sentence while (165) is the modified sentence from(164). In (164), the predicate of the sentence is pinadtud na gansu was rooted by a swan , while thenoun head is su utan the grass . Sentence (164 ) is transformed into (165), a noun phrase, where thenoun head utan grass is modified by the verbal predicate in the original sentence pinadtud na gansu


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was rooted by the swan forming utan a pinadtud na gansu grass a swan rooted . As one canobserve, the noun head utan grass came before the verbal modifier and in between them is the linkera. The same rule applies to the samples (166-169), where (166) and (168) is the original sentence ofthe modified noun phrases (167) and (169) respectively.

(166) Tuka nu manok su limatek peck ERG.SPEC chicken ABS.SPEC leechThe chicken pecked the leech

becomes

(167) limatek a tuka nu manokleech LNK peck ERG.SPEC chickenleech the chicken pecked

(168) enggay nin su pegken give 3ERG.SG ABS.SPEC foodHe gave the food

becomes

(169) pegken a enggay ninfood LNK give 3ERG.SGfood he gave

1.4.5 Noun Head with Adverbial Modifiers

Noun heads in Maguindanao can be modified by two types of adverbs: time adverbs andlocation adverbs. Time adverbs, as its name suggests, tell the time when a noun will be/was held. Onthe other hand, location adverbs describe where the noun is located. Location adverbs are composedof the determiner sa and a place noun.

In the samples below, the head noun is in bold. Samples (170-171) are nouns modified bytime adverbs, while samples (172-174) are nouns modified by location adverbs.

(170) miting sa alasiti sa mapita

meeting OBL 7o clock OBL morning7 in the morning meeting

(171) uman gay a alasiti a miting every day LNK 7 oclock LNK meetingdaily meeting at 7

In sample (170), the head noun miting meeting is modified by the time adverb alasiti samapita 7 in the morning . In (171), the head noun miting meeting is modified by the time adverbuman gay a alasiti daily meeting at 7 .


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(172) telepon sa opisinatelephone OBL officetelephone in the office

(173) wata sa lipag

child OBL sidechild on the other side

(174) kakaba sa walay ni Abdulcockroach OBL house POSS namecockroach in the house of Abdul

The location adverbs in the above examples are also composed of sa plus a place noun whereopisina office , lipag other side and walay ni Abdul house of Abdul is the place noun respectively.In sample (172), the head noun telepon telephone is modified by the location adverb sa opisina inthe office The adverb tells where the telephone being talked about is located, in this case, in theoffice. In sample (173), the head noun wata child is modified by the location adverb sa lipag on theother side , where the location of the child is specified as o n the other side. Lastly, in (174), the headnoun kakaba cockroach is modified by the location adverb sa walay ni Abdul in the house ofAbdul , which entails that the cockroach is located in the house of Abdul. Notice that in the noun

phrases modified by location adverbs like in samples (172-174), the noun head always appear beforethe location adverb.

1.4.6 Noun Head with Possessive Modifiers

Noun heads in Maguindanao can be modified by possessive modifiers. Possession is used to

express ownership, though it is not always pertaining to possession (Payne, 1997). For example, su guru ku my teacher is not I possess the teacher. This is different from the possession that su pantalon ku my pants express. A noun head can be possessed thus can be modified by possessivemodifiers. A possessive noun phrase contains two elements: a possessor and a possessed item.Possession of Maguindanao noun heads can be expressed by using (1) possessive determiners +owner and (2) possessive personal pronouns. If the possessor of the item is a noun, possessivedeterminers are used. If the possessor of the item is a personal pronoun, the possessive personal

pronoun is used.

Possessive determiners are divided into two types, depending on which type of noun the possessor is. For personal nouns, the possessive determiner ni is used, while for non-personal nouns,

the determiners nu and na are used. The table below shows possessive determiners in Maguindanao.

Table 4: Possessive Determiners

Possessive determinerPersonal noun ni

Non-personal noun nu/na 5

5 According to the informants, there is a slight difference between these two, but they are unknown to the speakers. Based onthe limited data, the researcher did not see any patterns. Specificity and alienability of the possessed item were checked butthere were no patterns found.


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Rule 9 below shows a rule on how to construct a noun head with a possessive determiner.

Rule 9: possessed item + possessive determiner + possessor (owner)

The possessed item appears first followed by the possessive determiner ( ni, nu, or na )

followed by the possessor of the possessed item. Below are some examples of noun heads with possessive determiners and their possessors.

(175) lagas na manggaseed POSS mangomango s seed

(176) ngali nu kalabawmouth POSS carabaocarabao s mouth

(177) buk nu laga hair POSS maidenmaiden s hair

(178) wata ni Abdul child POSS nameAbdul s child

(179) kaluma ni Fatima

husband POSS nameFatima s husband

In samples (175-179) above, lagas seed , ngali mouth , buk hair , wata child and kaluma husband are possessed by mangga mango , kalabaw carabao , laga maiden , Abdul, and Fatimarespectively. In (175-177), since the possessors mangga mango , kalabaw carabao , and lagamaiden are non-personal nouns, the determiners na and nu are used. According to the informants naand nu are interchangeable, there is only a slight nuance in meaning (see footnote 5). While insamples (178-179), the personal noun possessive determiner ni is used since the possessors are

personal nouns, Abdul and Fatima respectively.

Possession of Maguindanao nouns can also be expressed by means of possessive pronouns. Like personal pronoun

Documents

Morphosyntax of Magindanao Nouns and Adjectives