Chapter 1: Introduction to Employee Motivation1.1. IntroductionAn issue which usually generates a great deal of attention from most managers, administrators and those involved in Human Resources Management is the issue of how to successfully motivate employee. While it is true that aspects like staff recruitment, controlling, managing, leading, and many more are of great importance to the success of an organization, Employee Motivation is generally considered a core element in running a successful business.

1.2. Statement of the ProblemThis paper attempts to discover the most important theories and approaches behind employee motivation, present different types of motivation, discuss their importance and provide recommendations and solutions to solving problems of de-motivated or unmotivated employees.

1.3. The Nature and Importance of MotivationManagers and scholars alike have long been inspired in attempting to find out why some employees tend to work harder than others. The study of motivation helps managers understand this variance in performance. Furthermore, knowledge of what motivates people allows managers to take ‘constructive steps’ to improve their employees’ work performance[1].

Before understanding the different types of motivation, we need to examine closely the nature of motivation. The termmotivation derives from the Latin word movere, meaning, ‘to move’. This means that no one can understand a person’s motivation until that person ‘behaves or literally moves’ [2]. Kreitner describes motivation as ‘the psychological process that gives behavior purpose and direction’, while Moorhead and Griffin explain motivation as ‘the set of forces that causes people to engage in one behavior rather than some alternative behavior’[3].

Employees are essentially the most important aspect of an organization. Managers strive to motivate their employees so that they are willing to perform at their highest levels. When employees work hard, come to work regularly and continue making positive contributions to the organization, the business will be able to cut costs and yield more profit, both of which are the ultimate goals of any organization. On the contrary, unmotivated employees will mean the organization will have people that are not willing to do well in the jobs or have to hire more people to do different jobs, which contribute to higher operating costs and a reduction in profit.

According to an article entitled ‘Need-based Perspectives on Motivation’ by Moorhead and Griffin, job performance depends on three main factors: Motivation, Ability and Environment. In order for an employee to reach a higher level of performance, he/she must ‘want to do the job’ (motivation), ‘be able to do the job’ (ability), and ‘must have the materials, resources, and equipment to do the job’ (environment).For this reason, the following relationship can be established:

Performance = Motivation + Ability + Environment

Deficiency in any one of these factors will result in a lower level of job performance. Managers always need to ensure that these three conditions are met[4].

Of all the three factors, it is generally accepted that motivation is the most difficult factor to manage. This is mainly due to the fact that human’s attitude/behavior is full of complexities and thus difficult to manage. As for the other two factors, an employee has been recruited with the awareness that he/she has the skills and capacity needed to perform the tasks as well as the fact that resources are readily available. If the manager feels that the employee lacks training of some sort, he/she can be sent to training programs to learn those skills. If the person is not suitable for the level, he/she can be directed to work at lower jobs. On the other hand, if resources are not available, i.e. the environment factor, the manager can take action to ensure that they become available. For example, if an employee needs a photocopier, he/she can formulate request to the management team and ask for one. For this reason, it is quite clear that the most challenging job for every employer is how to motivate their employees to strive their best to work for the organization.

Now that we have understood the nature and importance of motivation, we can turn our attention to the theories and approaches behind motivating employees, the main topic of discussion of our next chapter.

1.4. Definition of Key TermsFollowing are several key terms that we believe are very important in order to fully comprehend the theories and approaches behind employee motivation.

Motivation - derives from the Latin word movere, meaning, ‘to move’.

1. The internal condition that activates behavior and gives it direction[5].

2. The psychological process that gives behavior purpose and direction[6].

3. The set of forces that causes people to engage in one behavior rather than some alternative behavior[7].

Needs - something that is necessary for humans to live a healthy life. It can be objective and physical (food and water), or subjective and psychological (need for self-esteem)[8].

Satisfaction - The good feeling that you have when you have achieved something or when something that you wanted to happen does happen[9].

Dissatisfaction - The feeling that you are not pleased or satisfied[10].

Incentives - Any factor (financial or non-financial) that enables or motivates a particular course of action[11].

Job rotation - periodically move people from one specialized job to another for neutralizing job boredom.

Job enlargement - Combining two or more specialized tasks into a single job to make jobs more challenging.

Job enrichment - Redesign a job to increase its motivating potential by introducing planning and decision-making responsibility.

Extrinsic reward - external outcomes granted to someone by another person or by organizational system, such as money, promotions etc.

Intrinsic reward - derives internally from individuals that can be experienced through their work, such as the feelings of competency, sense of accomplishment etc.

Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature2.1. Motivation Theories

2.1.1. Historical Perspectives of Motivation

a. Early Views of Motivation

One early view of motivation derives from the concept of Hedonism – the idea ‘that people seek pleasure and comfort and try to avoid pain and discomfort’[12]. This philosophy, which argues that pleasure is the ‘ultimate importance and is the most important pursuit of humanity’, dominated and shaped early thinking of human motivation[13]. Even if this theory seems reasonable as far as it applies to the current society, there are still many kinds of behavior that it cannot explain. For instance, why do recreational athletes train themselves very hard willingly and regularly while hedonism suggests that people are always seeking to relax? And why do volunteers spend their time working untiringly to collect money for charity events? As experts eventually realized that the concept of hedonism is very limited and does not adequately explain the view of human behavior, other perspectives of motivation stood out[14].

b. The Scientific Management Approach

The Scientific Management Approach strongly emphasizes the belief that people are motivated by money. Frederick W. Taylor, the supporter of this approach, assumed that employees are ‘economically motivated’ and will work hard to earn as much money as they can[15].

Researchers, however, soon found out that human behavior is far more complex and cannot simply be explained by the assumption of the scientific management theory.

c. The Human Relations Approach

The human relations approach suggested that employees are motivated by social factors other than money, in other words, they respond to their social environment at work. Job satisfaction is assumed to be the crucial motive in improving employees’ performance. The development of Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory, which is our next main topic of discussion, has played a vital role in helping scientists answer questions related to human behavior[16].

2.1.2. Need Theories of Motivation

Need theories represent the ‘starting point’ for most contemporary thought on motivation. These theories argue that humans are motivated by ‘deficiencies’ in one or more important needs or needs categories. Human beings then try harder to satisfy those needs and thus become motivated. The two best-known need theories are Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Alderfer’s ERG theory.

a. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs TheoryThe hierarchy of needs, developed by Abraham Maslow in the 1940s, was arguably the most famous need theory – famous probably because it was so straightforward and ‘intuitively appealing’ to those interested in work behavior[17].

Maslow, who labeled human beings as ‘wanting’ animals, asserted that people have an ‘innate’ desire to satisfy a predictable five-step hierarchy of needs. These needs have been categorized in an order of importance, with the most basic needs at the foundation of the hierarchy [18]. The three sets of needs at the bottom of the hierarchy can be grouped as ‘deficiency needs’, which must be satisfied in order for a person to be comfortable, while the top two sets can be named ‘growth needs’, which focus on the growth and development of an individual.

Having looked at the basic concepts of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, we are going to examine each one of the five needs very closely.

Physiological Needs: these needs refer to the desire to fulfill physical satisfactions such as water, sleep, food, air and sex. These needs are considered the most important needs because without them, human beings cannot survive. No other needs would be of any importance if physiological needs have not been satisfied[19].

Safety Needs: Maslow’s theory states that human beings strive to meet these needs once the physiological needs are satisfied. It is about individual safety - being away from evils and threats. It is also believed that most modern employees are able to fulfill these needs through earning an income or depending on unemployment benefits. Maslow asserts that individuals who have ‘prolonged deprivation of physiological and safety needs’ may become ‘seriously maladjusted’ people[20].

Love/Belongingness Needs: Once the physiological and safety needs are satisfied, human beings tend to focus on the needs for love and affection. People endeavor to obtain a sense of belonging with others. This category of needs is a very powerful motivator of human behavior.[21]

Esteem Needs: A person who wishes to be a highly valued individual in the society always desires for high self-esteem. These self-esteem needs derive from self-respect, which in turn comes from being accepted and respected by the society. It is essential for those who are considered the people to help achieve an organization’s targeted objectives to be able to fulfill this category of needs. Once again, according to Maslow, esteem needs to be met for an individual to move to higher-level needs.

Self actualization Needs: The fifth and final category at the top of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs are the needs for self actualization. This means ‘realizing our full potential and becoming all that we can be’ [22]. In other words, it involves to the need to become more and more what we are, and to become everything that we are capable of becoming, which makes self-actualization an open-ended category.

Achieving all of the above characteristics is almost an impossible task. After all, it is still debatable whether an organization should have more or fewer self-actualized managers. On the one hand, this type of managers will play an important role in breaking barriers to creativity and providing new initiatives as to where the organization should be heading. On the other hand, too many ‘unconventional nonconformists’, i.e. self-actualized individuals, can also provoke chaos in one organization[23].Figure 2.1 summarizes the categories of needs that we discussed above.

b. Alderfer’s ERG TheoryAnother very important theory of motivation is the ERG Theory, which was developed by Yale psychologist Clayton Alderfer. The ERG Theory – E stands for Existence Needs, R for Relatedness Needs and G for Growth needs – has many aspects that are very similar to those of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, although there are still a number of very important differences between the two[24].

For Alderfer’s ERG Theory, The Existence category is similar to Maslow’s Physiological and Safety needs, while Maslow’s Love and Self Esteem needs are placed in the Relatedness needs category. Finally, the Growth category is similar to the self-actualization and self-esteem needs of Maslow’s theory[25].

The ERG Theory, in contrast to the Hierarchy needs theory, emphasizes that more than one kind of need may motivate a person at the same time. Also, an even more important difference between the two theories is that the ERG includes two main components: The   Satisfaction-Progression Component and The Frustration-Regression Component[26].

The satisfaction-progression component explains that after an individual has satisfied one category of needs, he then moves on to the next level. This concept agrees with that of hierarchy of needs’ theory. The Frustration-Regression Component, on the other hand, argues that if an employee is not able to satisfy a higher level of needs, he becomes ‘frustrated’ and eventually ‘regresses’ to the previously satisfied level[27].

To illustrate, we are going to look at an example. Nick Hernandez has satisfied his basic needs at the relatedness level, which means he has a lot of friends and social relationships. As a result, he is now trying to satisfy his growth needs through doing his best to progress to a higher position in his career. However, due to certain organizational constraints (e.g. few challenging jobs, few chances to demonstrate his ability and potential), he does not have the opportunity to advance to a higher position. Consequently, according to ERG theory, he grows frustrated, and such frustration eventually causes his previous level of needs – his relatedness needs – to dominate his thoughts. This means that once again Nick has the desire to make more friends and develop more social relationships[28].

2.1.3. Other Important Needs

Having succinctly discussed the two main needs theories, we would like to specifically examine three very pivotal individual needs: the needs for (a) achievement, (b) affiliation, and (c) power.

a. The need for achievement

This need is the individual desire of accomplishing goals or tasks more effectively than in the past. People who have a high need for achievement are likely to set challenging goals and take risks with decision making. Suppose, for example that Neary, Sales Manager of a company, has set a goal to increase sales of the business from 1% to 50%. The first goal is certainly too easy while the last is impossible to achieve. However, a target somewhere in the middle would be an ideal one. 15% or 20% might represent reasonable and reachable target. This goal is what is called the need for high achievement[29].

b. The need for affiliation

Individuals also experience the need for affiliation, which refers to the need for ‘human companionship’. People with high need for affiliation most likely want to be approved by others and are usually concerned about others' feelings. They tend to act and think as what they believe to be expected by others, specifically to those whom they long for friendship. Researchers recognize that people with high need for affiliation are most attached to jobs as sales and teaching positions where there is a lot of interpersonal contact[30].

c. The need for power

The third individual need is the need for power – ‘The desire to control one's environment, including financial, material, informational, and human resources’. Not everyone experiences this kind of need. Some people can spend a lot of time searching for power while some will try to avoid it if possible.

If three conditions can be met, people with high need for power can be very successful in management jobs. First, they must try to avoid seeking personal interests for power and think for the goods of the whole organization. Second, they must have a fairly low need for affiliation. This is because a desire to obtain power may force an individual to ‘alienate’ other people. Finally, they have to be able to control

the limits of their desire for power if it has a negative impact on organizational or interpersonal relationships[31].

2.1.4. Herzberg’s Dual-Structure Theory

In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Frederick Herzberg developed what would be a very famous theory known as the Dual-Structure Theory. Originally called the ‘Two-Factor’ Theory, it went on to play a very important role in influencing managers’ decisions on employee motivation[32].

Herzberg and his associates started by asking around 200 accountants and engineers in Pittsburg to recall times they felt satisfied and motivated by their jobs and times they felt dissatisfied and unmotivated. He then went on to ask them to describe the reasons behind those good and bad feelings[33]. Surprisingly, Herzberg found that ‘entirely different’ factors were related to the employees’ feelings about their jobs. For instance, those who stated they were not satisfied because their jobs were ‘low-paid’ would not necessarily identify ‘high pay’ as a cause of satisfaction and motivation. Those people instead claimed that factors such as recognition or achievement were some of the main causes of job satisfaction and motivation[34].

These findings led Herzberg to conclude that the traditional view on job satisfaction and dissatisfaction, motivation and un-motivation was ‘incorrect’. The theorist insisted that ‘the opposite of job satisfaction is not job dissatisfaction but, rather no job satisfaction; and similarly, the opposite of job dissatisfaction is not job satisfaction, but no dissatisfaction.’[35] These two different dimensions led to him naming his theory the ‘Dual-Structure’ theory.

In addition, Herzberg claimed that the primary factors that cause satisfaction and motivation are called Motivation factors,such as achievement and recognition. The presence of these factors results in job satisfaction and motivation, while their absence leads to feelings of ‘no satisfaction’ rather than dissatisfaction. The other set of factors is called Hygiene factors,which refer to things such as job security, pay and working conditions. Without these factors, people will be dissatisfied; and if they are present, there will be feelings of ‘no dissatisfaction’, rather than satisfaction [36]. Figure 2.2 below compares the traditional view of human motivation with Herzberg’s Dual Structure theory.

Evaluation of the theory

Due to its fast gain in popularity, the dual-structure theory has been studied and analyzed by scientists more than most other theories in organizational behaviour.[37]

One criticism to this theory is that the original sample of accountants and engineers may not ‘represent the general working population’. Skeptics argue that the theory does not take into account the individual differences. In addition, further research has found that one factor, for example salary, may influence satisfaction in one sample and dissatisfaction in another, and that individual’s age and

organizational level has a huge impact on the outcome of any one factor. Finally, the theory does not clearly identify the relationship between satisfaction and motivation[38].

Such criticisms obviously led to the shrinking popularity of the theory by organizational behaviour researchers. Nonetheless, its early esteem would mean that the theory still has a place and role to play in the field of organizational motivation.

2.1.5. The Expectancy Theory

Both Maslow's and Herzberg's motivation theories have been criticized for generalizing about human motivation. Our practical experience can show that ‘the same people are motivated by different things at different times and that different people are motivated by different things at the same time’ [39]. The Expectancy Theory, first proposed by Victor H. Vroom in the 1960s, somehow focuses more on highly personalized rational choices that an individual makes when dealing with the prospect of having to work hard to achieve rewards. ‘Expectancy’ refers to the ‘subjective probability’ that one thing will result in another. Individual perception is therefore an essential part of Expectancy theory.

According to the expectancy model, people's motivation strength increases as their perceived effort-performance and performance-reward probabilities increase. Although the two terms may sound very complicated, they can easily be understood through simple examples. For instance, how strong can you be motivated to study if you expect to score poorly on your tests no matter how hard you study (low effort-performance probability) and when you know that the tests will not be graded (low performance-reward probability)? In contrast, your motivation to study will increase if you know that u can score well on the tests with just a little hard work (high effort-performance probability) and that your grades will be significantly improved (high performance-reward probability). Employees are no different to students - they are motivated to work harder when they believe their hard work will lead them to achieve personally valued rewards[40].

If employee contributions are based on their expectations, managers can take steps to try to cultivate favorable expectations among their employees. When people can expect personally valued rewards, they will undoubtedly work harder to try to accomplish their tasks. A good manager will listen to his/her employees, learn from his experience and try to discover what rewards certain employees value. By so doing, the manager can potentially enhance their employees’ willingness to put more efforts into their work[41].

2.1.6. Adams’ Equity Theory

Regarded as one of the ‘justice’ theories, Equity theory was first developed in 1962 by John Stacey Adams. It attempts to explain the satisfaction that derives from the fairness and equality that a manager brings to his/her employees. Equity theory places value on fair treatment, which is believed to be the major motivational factor among employees.

An individual will consider that he is treated fairly when he feels that the ‘ratio of his inputs to his outcomes’ is the same to other people around him. In this case, it would be acceptable for an employee who has much more work experience and who is a more senior colleague to receive higher compensation/salary for his/her job. On the other hand, if an employee feels that another individual who has the same qualifications and provides the same amount of efforts is earning more recognition or compensation, he will feel he’s treated unfairly and thus perform at a lower level on his tasks[42].

An employee who feels he is over-compensated may increase his effort. However, he may also change the perceptions of his inputs and feel a sense of superiority, which may lead to him decreasing his efforts instead[43].

However, just like other motivation theories, Equity theory has its own criticisms. Critics argue that a number of ‘demographic and psychological variables’ affect people’s perceptions of equality. In other words, what a manager feel is equal may be considered unfair by his employees. Secondly, because much of the research supporting the propositions of this Equity theory has been conducted in laboratory settings, some people may believe that it does not apply to the practical situations. Finally, skeptics have also argued that employees might perceive equity/inequity not only in terms of their relationships with their colleagues, but also with the overall system. This means that, for instance, an employee may view his inputs and outputs are relatively similar compared to his colleagues, yet may feel that the system as a whole is unfair[44].

Nevertheless, Adam’s Equity theory reminds us that people are hugely concerned of the way they are treated in their surrounding environment, team and system. For this reason, they must be managed, controlled, and treated fairly.

2.2. Types of MotivationNow that we have studied a number of very important motivation theories, we can turn our attention to the types of motivation that managers can take into consideration in order to successfully motivate their employees.

2.2.1. Money and Motivation

‘No one works for free, nor should they’[45]. Pursuing money with hard work to provide security and comfort for oneself and their family is not the same pursuing money with a negative motive. Obviously, employees want to earn fair wages and salaries, and employers want them to know this is what they are getting for their hard work. Unsurprisingly, this all leads to the fact that employees and employers would all view money as the fundamental incentive for satisfactory job performance.

According to Perry and his colleagues, two general suggestions can be provided to managers:

1.   Financial   incentives   are   very   important   but   their   effectiveness   also   depends   on   organizational conditions.

Differences in organizational conditions contribute to possibility and effectiveness of various monetary incentives. Therefore, to ensure the success the implementation of any changes to existing incentives plans, companies are recommended to study those environment conditions.

2. Group incentive systems can also be very effective in private sector settings

Team-based or small-group incentives are described as rewards for individuals’ hard work as a team. In general, its effectiveness depends on the characteristics of its reward system, the organization, the team and the individual team members. Research suggests that equally divided small-group incentives maintain high level of productivity.

If, as acknowledged by many scholars and theorists, money is not the single most important motivation factor, what are the other types of motivation? Our next sections attempt to explain the most common types of motivation that good managers can take into account.

2.2.2. Motivation through Job Design

Considering the fact that the average adult spends half of their waking lifetime at work, to effectively motivate them no longer relies on the importance of money or other material objects. As jobs are the central feature of ‘modern existence’, feelings of having a challenging and interesting work can attach people to their jobs whereas a boring and tedious job, on the other hand, can become a serious obstacle to motivating people, not to mention the effect it has on an individual's physical and mental health. This is when Job design comes in to deepen a good manager's understanding and persuade them to adopt different approaches of dealing with employee mediation rather than the typical approach of motivating people through financial means[46].

There are two main strategies a manager can take to motivate employees:

Strategy one: Fitting people to jobsTo avoid continual dissatisfaction and reinforce motivation, three alternatives with proven track records include realistic job previews, job rotation, and limited exposure, each of which explains how a manager could fit the right people to the right jobs.

a. Realistic Job Previews: Managers commonly make unrealistically high expectations in recruits to persuade them into accepting a position. Dissatisfaction often appears in this kind of circumstances when high expectations of the jobs are brought down to earth by terrible or boring work. Realistic job previews - giving out honest information of what works involve in the job - have been useful in this kind of situation. Research has been done on two groups of telephone operators whose jobs are ultimately repetitive and boring. By giving out realistic job review film to the first group of telephone operators before getting hired, they actually had fewer thoughts of resigning and in contrast, another telephone operators group was given the "good news only" job review film before they got hired was found to

have a higher thought of resigning from their jobs. This would prove that realistic job previews could be useful in reducing staff turnover[47].

b. Job Rotation: Job rotation is an alternative to eliminating job boredom. It refers to the action of periodically moving people from one specialized job to another. It can help neutralizing the boredom barrier in highly specialized jobs, but of course, it should be noted that balance is needed to achieve its ultimate effects. Frequency of rotating jobs cannot be too high or too low or it will lead to unsatisfactory outcomes instead.

c. Limited Exposure: Another way to deal with a tedious job is to limit the individual's exposure to it. This technique is called ‘contingent time off’ (CTO), it is about establishing a challenging yet fair daily performance standard, and letting employees go home if standard is met. CTO plan was implemented in a large manufacturing plant where employees were producing about 160 units a day with 10 percent rejects: "...if the group produced at 200 units with three additional good units for each defective unit, then they could leave the work site for the rest of the day. Within a week of implementing this CTO intervention, the group was producing 200+ units with an average of 1.5 percent rejects. These employees, who had formerly put in an 8-hour day, were now working an average of 6.5 hours per day and importantly, they increased their performance by 25 percent." Some employees find the CTO plan extremely motivating[48].

Strategy two: Fitting jobs to peopleThis second strategy is for managers to consider changing the job itself instead of the people. Two techniques are provided in this field: Job Enlargement and Job Enrichment.

a. Job Enlargement: Job enlargement is the process of combining two or more specialized tasks in the workflow sequence into a single job. For instance, a clerk working in an insurance claims department whose job is normally to type only the client's name and address on the claim form may be asked to add in works of typing in the claim description and disposition. A moderate degree of complexity and freshness can be introduced in this manner. However, critics claim that having two or more typically boring tasks do not necessarily help making a job challenging. Besides, job enlargement has as well been criticized by organized labor that it is a tricky tactic for adding more work in getting the same amount of salary. For one condition, if pay and performance are kept in balance, boredom barrier can be reduced a bit by job enlargement[49].

b. Job Enrichment: In general terms, job enrichment is to redesign a job to increase its motivating potential, in other words, it is to increase the challenge of one's work. Unlike job enlargement, this is about building more complexity into jobs by introducing planning and decision-making responsibility that is normally carried out at higher levels[50].

According to experts, jobs can be enriched by upgrading the five core dimensions of work:

Skill variety: The degree to which jobs are completed with a variety of different activities in the use of one's different skills and talents.

Task identity: The degree to which a job is done from beginning to end with a visible outcome. Task significance: The degree to which the jobs involve significant impact on other people

whether they are from the organization or the world at large. Autonomy: The degree to which the jobs provide significant freedom, independence, and

discretion to the individual in completing their work by letting them schedule the work and determine the procedures to be used.

Job feedback: The degree to which clear and direct feedback is provided to the individual when completing their work activities[51].

Note that, however, not all employees will respond positively to enriched jobs. Personal traits and motives influence the connection between core job characteristics and desired outcomes. Only those who have necessary knowledge and skills plus the desire for personal growth can be successfully motivated by enriched work. Job enrichment can effectively work when it is carefully planned, when management is committed to its success, and when employees truly desire additional challenge to their jobs[52].

2.2.3. Motivation through Rewards

Employees, or volunteers who donate their time and efforts for good causes, expect to receive rewards of some sort for their contributions. Managers have found that rewards play a significant role in motivating employees to work harder and longer. This section, therefore, attempts to identify the numerous types for rewards that can be administered by managers.

There are two types of rewards: Extrinsic and Intrinsic. Extrinsic rewards are external outcomes granted to someone by others, such as money, employee benefits, promotions, recognition, status symbols, and praise.[53] In other words, this kind of reward is provided by another person or by organizational system to individuals[54].

In contrast, intrinsic reward derives internally from individuals and can be experienced through their work, such as the feelings of competency, sense of accomplishment, personal development and self-esteem. The importance of being self-administered offers great advantages and power of "motivating from within". As a 50-year-old Steve Schifer, who works at a small copper kettle manufacturer in northern Ohio, once said, ‘It gets in your blood and you can't get rid of it, it's something you can create with your hands and no one else can’[55].

There are four ways in which extrinsic rewards can be administered in order to improve job performance and efficiency.- Reward must satisfy individual needsMotivation is an unlikely outcome if the reward does not satisfy individual needs. Since different people have different needs, what they expect to be rewarded from their work is also

different. Some people tend to focus more on high wages, while others would prefer to be promoted to a higher position in the organization.- One must believe that effort will lead to rewardAn employee tends to work harder if they believe their efforts will lead to reward. According to the expectancy theory, an employee will not endeavor for a reward if they perceive it as unattainable. For example, a company has promised to pay for the leading salesperson to go on a trip for two to Hawaii. This will only prompt those who feel they have a good chance of winning it to work hard and try to sell as many of their products as possible. Those who believe the reward is highly unlikely to achieve will not be motivated to tray any harder[56].- Rewards must be equitableReward must be fair and equitable. For instance, if the reward is a bonus payment of 100$, so each member, considering other things equal, should be rewarded with the same amount of money. In contrast, inequity will lead to jealousy and dissatisfaction in work[57].- Rewards must be linked to performanceThe manager can increase staff motivation by providing rewards to those who ‘give that little extra’ hard work. Schemes that can be used to reward employee based on their performance include profit sharing, annual bonus, and stock purchase[58].

2.3.4. Motivation through Quality-of-work-life innovations

One of the world authorities on this subject has once described Quality-of-work life (QWL) as "a process by which an organization attempts to unlock the creative potential of its people by involving them in decisions affecting their work lives." In other words, QWL program is an interpersonal connection between employees and the organization; it touches every aspect of modern work life. Three main categories of QWL program are flexible work schedules, participative management, and workplace democracy. The common characteristic of these three categories is that they give employees a degree of control over their own work lives, or to say that every step and decision they make does not only affect the company but also themselves, which leads to another kind of employee motivation[59].

a. Flexible Work Schedules

The standardized and normal work life starts from 8.am to 5.pm, 40 hours a week; things started to be different when Flexible work schedules were introduced. Flexitime is a work-scheduling plan that offers employees the chance to determine their own arrival and departure times within specified limits. All employees must be present during a fixed time. Supposed an eight-hour day is required, the early bird can choose to arrive at 7.am, take a half an hour lunch break, and leave work at 3.30.pm, on the other hand, people who like to come late can decide to come in at 9.am and leave at 5.30.pm.

Flexible work schedules can be introduced in several types, such as compressed workweeks (40 hours in less than 5 days), permanent part time (less than 40-hour workweeks), and job sharing (corresponding schedule that allows two or more part timers to share a single full-time job).

For all these years, employees have been working under the standard of the 40-hour, five days workweek. These flexible work schedules represent a significant adjustment to individual needs and circumstances[60].

b. Participative Management

By years of research and implementation, management scholars have tried hard to determine which part of management should be appropriate for employees to participate in, and fortunately, one scholar came up with the final answer of the four key areas of participative management. Employees are allowed to participate in (1) setting goals, (2) making decisions, (3) solving problems, and (4) designing and implementing organizational changes. Employee motivation and performance are said to have significant improvement via personally involved in one or more of the management areas. Participative management connects employees to their companies, making them more dedicated to their jobs.

To achieve the ultimate effect of participative management, some barriers are needed to overcome:

Every level of management may resist employee participation because they do not believe in its underlying philosophy.

To believe that its short-run costs outweigh its long-term benefits can end this program from the start.

Fear that participative management might threaten the authority and power over some part of management.

Managers who lack experience with consensual decision-making might fight the process.Participative management is more than just a new motivation method, it involves great planning and a good background work is often needed to make sure that supportive climate exists.

c. Workplace democracy

Generally, workplace democracy covers all efforts to increase employee self-determination. This could be achieved through providing stocks and shares to employees. Letting the employees own part of the company's stock does not necessarily mean that they can take control over the company, but as stockholders, employees will be more dedicated to their work to increase the company's profitability. The harder they work, the greater their stock dividends will be. Another way would be to ask employees to manage the company. However, this concept has raised a lot of questions from scholars and managers and is highly debatable.

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Work Motivation, Job Satisfaction, and Organisational Commitment of Library Personnel in Academic and Research Libraries in Oyo State, Nigeria

Adeyinka TellaDepartment of Library And Information StudiesUniversity of BotswanaGaborone

C.O. AyeniFederal College of Forestry LibraryIbadan, Nigeria

S. O. Popoola, Ph.D.Department of Library Archival and Information StudiesFaculty of

EducationUniversity of Ibadan, Nigeria

 Introduction

The management of people at work is an integral part of the management process. To understand the critical importance of people in the organization is to recognize that the human element and the organization are synonymous. An well-managed organization usually sees an average worker as the root source of quality and productivity gains. Such organizations do not look to capital investment, but to employees, as the fundamental source of improvement. An organization is effective to the degree to which it achieves its goals. An effective organization will make sure that there is a spirit of cooperation and sense of commitment and satisfaction within the sphere of its influence. In order to make employees satisfied and committed to their jobs in academic and research libraries, there is need for strong and effective motivation at the various levels, departments, and sections of the library.

Motivation is a basic psychological process. A recent data-based comprehensive analysis concluded that competitiveness problems

appear to be largely motivational in nature (Mine, Ebrahimi, and Wachtel, 1995). Along with perception, personality, attitudes, and learning, motivation is a very important element of behaviour. Nevertheless, motivation is not the only explanation of behaviour. It interacts with and acts in conjunction with other cognitive processes. Motivating is the management process of influencing behaviour based on the knowledge of what make people tick (Luthans, 1998). Motivation and motivating both deal with the range of conscious human behaviour somewhere between two extremes:

reflex actions such as a sneeze or flutter of the eyelids; and

learned habits such as brushing one's teeth or handwriting style (Wallace and Szilag 1982: 53).

Luthans (1998) asserts that motivation is the process that arouses, energizes, directs, and sustains behaviour and performance. That is, it is the process of stimulating people to action and to achieve a desired task. One way of stimulating people is to employ effective motivation, which makes workers more satisfied with and committed to their

jobs. Money is not the only motivator. There are other incentives which can also serve as motivators.

Specific employee attitudes relating to job satisfaction and organizational commitment are of major interest to the field of organizational behaviour and the practice of human resources management. Attitude has direct impact on job satisfaction. Organizational commitment on the other hand, focuses on their attitudes towards the entire organization. Although a strong relationship between satisfaction and commitment has been found, more recent research gives more support to the idea that commitment causes satisfaction. However, most studies treat satisfaction and commitment differently, especially in light of things like downsizing that are part of modern organizations.

The way librarians in research and academic institutions perceive motivation influences their level of satisfaction and commitment. While job satisfaction and commitment have been the topic of many studies, but the present studies is presents new information and a new perspective, describing job satisfaction, motivation and commitment of librarian

particularly in the context of Oyo state, Nigeria.

Literature Review

Along with perception, personality, attitudes, and learning, motivation is a very important part of understanding behaviour. Luthan (1998) asserts that motivation should not be thought of as the only explanation of behaviour, since it interacts with and acts in conjunction with other mediating processes and with the environment. Luthan stress that, like the other cognitive process, motivation cannot be seen. All that can be seen is behaviour, and this should not be equated with causes of behaviour. While recognizing the central role of motivation, Evans (1998) states that many recent theories of organizational behaviour find it important for the field to re-emphasize behaviour. Definitions of motivation abound. One thing these definitions have in common is the inclusion of words such as "desire", "want", "wishes","aim","goals", "needs", and" incentives". Luthan (1998) defines motivation as, "a process that starts with a physiological deficiency or need that activates a behaviour or a drive that is aimed at a goal incentive". Therefore, the key

to understanding the process of motivation lies in the meaning of, and relationship among, needs, drives, and incentives. Relative to this, Minner, Ebrahimi, and Watchel, (1995) state that in a system sense, motivation consists of these three interacting and interdependent elements, i.e., needs, drives, and incentives.

Managers and management researchers have long believe that organizational goals are unattainable without the enduring commitment of members of the organizations. Motivation is a human psychological characteristic that contributes to a person's degree of commitment (Stoke, 1999). It includes the factors that cause, channel, and sustain human behaviour in a particular committed direction. Stoke, in Adeyemo (1999) goes on to say that there are basic assumptions of motivation practices by managers which must be understood. First, that motivation is commonly assumed to be a good thing. One cannot feel very good about oneself if one is not motivated. Second, motivation is one of several factors that go into a person's performance (e.g., as a librarian). Factors such as ability, resources, and conditions under which one performs are also important. Third, managers and researchers alike assume that

motivation is in short supply and in need of periodic replenishment. Fourth, motivation is a tool with which managers can use in organizations. If managers know what drives the people working for them, they can tailor job assignments and rewards to what makes these people "tick." Motivation can also be conceived of as whatever it takes to encourage workers to perform by fulfilling or appealing to their needs. To Olajide (2000), "it is goal-directed, and therefore cannot be outside the goals of any organization whether public, private, or non-profit".

Strategies of Motivating Workers

Bernard in Stoner, et al. (1995) accords due recognition to the needs of workers saying that, "the ultimate test of organizational success is its ability to create values sufficient to compensate for the burdens imposed upon resources contributed." Bernard looks at workers, in particular librarians, in an organized endeavour, putting in time and efforts for personal, economic, and non-economic satisfaction.In this era of the information superhighway, employers of information professionals or librarians must be careful to meet their needs. Otherwise, they will discover

they are losing their talented and creative professionals to other organizations who are ready and willing to meet their needs and demands. The question here is what strategies can be used to motivate information professionals, particularly librarians? The following are strategies:

Salary, Wages and Conditions of Service: To use salaries as a motivator effectively, personnel managers must consider four major components of a salary structures. These are the job rate, which relates to the importance the organization attaches to each job; payment, which encourages workers or groups by rewarding them according to their performance; personal or special allowances, associated with factors such as scarcity of particular skills or certain categories of information professionals or librarians, or with long service; and fringe benefits such as holidays with pay, pensions, and so on. It is also important to ensure that the prevailing pay in other library or information establishments is taken into consideration in determining the pay structure of their organization.

Money: Akintoye (2000) asserts that money remains the most significant

motivational strategy. As far back as 1911, Frederick Taylor and his scientific management associate described money as the most important factor in motivating the industrial workers to achieve greater productivity. Taylor advocated the establishment of incentive wage systems as a means of stimulating workers to higher performance, commitment, and eventually satisfaction. Money possesses significant motivating power in as much as it symbolizes intangible goals like security, power, prestige, and a feeling of accomplishment and success. Katz, in Sinclair, et al. (2005) demonstrates the motivational power of money through the process of job choice. He explains that money has the power to attract, retain, and motivate individuals towards higher performance. For instance, if a librarian or information professional has another job offer which has identical job characteristics with his current job, but greater financial reward, that worker would in all probability be motivated to accept the new job offer. Banjoko (1996) states that many managers use money to reward or punish workers. This is done through the process of rewarding employees for higher productivity by instilling fear of loss of job (e.g., premature retirement due to poor

performance). The desire to be promoted and earn enhanced pay may also motivate employees.

Staff Training: No matter how automated an organization or a library may be, high productivity depends on the level of motivation and the effectiveness of the workforce. Staff training is an indispensable strategy for motivating workers. The library organization must have good training programme. This will give the librarian or information professional opportunities for self-improvement and development to meet the challenges and requirements of new equipment and new techniques of performing a task.

Information Availability and Communication: One way managers can stimulate motivation is to give relevant information on the consequences of their actions on others (Olajide, 2000). To this researcher it seems that there is no known organization in which people do not usually feel there should be improvement in the way departments communicate, cooperate, and collaborate with one another. Information availability brings to bear a powerful peer pressure, where two or more people running together will run faster than

when running alone or running without awareness of the pace of the other runners. By sharing information, subordinates compete with one another.

Studies on work motivation seem to confirm that it improves workers' performance and satisfaction. For example, Brown and Shepherd (1997) examine the characteristics of the work of teacher-librarians in four major categories: knowledge base, technical skills, values, and beliefs. He reports that they will succeed in meeting this challenge only if they are motivated by deeply-held values and beliefs regarding the development of a shared vision. Vinokur, Jayarantne, and Chess (1994) examine agency-influenced work and employment conditions, and assess their impact on social workers' job satisfaction. Some motivational issues were salary, fringe benefits, job security, physical surroundings, and safety. Certain environmental and motivational factors are predictors of job satisfaction. While Colvin (1998) shows that financial incentives will get people to do more of what they are doing, Silverthrone (1996) investigates motivation and managerial styles in the private and public sector. The results indicate that there is a little

difference between the motivational needs of public and private sector employees, managers, and non-managers.

Job Satisfaction

Locke and Lathan (1976) give a comprehensive definition of job satisfaction as pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job or job experience. Job satisfaction is a result of employee's perception of how well their job provides those things that are viewed as important. According to (Mitchell and Lasan, 1987), it is generally recognized in the organizational behaviour field that job satisfaction is the most important and frequently studied attitude. While Luthan (1998) posited that there are three important dimensions to job satisfaction:

Job satisfaction is an emotional response to a job situation. As such it cannot be seen, it can only be inferred.

Job satisfaction is often determined by how well outcome meet or exceed expectations. For instance, if organization participants feel that they are working much harder than others in the department but are receiving fewer rewards they will probably have a

negative attitudes towards the work, the boss and or coworkers. On the other hand, if they feel they are being treated very well and are being paid equitably, they are likely to have positive attitudes towards the job.

Job satisfaction represents several related attitudes which are most important characteristics of a job about which people have effective response. These to Luthans are: the work itself, pay, promotion opportunities, supervision and coworkers.

Job satisfaction of the librarian naturally depends on the economically, social and cultural conditions in a given country (Ebru, 1995). A librarian who can not get a sufficient wage will be faced with the problem of maintaining his or her family's life. This problem puts the librarian far from being satisfied. Especially the social facilities (transportation services, and consumer cooperatives -cash boxes) are sufficient because of the economic conditions. Low wages and lack of status and social security affect motivation. Job satisfaction cannot be talk of where there is absence of motivation. Job

satisfaction of the librarian who has an important place in the information society will affect the quality of the service he renders. In this respect, the question of how the material and moral element affect the job satisfaction of the librarians gains importance (Ebru, 1995).

Job satisfaction is so important in that its absence often leads to lethargy and reduced organizational commitment (Levinson, 1997, Moser, 1997). Lack of job satisfaction is a predictor of quitting a job (Alexander, Litchtenstein and Hellmann, 1997; Jamal, 1997). Sometimes workers may quit from public to the private sector and vice versa. At the other times the movement is from one profession to another that is considered a greener pasture. This later is common in countries grappling with dwindling economy and its concomitant such as poor conditions of service and late payment of salaries (Nwagwu, 1997). In such countries, people tend to migrate to better and consistently paying jobs (Fafunwa, 1971). Explaining its nature some researcher (e.g. Armentor, Forsyth, 1995, Flanegan, Johnson and Berret, 1996; Kadushin, and Kulys, 1995) tend to agree that job satisfaction is essentially controlled by factors described

in Adeyemo's (2000) perspectives as external to the worker. From this viewpoint satisfaction on a job might be motivated by the nature of the job, its pervasive social climate and extent to which workers peculiar needs are met. Working conditions that are similar to local and international standard (Osagbemi, 2000), and extent to which they resemble work conditions of other professions in the locality. Other inclusions are the availability of power and status, pay satisfaction, promotion opportunities, and task clarity (Bolarin, 1993; Gemenxhenandez, Max, Kosier, Paradiso and Robinson, 1997).

Other researchers (e.g. MacDonald, 1996; O'Toole, 1980) argue in favour of the control of job satisfaction by factors intrinsic to the workers. Their arguments are based on the idea that workers deliberately decide to find satisfaction in their jobs and perceive them as worthwhile.

Studies of job satisfaction and librarianship seem to consistently show there is a relationship between professional status and the job satisfaction. High levels of job satisfaction are observed in those professions that are of good standing in society. Age is one of the factors affecting job satisfaction. Different studies

conducted show that older workers are more satisfied (Davis, 1988:100). Kose (1985) found a meaningful relationship between the age and job satisfaction; Hamshari (1983), age and professional experience (Delia 1979; Hamshari 1986), educational level (Well-Maker, 1985; Hamshari, 1986); level of wages (Vaugan and Dunn in Adeyemo, 1997); sex (D'elia 1979; Lynch and Verdin, 1983).

St. Lifer (1994) reports the results of a survey of librarians' perceptions of their jobs. These include compensation and benefits, advancement opportunities, and technological challenges. The result showed that salaries and benefits are related to job satisfaction. Horenstein (1993) reported on a study that examined the job satisfaction of academic librarians as it related to faculty status. The finding indicated that librarians with academic rank were more satisfied than non-faculty groups. Predictors of satisfaction included perceptions of participation and salary. Nkereuwen (1990) reviews theories on job satisfaction and evaluates their relevance to the work environment of libraries.

Paramer and East (1993) discuss previous job satisfaction research among

Ohio academic library support staff using Paul E. Specter's job satisfaction survey. The 434 respondents indicated general satisfaction among females with less experience who worked in public services. Tregone (1993) tried to determine the levels of cooperation of media specialists and public librarians. A significant correlation was shown between the level of satisfaction and the type of library, although librarians in public libraries showed greater satisfaction.

Similarly, the result of some other studies have shown meaningful relations between job satisfaction and wages, management policy, working conditions, possibilities of promotion, gaining respect, the size of the organization and self development and achievement of the use of talents (Ergenc, 1982a; Sencer, 1982; Kose, 1985; Yincir, 1990). Philips (1994) studied the career attitudes of 109 master level librarians and the relationship between age, career satisfaction and career identity. His results indicate that over time librarians become more happy with their profession and more committed to their line of work.

Organizational Commitment

A wide variety of

definitions and measure of organizational commitment exist. Beckeri, Randal, and Riegel (1995) defined the term in a three dimensions:

1. a strong desire to remain a member of a particular organization;

2. a willingness to exert high levels of efforts on behalf of the organization;

3. a define belief in and acceptability of the values and goals of the organization.

To Northcraft and Neale (1996), commitment is an attitude reflecting an employee's loyalty to the organization, and an ongoing process through which organization members express their concern for the organization and its continued success and well being.

Organizational commitment is determined by a number of factor, including personal factors (e.g., age, tenure in the organization, disposition, internal or external control attributions); organizational factors (job design and the leadership style of one's supervisor); non-organizational factors (availability of alternatives). All these things affect subsequent commitment (Nortcraft and

Neale, 1996).

Mowday, Porter, and Steer (1982) see commitment as attachment and loyalty. These authors describe three components of commitment:

an identification with the goals and values of the organization;

a desire to belong to the organization; and

a willingness to display effort on behalf of the organization.

A similar definition of commitment emphasizes the importance of behaviour in creating it. Salancik (1977) conceives commitment as a state of being in which an individual becomes bound by his actions and it is these actions that sustain his activities and involvement. From this definition, it can be inferred that three features of behaviour are important in binding individuals to act: visibility of acts, the extent to which the outcomes are irrevocable; and the degree to which the person undertakes the action voluntarily. To Salancik therefore, commitment can be increased and harnessed to obtain support for the organizational ends and interests through such things as participation in decision-making.

Based on the multidimensional nature of organizational commitment, there is growing support for a three-component model proposed by Meyer and Allen (1991). All three components have implications for the continuing participation of the individual in the organization. The three components are:

Affective Commitment: Psychological attachment to organization.

Continuance Commitment: Costs associated with leaving the organization.

Normative Commitment: Perceived obligation to remain with the organization.

Guest (1991) concludes that high organizational commitment is associated with lower turnover and absence, but there is no clear link to performance. It is probably wise not to expect too much from commitment as a means of making a direct and immediate impact on performance. It is not the same as motivation. Commitment is a broader concept and tends to withstand transitory aspects of an employee's job. It is possible to be dissatisfied with a particular feature of a job while retaining a reasonably high level of commitment to the organization as a whole.

When creating a commitment strategy, Amstrong, 1999 asserts that "it is difficult to deny that it is desirable for management to have defined strategic goals and values. And it is equally desirable from management point of view for employees to behave in a way that support those strategies and values." Creating commitment includes communication, education, training programmes, and initiatives to increase involvement and ownership and the development of performance and reward management systems.

Studies on commitment have provided strong evidence that affective and normative commitment are positively related and continuance commitment is negatively connected with organizational outcomes such as performance and citizenship behaviour (Hackett, Bycio, and Handsdoff, 1994; Shore and Wayne, 1993). Based on this finding, it is important for library employers to identify librarians' commitment pattern and map out strategies for enhancing those that are relevant to organizational goals. Researchers (e.g. Mayer and Allen, 1997) have found that age was positively correlated with affective and normative commitment, but not to continuance commitment.

Meyer and Allen (1991), in an exploratory and confirmatory analysis of factors that can significantly predict job satisfaction and organizational commitment among blue collar workers, reported that promotion, satisfaction, job characteristics, extrinsic and intrinsic exchange, as well as extrinsic and intrinsic rewards, were related to commitment.

Dornstein and Matalon (1998) describe eight variables that are relevant to organizational commitment. These are interesting work, coworker's attitudes towards the organization, organizational dependency, age, education, employment alternatives, attitude of family and friends. The variables explain 65% of the variance in organizational commitment. Glisson and Derrick in Adeyemo and Aremu (1999) in their study of 319 human service organization workers analyzed the effects of multiple predictors (job, organization, and worker characteristics) on satisfaction and commitment. They showed that skill variety and role ambiguity are best predictors of satisfaction, while leadership and the organization's age are the best predictor of commitment. Ellemer, Gilder, and Heuvel (1998) found that background variables as gender, level of education, or team size were not clearly

related to three forms of commitment. Adeyemo (2000) reported a positive correlation between education and organizational commitment. Irving, Coleman, and Cooper (1997) found that age was not related to organizational commitment. Meyer and Allen (1984) earlier argued that age might be correlated with commitment by postulating that it serves as proxy for seniority that is associated with opportunity to better one's position in the work. On the issue of gender, Mathieu and Zajac (1990) reported its relationship to organizational commitment. Similarly, it was found by Irving, et, al. (1997) that the men in their sample had higher level of commitment than the women.

The following research questions were developed to guide the study.

1. What is the relationship between work motivation, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment of the library personnel?

2. What is the difference in the work motivation of professional and non-professional library personnel?

3. What is the difference in the job satisfaction of the library personnel in

academic and research libraries?

4. Will there be difference in the commitment of library personnel based on their years of experience?

1 . L i t e r a t u r e R e v i e w1.1Overview of the themeIn this literature review, I am going to review motivation in organizationbehavior. Motivation is one of the most important parts of organizationbehavior when we do some research of human resource management.Because motivation is the fuel that drives a person to fulfill their goals, wants,and needs. The key to leadership success is motivating others to do their best. Motivation plays a very important role in workplace for both manager and employee to achieve their personal goal and company’s target.1.2Nature of MotivationMotivation is the set of forces that cause people to behave in certain way.From the manger’s viewpoint, the objective is to motivate people to behavein ways that are in the organization’s best interest. (Moorhead & Griffin 1995,p.78) From another way, motivation is the term used to describe thoseprocesses, both instinctive and rational, by which people seek to satisfy thebasic drives, perceived needs and personal goals, which trigger humanbehavior. (Cole 1995, p.119) And other writers defined the study of motivation is concerned with why people behave in a certain way, and withwhat determines the direction and persistence of their actions. Levels of workperformance are determined not only by the ability of staff but also by thestrength of their motivation. If staffs are to perform to the best of their abilities, attention must also be given to the nature of work motivation and jobsatisfaction. (Mullins 2001, p.223) Motivation represents the forces acting onor within a person that cause the person to behave in a specific, goal-directed manager. (Hellriegel & Slocum 1995, p.170)1.3Historical view of motivationThe earliest views on human motivation were dominated by the concept of hedonism: the idea that people seek pleasure and comfort and try to avoidpain and discomfort. William James argued that instinctive behavior andunconscious motivation are also important in human behavior. Historicalviews on motivation, even though not always accurate, are of interest for several reasons. For one thing, they provide a foundation for contemporarythinking about motivation. For another, because they generally were based oncommon sense and intuition, an appreciation of their strength andweaknesses can help managers gain useful insights into employee motivationin the workplace. (Moorhead & Griffin 1995, p.80) Late in the 19thcenturyFrederick Taylor developed one of the earliest conceptions of management

And the management role which included a set of assumptions aboutmotivation. Taylor drew upon the wider authority and methodology of scienceto offer a version of what the

manager should do. The division of labor between worker and manager was seen in terms of a separation of theplanning function from that of execution. It is attempt to relate reward to theefficiency of effort and output that has led many to insist that Taylor placed aprimary motivational value upon money. (Knights & Willmott 2007, p.43)1.4Theories of Motivation1.4.1Content Theories of MotivationContent theories of motivation try to explain the factors within a person thatenergize, direct, and stop behavior, that is, the specific factors that motivatepeople. For example, an attractive salary, good working conditions, andfriendly co-worker are important to most people. (Hellriegel & Slocum 1995,p.174)The most well-known content theory of motivation is the hierarchy of humanneeds developed by psychologist Abraham Maslow in the 1940s.He put forward that people‘s needs are arranged in an hierarchy in whichbasic needs generally have to be satisfied before higher needs come intoplay. The basic needs include physiological and safety needs, followed bysocial and affiliation needs. The higher needs include esteem needs andself–actualization to which were later added ' curiosity' and the need tounderstand. (Cole 1995, p.125)Another well-known content theory of motivation is Clay Alderfer’s ERGtheory of motivation, he provides a more flexible approach than Maslow’s.Alderfer’s ERG theory holds that the individual has three sets of basic needs:existence, relatedness, and growth. The two theories differ in their view of how people may satisfy the different sets of needs. Maslow states thatunfilled needs are motivators and that the next higher level need is notactivated until the preceding lower level need is satisfied. In contrast, ERGtheory suggests that, in addition to this fulfillment-progression process, afrustration-regression process is at work. That is, if a person is continuallyfrustrated in attempts to satisfy growth needs, relatedness needs willreemerge as a significant motivating force. (Hellriegel & Slocum 1995, p.177)In addition, McClelland has developed a content theory of motivation which isrooted in culture. The need for achievement underlies the higher levels of Maslow’s hierarchy. That is achievement theory of motivation whichemphasized on the importance of achievement. The work of McClelland isbased on the concept of four main sets of needs and socially developedmotives: the need for affiliation, achievement, power, avoidance. Peoplepossess all four needs but the relative intensity of these motives variesamong individuals and different occupations. Although all four needs areimportant, McClelland’s research had concentrated mainly on how managerscan develop the need for achievement in subordinate staff. The extent of achievement motivation varies among individuals. It is dependent uponcultural influences, occupational experiences and the type of organization inwhich they work. (Mullins 2001, p.235)McGregor posed the Theory X about content theory of motivation. Theory Xproposition are as follows (McGregor 1989, p.315):1.Management is responsible for organizing the elements of productiveenterprise-money, materials, equipment, people - in the interest of economic end.2.With respect to people, this is a process of directing their efforts,motivating them, controlling their actions, modifying their behavior to fitthe needs of the organization.3.Without this active intervention by management, people would bepassive-even resistant- to organizational needs. They must therefore bepersuaded, rewarded, punished, controlled- their activities must

bedirected.Frederick Herzberg’s motivator – Hygiene Theory is one of the mostcontroversial theories of motivation. This theory includes two different sets of factors. Motivator factors are intrinsic factors, which includes the work itself,recognition, advancement, and responsibility. These factors are associatedwith an individual’s positive feeling about the job and are related to thecontent of the job itself. Hygiene factors are extrinsic factors, which includescompany policy and administration, technical supervision, salary, workingconditions, and interpersonal relations. These factors are associated with anindividual’s negative feeling about the job and are related to the context or environment in which the job is performed. (Herzberg & Mausner 1959, p.113-114)1.4.2Process Theories of MotivationProcess theories try to describe and analyze how personal factors (internalto the person) interact to produce certain kinds of behavior. (Hellriegel &Slocum 1995, p.187) Process theories attempt to identify relationshipsamong the dynamic variables which make up motivation. They provide afurther contribution to our understanding of behavior and performance atwork, and the complex nature of motivation. Process theories are concernedwith how behavior is initiated, directed and sustained. (Mullins 2001, p.237)The four best known process theories of motivation are expectancy, equity,goal setting, participation and empowerment.The basic expectancy theory model emerged from the work of EdwardTolman and Kurt Lewin. Vitor Vroom, however, is generally credited with firstapplying the theory to the motivation of individuals in the workplace. Thebasic premise of expectancy theory is that motivation depends on how muchwe want something and how likely we think we are to get it. (Moorhead &Griffin 1995, p.108)One of the variables identified in the Porter and Lawler expectancy model isperceived equitable rewards. This leads to consideration of another processtheory of motivation – equity theory –which adds further to our understandingof the behavior of people at work. Equity theory focuses on people’s feelingof how fairly they have been treated in comparison with the treatmentreceived by others. Applied to the work situation, equity theory is usuallyassociated with the work of Adams. People expect certain outcomes inexchange for certain contributions or inputs. Equity theory is based on thisconcept of exchange theory. For example, a person may expect promotionas an outcome (and in exchange for) a high level of contribution in helping toachieve an important organizational objective (input). (Mullins 2001, p.242)In addition, Locke proposed the idea of goal theory that working towardsgoals was in itself a motivator. The thinking behind goal theory is thatmotivation is driven primarily by the goals or objectives that individuals set for themselves. Unlike in expectancy theory, where a satisfactory outcome is theprime motivator, goal theory suggests that it is the goal itself that providesthe driving force. And Locke’s research indicated that performance improvedwhen individuals set specific rather than vague goals for themselves. Whenthese specific goals were demanding ones, performance was even better.(Cole 1995, p.132)Participative management and empowerment also represent importantprocess based perspectives on employee motivation. Participation is theprocess of giving employees a voice in making decisions about their ownwork. Empowerment is the processes of enabling workers to set their ownwork goals, make decisions, and solve problems within their sphere of responsibility and authority. Empowerment is a somewhat broader conceptthat promotes participation in a wide

variety of areas, including but not limitedto work itself, work context, and work environment. (Moorhead & Griffin 1995,p.117)2 . C o n c l u s i o nThrough the reviewing about motivation of some literatures in organizationstream from above aspects, we can find most scholars’ research aboutmotivation emphasized on the content theories and process theories. Byresearching these two theories, we can know what specific factors thatmotivate employee are and how to motivate employee in organization. Reference List1.Moorhead, G. & Griffin, R.W. 1995,Organization Behavior: Managing People and Organization, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston.2.Cole, G.A. 1995,Organization Behavior , DP Publications Ltd, London.3.Mullins, L.J. 2001,Hospitality Management and Organizational  Behavior ,Pearson Education Limited, London.4.Hellriegel, D. & Slocum, J.W. 1995,Organization Behavior , WestPublishing Company, New York.5.Knights, D. & Willmott, H. 2007,Introducing Organizational Behavior Management , Thomson Learning, London.6.Herzberg, F. & Mausner, B. 1992,The Motivation to Work , TransactionPublishers, New Brunswick.7.Vroom, V.H. 1995,Work and Motivation, Jossey-Bass Publishers, SanFrancisco.8.McGregor, D. 1989,Reading in Managerial Psychology , McGraw-Hill,New York.9.Pinder, C. 1984,Work Motivation

, Scott, Glenview.10.Hilgard, E.R. 1967,Introduction to Psychology , Harcourt, New York.11.Maslow, A.H. 1954, A Theory of Human Motivation, Harper&Row, NewYork.12.McClelland, D.C. 1988,Human Motivation, Cambridge University Press,London.13.Adams, J.S. 1979,Motivation and Work Behavior , McGraw-Hill, NewYork.

2.3 Significance of MotivationMotivation involves getting the members of the group to pull weight effectively, to givethe i r   l oya l t y t o   t he g roup , t o   c a r ry  ou t p rope r ly   t he pu rpose  o f   t he o rgan i za t i on .  The following results may be expected if the employees are properly motivated.1 . T h e   w o r k f o r c e   w i l l   b e   b e t t e r   s a t i s f i e d   i f   t h e  m a n a g e m e n t   p r o v i d e s   t h e m   w i t h opportunities to fulfill their physiological and psychological needs. The workers willcooperate voluntarily with the management and will contribute their maximum towards the goals of enterprise.2 . W o r k e r s w i l l t e n d t o b e a s e f f i c i e n t a s p o s s i b l e b y i m p r o v i n g u p o n t h e i r s k i l l s a n d knowledge so that they are able to contribute to the progress of the organization. This will also result in increased productivity.3.The rates of labor’s turnover and absenteeism among the workers will be low.T h e r e w i l l b e g o o d h u m a n r e l a t i o n s i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a s f r i c t i o n a m o n g t h e w o r k e r s themselves and between the workers and the management will decrease.5.The number of complaints and grievances will come down. Accident wil l also be low.6.There will be increase in the quantity and quality of products. Wastage and scrap will beless. Better quality of products will also increase the public image of the business.

Motivation plays a critical role in achieving goals and business objectives and is equally as important for companies that work in a team-based environment or in a workplace comprised of workers who work independently. Making sure each employee's workplace goals and values are aligned with the organization's mission and vision is important for creating and maintaining a high level of motivation. That can lead to higher productivity, improved work quality and financial gain across all departments.

Significance

Motivation has become increasingly important for organizations and companies of all sizes that want to reach their organizational objectives in a competitive marketplace. Top performers of an organization consistently provide high-quality work, maintain a high level of productivity and overcome obstacles or challenges. Helping all employees maintain a high level of motivation can help keep employees committed to working hard and contributing as much value as possible to the organization.

Tactics

You can use a variety of strategies to improve motivation. Managers who serve as leaders within the organization can help convey the right messages to engage employees and help them grow within their positions. Motivation can be increased with incentives, feedback, rewards programs and ensuring that the workplace meets basic needs and requirements for each employee. Common types of motivational tactics include: events that raise employee morale; training and education to help employees learn new skills and grow within their positions; recognition programs to highlight hard work and reinforcing positive messages during company or team meetings.

Benefits of Motivation

Motivational strategies can help improve employee performance, reduce the chances of low employee morale, encourage teamwork and instill a positive attitude during challenging times. Employees with a high level of motivation typically work harder and can overcome common workplace challenges with ease; this helps the organization reach its objectives and improve operations overall.

Warning Signs

Any company or organization that notices a significant decline in productivity, high employee turnover or that cannot reach its goals successfully may need to consider the role of motivation among its employees. Low motivation can trigger a variety of detrimental events that affect the organization in the short term and in the long term. Unmotivated staff members are at risk of resigning, delivering poor-quality work and even making it difficult for other employees to do their jobs efficiently.

Prevention

Reducing the risk of low motivation among employees typically requires a strategic plan and a combination of different activities and tactics that help improve employee morale. Companies that invest time and resources toward improving their employees' well-being and workplace experience can look forward to a high return on their investment as employees become more productive, maintain a positive attitude, commit to their roles and duties and maintain a strong work ethic.

A simple definition of motivation is the ability to change behavior. It is a drive that compels one to act

because human behavior is directed toward some goal. Motivation is intrinsic (internal); it comes

from within based on personal interests, desires, and need for fulfillment. However, extrinsic

(external) factors such as rewards, praise, and promotions also influence motivation. As defined by

Daft (1997), motivation refers to "the forces either within or external to a person that arouse

enthusiasm and persistence to pursue a certain course of action" (p. 526).

People who are committed to achieving organizational objectives generally outperform those who

are not committed. Those who are intrinsically rewarded by accomplishments in the workplace are

satisfied with their jobs and are individuals with high self-esteem. Therefore, an important part of

management is to help make work more satisfying and rewarding for employees and to keep

employee motivation consistent with organizational objectives. With the diversity of contemporary

workplaces, this is a complex task. Many factors, including the influences of different cultures, affect

what people value and what is rewarding to them.

From a manager's perspective, it is important to understand what prompts people, what influences

them, and why they persist in particular actions. Quick (1985) presented these four underlying

principles that are important to understanding motivation:

1. People have reasons for everything they do.

2. Whatever people choose as a goal is something they believe is good for them.

3. The goal people choose must be seen as attainable.

4. The conditions under which the work is done can affect its value to the employee and his or her

perceptions of attainability or success.

When management was first studied in a scientific way at the turn of the twentieth century, Frederick

Winslow Taylor worked to improve productivity in labor situations so important in those days of the

developing Industrial Revolution. Taylor developed efficiency measures and incentive systems.

When workers were paid more for meeting a standard higher than their normal production,

productivity increased dramatically. Therefore, workers seemed to be economically motivated. At

this time in history, social issues involved in human behavior were not yet considered. Amore

humanistic approach soon developed that has been influencing management ever since.

During the late 1920s and early 1930s, Elton Mayo and other researchers from Harvard University

conducted studies at a Western Electric plant in Hawthorne, Illinois, to measure productivity. They

studied the effects of fatigue, layout, heating, and lighting on productivity. As might be expected

when studying lighting, employee productivity levels increased as the illumination level was

increased; however, the same effect was noted when the illumination level was decreased. The

researchers concluded that the attention paid to the employees was more of a contributing factor to

their productivity level than the environmental conditions. The fact that paying attention to workers

could improve their behavior was called the Hawthorne effect. As a result of this research, it was

evident that employees should be treated in a humane way. These findings started the human

relations movement—a change in management thinking and practice that viewed increased worker

productivity as grounded in satisfaction of employees' basic needs. [Many years later, it was

discovered that the workers in the Hawthorne experimental group had received an increase in

income; therefore, money was probably a motivating factor, although it was not recognized as such

at the time. (Daft, 1997)].

Motivation theories have continued to evolve and have their roots in behavioral psychology. They

provide a way to examine and understand human behavior in a variety of situations. A simple model

of motivation is shown in Figure 1.

Ongoing changes in the workplace require that managers give continuous attention to those factors

that influence worker behavior and align them with organizational goals. No one theory is

appropriate for all people and for all situations. Each individual has his or her own values and

Figure 1

differing abilities. In business settings, managers apply motivation theories to influence employees,

improve morale, and implement incentive and compensation plans.

The following discussion of motivation theories is grouped according to need, process, and

reinforcement theories.

NEED THEORIES

Need theories are based on some of the earliest research in the field of human relations. The

premise behind need theories is that if managers can understand the needs that motivate people,

then reward systems can be implemented that fulfill those needs and reinforce the appropriate

behavior.

Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow, a professor at Brandeis University and a practicing

psychologist, developed the hierarchy of needs theory. He identified a set of needs that he prioritized

into a hierarchy based on two conclusions (Daft, 1997; McCoy, 1992; Quick, 1985):

1. Human needs are either of an attraction/desire nature or of an avoidance nature.

2. Because humans are "wanting" beings, when one desire is satisfied, another desire will take its

place.

The five levels of needs are the following (see Table 1):

Table 1

Physiological: These are basic physical comfort or bodily needs: food, sex, drink, and sleep. In

the workplace, these needs translate into a safe, ergonomically designed work environment

with an appropriate base salary compensation.

Security/safety: People want to feel safe, secure, and free from fear. They need stability,

structure, and order. In the workplace, job security and fringe benefits, along with an

environment free of violence, fills these needs.

Belongingness and love: This is a need for friends, family, and intimacy—for social acceptance

and affection from one's peers. In the workplace, this need is satisfied by participation in work

groups with good relationships among co-workers and between workers and managers.

Esteem: People want the esteem of others and they want to be regarded as useful, competent,

and important. People also desire self-esteem and need a good self image. In the workplace,

increased responsibility, high status, and recognition for contributions satisfy these needs.

Self-actualization: This highest motivation level involves people striving to actualize their full

potential, to become more of what they are capable of being. They seek to attain self-fulfillment.

In the workplace, people satisfy this need by being creative, receiving training, or accepting

challenging assignments.

Focusing on the needs of retraining for growth and challenge as well as rewards and recognition is

important to the quality of work life. Managers can affect the physical, social, and psychological

environment in the workplace, and they have a responsibility to help employees fulfill their needs.

ERG Theory In his work, Clayton Alderfer expanded on Maslow's hierarchical theory. He proposed

three need categories and suggested that movement between the need levels is not necessarily

straightforward. Failure to meet a higher-order need could cause an individual to regress to a lower-

order need. These ERG theorycategories are:

Existence needs: Needs for physical well-being

Relatedness needs: Needs for satisfactory relationships with others

Growth needs: The development of human potential and the desire for personal growth and

increased competence (Daft, 1997)

Motivation-Hygiene Theory Frederick Herzberg, a professor of psychology at Case Western

Reserve University, studied the attitudes of workers toward their jobs. Herzberg proposed that an

individual will be moved to action based on the desire to avoid deprivation. However, this motivation

does not provide positive satisfaction because it does not provide a sense of growth. Herzberg's

research found that positive job attitudes were associated with a feeling of psychological growth. He

thought that people work for two reasons: for financial reasons to avoid physical deprivation, and for

achievement because of the happiness and meaning it provides. Herzberg also identified the

concept of job enrichment, whereby the responsibilities of a job are changed to provide greater

growth and challenge (McCoy, 1992; Quick, 1985 p. 10-12)] 1985. His motivation-hygiene theory

includes two types of factors:

1. Motivation is based on the positive satisfaction that psychological growth provides. The

presence of factors such as responsibility, achievement, recognition, and possibility for growth

or advancement will motivate and satisfy people. The absence of these factors will not

necessarily demotivate or cause dissatisfaction.

2. Hygiene is based on an individual's desire to avoid deprivation and the resulting physical and

emotional discomfort. Hygiene factors include willingness to supervise; positive working

conditions; interpersonal relations with peers, subordinates, and superiors; status; job security;

and salary. These factors do not motivate, nor will their presence cause job satisfaction. Their

absense, however, will cause dissatisfaction.

Although salary is considered a hygiene factor, it plays an indirect part in motivation as a measure of

growth and advancement or as a symbol of recognition of achievement.

Theory X and Theory Y Douglas McGregor, a professor at the Massachusetts Institute of

Technology and a social psychologist, was greatly influenced by the work of Maslow. McGregor

recognized that people have needs and that those needs are satisfied at work. He described two

sets of assumptions about people that he labeled Theory X and Theory Y (Bruce and Pepitone,

1999; Quick, 1985):

The assumptions of Theory X are that most people will avoid work because they don't like it and

must be threatened or persuaded to put forth adequate effort. People have little ambition and

don't want responsibility. They want to be directed and are most interested in job security.

The assumptions of Theory Y are that work is very natural to people and that most people are

self-directed to achieve objectives to which they are committed. People are ambitious and

creative. They desire responsibility and derive a sense of satisfaction from the work itself.

These assumptions were, at one time, applied to management styles, with autocratic managers

labeled as adhering to Theory X and democratic managers to Theory Y. Unfortunately, this fostered

a tendency to see people as members of a group rather than as individuals. The important

contribution of McGregor's theory was to recognize these two perspectives and to recognize that

people can achieve personal objectives through helping organizations achieve their objectives. Their

work can be a motivator.

Acquired Needs Theory David McClelland developed the acquired needs theory because he felt

that different needs are acquired throughout an individual's lifetime. He proposed three needs:

1. Need for achievement: The desire to accomplish something difficult, attain a high standard of

success, master complex tasks, and surpass others

2. Need for affiliation: The desire to form close personal relationships, avoid conflict, and establish

warm friendships

3. Need for power: The desire to influence or control others, be responsible for others, and have

authority over others.

McClelland found through his research that early life experiences determine whether people acquire

these needs. The need to achieve as an adult is influenced by the reinforcement of be havior

received as a child when a child is encour aged to do things independently. If a child is reinforced for

warm, human relationships, then the need for affiliation as an adult develops. If a child gains

satisfaction from controlling others, then the need for power will be evident as an adult (Daft, 1997).

PROCESS THEORIES

Process theories help to explain how individuals select particular behaviors and how individuals

determine if these behaviors meet their needs. Because these theories involve rational selection,

concepts of cognition are employed. Cognition, according to Petri (1996), "is generally used to

describe those intellectual or perceptual processes occurring within us when we analyze and

interpret both the world around us and our own thoughts and actions (p. 236).

Expectancy Theory Victor Vroom developed the expectancy theory, which suggests that

individuals' expectations about their ability to accomplish something will affect their success in

accomplishing it. Therefore, this theory is based on cognition—on thought processes that individuals

use.

The expectancy theory is based on an individual's effort and performance, as well as the desirability

of outcomes associated with high performance. The value of or preference for a particular outcome

is called valence. To determine valence, people will ask themselves whether or not they can

accomplish a goal, how important is the goal to them (in the immediate as well as the long term),

and what course of action will provide the greatest reward. An individual's expectation of actually

achieving the outcome is crucial to success, and many factors influence this (Daft, 1997; Quick,

1985).

The expectancy theory can be applied through incentive systems that identify desired outcomes and

give all workers the same opportunities to achieve rewards, such as stock ownership or other

recognition for achievement.

Equity Theory The equity theory focuses on individuals' perceptions of how fairly they are treated in

comparison to others. It was developed by J. Stacy Adams, who found that equity exists when

people consider their compensation equal to the compensation of others who perform similar work.

People judge equity by comparing inputs (such as education, experience, effort, and ability) to

outputs (such as pay, recognition, benefits, and promotion).

When the ratio is out of balance, inequity occurs. And inequitable pay can create an impossible

situation when implementing salary and incentive systems. According to Daft (1997), Individuals will

work to reduce perceived inequity by doing the following:

Change inputs: Examples include increasing or reducing effort.

Change outcomes: Examples include requesting a salary increase or improved working

conditions.

Distort perceptions: This occurs when individuals cannot change their inputs or outcomes; one

example is artificially increasing the importance of awards.

Leave the job: Individuals might do this rather than experience what they perceive to be

continued inequity.

When administering compensation and incentive programs, managers must be careful to assure that

the rewards are equitable; if programs are not perceived as equitable, then they will not contribute to

employee motivation.

REINFORCEMENT THEORIES

Theories of reinforcement are based not on need but on the relationship between behavior and its

consequences. In the workplace, these theories can be applied to change or modify on-the-job

behavior through rewards and punishments.

B. F. Skinner, a professor at Harvard, was a highly controversial behavioral psychologist known for

his work in operant conditioning and behavior modification. His reinforcement theories take into

consideration both motivation and the environment, focusing on stimulus and response relationships.

Through his research, Skinner noted that a stimulus will initiate behavior; thus, the stimulus is an

antecedent to behavior. The behavior will generate a result; therefore, results are consequences of

behavior.

According to McCoy (1992), "The quality of the results will be directly related to the quality and

timeliness of the antecedent. The more specific the antecedent is and the closer in time it is to the

behavior, the greater will be its effect on the behavior.…The consequences provide feedback to the

individual" (p. 34).

If the results are considered positive, then the behavior is positively reinforced. When the behavior is

positively reinforced, the individual is more likely to repeat the behavior. People tend to have an

intrinsic (internal) need for positive reinforcement. And when a behavior is ignored, the behavior

tends to go away or become extinct. The four types of reinforcement are the following (Daft, 1997):

Positive reinforcement: The application of a pleasant and rewarding consequence following a

desired behavior, such as giving praise.

Negative reinforcement: The removal of an unpleasant consequence following a desired

behavior, such as a manager no longer reminding a worker about a weekly deadline when the

worker meets the deadline. This reinforcement is also called avoidance.

Punishment: The application of an unpleasant outcome when an undesirable behavior occurs to

reduce the likelihood of that behavior happening again. This form of reinforcement does not

indicate a correct behavior, so its use in business is not usually appropriate.

Extinction: The withdrawal of a positive reward. If the behavior is no longer positively reinforced,

then it is less likely to occur in the future and it will gradually disappear.

Continuous reinforcement can be effective in the early stages of behavior modification, but partial

reinforcement is more commonly used. Reinforcement is most powerful when it is administered

immediately.

The appropriateness of a reward depends on the situation. But for managers to apply rewards

appropriate for work performance, it is necessary to understand what constitutes a reward. And no

single reward will be perceived as positive by all employees. Rewards, however, are important in

behavior-based incentive plans because they reward employee behavior that is desirable for the

company. According to McCoy (1992), both incentives and recognition provide a reward; however,

incentives drive performance while recognition is an after-the-fact display of appreciation for a

contribution.

Financial rewards are certainly important in compensation programs. Social recognition provides

employees with a sense of self-worth by acknowledging the contributions they have made. This

recognition could be given in the form of a ceremony that helps to validate and is an important

compensation—and one that probably costs a company very little in relationship to the benefit to

employees (McCoy, 1992).

SUMMARY

The application of motivation theories can help managers to create work situations and employee

recognition systems that help workers fulfill their needs. As Maslow wrote, "man has a higher

nature…and…this higher nature includes the needs for meaningful work, for responsibility, for

creativeness, for being fair and just, for doing what is worthwhile and for preferring to do it well" (pp.

244-245).

Some aspects of all jobs may be routine or mundane, but other aspects can be developed to

promote job satisfaction and increased productivity. The sharing of responsibility can provide

opportunities for growth, renewal, and achievement. This empowerment of workers can heighten

employee motivation and improve morale. Both long-term and short-term incentive programs are

needed for the employee commitment and effectiveness necessary to achieve organizational

objectives. And in all instances, workers must be treated fairly and equitably.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bruce, Anne, and Pepitone, James S. (1999) Motivating Employees. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Daft, Richard L. (1997). Management, 4th ed. Orlando, Fl.: Harcourt Brace.

Maslow, Abraham H. (1998). Toward a Psychology of Being, 3d ed. New York: Wiley.

McCoy, Thomas J. (1992). Compensation and Motivation: Maximizing Employee Performance with

Behavior-Based Incentive Plans. New York: AMACOM, a division of American Management

Association.

Petri, Herbert L. (1996). Motivation: Theory, Research, and Applications, 4th ed. Pacific Grove, CA:

Brooks/Cole.

Quick, Thomas L. (1985). The Manager's Motivation Desk Book. New York: Wiley.

Applications of motivation

[edit]Organizational reward systems

Organizational reward systems have a significant impact on employees' level of motivation. Rewards can

be either tangible or intangible. Various forms of pay, such as salary, commissions, bonuses, employee

ownership programs and various types of profit or gain sharing programs, are all important tangible

rewards. While fringe benefits have a positive impact on attraction and retention, their direct impact on

motivation and performance is not well-defined.[23]

Salaries play a crucial role in the tangible reward system. They are an important factor in attracting new

talent to an organization as well as retaining talent. Compensating employees well is one way for an

organization to reinforce an employee's value to the organization. If an organization is known for paying

their employees top dollar, then they may develop a positive reputation in the job market as a result.

Through incentive compensation structures, employees can be guided to focus their attention and efforts

on certain organizational goals. The goals that are reinforced through incentive pay should be carefully

considered to make sure they are in alignment with the organizational objectives. If there are multiple

rewards programs, it is important to consider if there might be any conflicting goals. For example,

individual and team-based rewards can sometime work at cross-purposes.

Important forms of intangible rewards include praise, recognition and rewards. Intangible rewards are

ones from which an employee does not derive any material gain.[23] Such rewards have the greatest

impact when they soon follow the desired behavior and are closely tied to the performance. If an

organization wants to use praise or other intangible rewards effectively, praise should be offered for a

high level of performance and for things that they employee has control over. Some studies have shown

that praise can be as effective as tangible rewards.[23]

Other forms of intangible performance include status symbols, such as a corner office, and increased

autonomy and freedom. Increased autonomy demonstrates trust in an employee, may decrease stress

and improve job satisfaction. Since it may be hard for an employee to achieve a similar level of trust in a

new organization, increased autonomy may also help improve retention.[23]

[edit]Motivation through design of work

Reward-based systems are certainly the more common practice for attempting to influence motivation

within an organization, but some employers strive to design the work itself to be more conducive. There

are multiple ways an organization can leverage job design principles to increase motivation. Three of the

predominant approaches will be discussed here: the Humanistic Approach, the Job Characteristics

Approach, and the Interdisciplinary Approach.[23]

Humanistic Approach

The Humanistic Approach to job design was a reaction to "worker dissatisfaction over Scientific

Management" and focused on providing employees with more input and an opportunity to maximize their

personal achievement as referenced by Jex and Britt. Jobs should also provide intellectual stimulation,

opportunities for creativity, and greater discretion over work-related activities. Two approaches used in

the Humanistic Approach to job design are job rotation and job enrichment. Job rotation allows employees

to switch to different jobs which allows them to learn new skills and provides them with greater variety.

According to Jex and Britt, this would be most effective for simple jobs that can become mundane and

boring over time. Job enrichment is focused on leveraging those aspects of jobs that are labeled

motivators, such as control, intellectual challenge, and creativity. The most common form of job

enrichment is vertical loading where additional tasks or discretion enhances the initial job design. While

there is some evidence to support that job enrichment improves motivation, it is important to note that it is

not effective for all people. Some employees are not more motivated by enriched jobs.[23]

Job Characteristics Approach

The Job Characteristics Approach to job design is based on how core dimensions affect motivation.

These dimensions include autonomy, variety, significance, feedback, and identity. The goal of JCT job

design is to utilize specific interventions in an effort to enhance these core dimensions.

1. Vertical Loading – Like the tactic used in the Humanistic Job Enrichment approach, this

intervention is designed to enhance autonomy, task identity, task significance, and skill variety by

increasing the number of tasks and providing greater levels of control over how those tasks are

completed.

2. Task Combination – By combining tasks into larger units of work and responsibility, task identity

may be improved.

3. Natural Work Units – A form of task combination that represents a logical body of work and

responsibility that may enhance both task significance and task identity.

4. Establishing Client Relationships – Designs interactions between employees and customers, both

internal and external, to enhance task identity, feedback, and task significance. This is

accomplished by improving the visibility of beneficial effects on customers.

5. Feedback – By designing open feedback channels, this intervention attempts to increase the

amount and value of feedback received.

While the JCT approach to job design has a significant impact on job satisfaction, the effects on

performance are more mixed. Much of the success of implementation of JCT practices is dependent on

the organization carefully planning interventions and changes to ensure impact throughout the

organization is anticipated. Many companies may have difficulty implementing JCT changes throughout

the organization due to its high cost and complexity.[23]

Interdisciplinary Approach

One of the most recent approaches to work design, the Interdisciplinary Approach is based on the use of

careful assessment of current job design, followed by a cost/benefit analysis, and finally changes based

on the area in which a job is lacking. The assessment is conducted using the Multi-method Job Design

Questionnaire, which is used to determine if the job is deficient in the areas of motivational, mechanistic,

biological, or perceptual motor support. Motivational improvements are aligned with the Job

Characteristics theory dimensions. Mechanistic improvements are focused on improving the efficiency of

the job design. Biological improvements focus on improvements to ergonomics, health conditions, and

employee comfort. Finally, perceptual motor improvements focus on the nature and presentation of the

information an employee must work with. If improvements are identified using the questionnaire, the

company then evaluates the cost of making the improvements and determines if the potential gains in

motivation and performance justify those costs. Because of the analysis and cost/benefit components of

the Interdisciplinary Approach, it is often less costly for organizations and implementations can be more

effective. Only changes deemed to be appropriate investments are made, thus improving motivation,

productivity, and job satisfaction while controlling costs.[23]

[edit]Other factors affecting motivation

[edit]Creativity

On the cutting edge of research pertaining to motivation in the workplace is the integration of motivation

and creativity. Essentially, according to Ambrose and Kulik,[26] the same variables that predict intrinsic

motivation are associated with creativity. This is a helpful conclusion in that organizations can measure

and influence both creativity and motivation simultaneously. Further, allowing employees to choose

creative and challenging jobs/tasks has been shown to improve motivation.[32] In order to increase

creativity, setting "creativity goals" can positively influence the process, along with allowing more

autonomy (i.e., giving employees freedom to feel/be creative). Other studies have found that team

support may enable more creativity in a group setting,[33] also increasing motivation.

[edit]Groups and teams

As the workplace is changing to include more group-based systems, researching motivation within these

groups is of growing importance. To date, a great amount of research has focused on the Job

Characteristics Theory and the Goal-setting Theory. While more research is needed that draws on a

broader range of motivation theories, research thus far has concluded several things: (a) semi-

autonomous groups report higher levels of job scope (related to intrinsic job satisfaction), extrinsic

satisfaction, and organizational commitment; and (b) developmentally mature teams have higher job

motivation and innovation. Further, voluntarily formed work teams report high work motivation.[26] Though

research shows that appropriate goal-setting influences group motivation and performance, more

research is needed in this area (group goals, individual goals, cohesiveness, etc.). There are inseparable

mediating variables consisting of group cohesiveness, commitment, and performance. As the workplace

environment calls for more and more teams to be formed, research into motivation of teams is ever-

pressing. Thus far, overarching research merely suggests that individual-level and team-level sources of

motivation are congruent with each other.[34] Consequently, research should be expanded to apply more

theories of motivation; look at group dynamics; and essentially conclude how groups can be most

impacted to increase motivation and, consequently, performance.

[edit]Culture

Kotter & Heskett[35] categorize organizational cultures into three groups: Strong, Strategically Appropriate,

and Adaptive. Each has been identified with high performing organizations and has particular implications

on motivation in the workplace.

Strength

According to Kotter & Heskett,[35] the most widely-reported effect of culture on performance is that strong

cultures result in high performance. The three reasons for this are goal alignment, motivation, and the

resulting structure provided. Goal alignment is driven by the proposed unified voice that drives employees

in the same direction. Motivation comes from the strength of values and principles in such a culture. And

structure is provided by these same attributes which obviate the need for formal controls that could stifle

employees. There are questions that concern researchers about causality and the veracity of the driving

voice of a strong culture.

Strategic Appropriateness

A strategically appropriate culture motivates due to the direct support for performance in the market and

industry: "The better the fit, the better the performance; the poorer the fit, the poorer the performance,"

state Kotter & Heskett.[35] There is an appeal to the idea that cultures are designed around the operations

conditions a firm encounters although an outstanding issue is the question of adapting culture to changes

in the environment.

Adaptability

Another perspective in culture literature asserts that in order for an organization to perform at a high level

over a long period of time, it must be able to adapt to changes in the environment. According to Ralph

Kilmann, in such a culture "there is a shared feeling of confidence: the members believe, without a doubt,

that they can effectively manage whatever new problems and opportunities will come their way." In effect,

the culture is infused with a high degree of self-efficacy and confidence. As with the strong culture, critics

point to the fact that the theory provides nothing in the way of appropriate direction of adaptation that

leads to high performance.

Competing Values Framework

Another perspective on culture and motivation comes from the work of Cameron & Quinn[36] and the

Competing Values Framework. They divide cultures into four quadrants: Clan, Adhocracy, Market,

Hierarchy, with particular characteristics that directly affect employee motivation.

Clan cultures are collaborative and driven by values such as commitment, communication, and

individual development. Motivation results from human development, employee engagement, and a

high degree of open communication.

Adhocracy cultures are creative and innovative. Motivation in such cultures arises from finding

creative solutions to problems, continually improving, and empowering agility.

Market cultures focus on value to the customer and are typically competitive and aggressive.

Motivation in the market culture results from winning in the marketplace and creating external

partnerships.

And finally, Hierarchy cultures value control, efficiency, and predictability. Motivation in such a culture

relies on effectiveness, capability, and consistency. Effective hierarchy cultures have developed

mature and capable processes which support smooth operations.

Culture has been shown to directly affect organizational performance. When viewed through the lens of

accepted behaviors and ingrained values, culture also profoundly affects motivation. Whether one looks

at the type of culture—strong, strategically appropriate, or adaptive—as Kotter & Heskett do,[35] or at the

style of culture—Clan, Adhocracy, Market, or Hierarchy—as Cameron & Quinn do,[36]the connection

between culture and motivation becomes clear and provides insights into how to hire, task, and motivate

employees.

Behavioral approach to motivation

The behavioral approach to workplace motivation is known as Organizational Behavioral Modification.

This approach applies the tenets of behaviorism developed by B.F. Skinner to promote employee

behaviors that an employer deems beneficial and discourage those that are not.

Any stimulus that increases the likelihood of a behavior increasing is a reinforcer. An effective use of

positive reinforcement would be frequent praise while an employee is learning a new task. An employee's

behavior can also be shaped during the learning process if approximations of the ideal behavior are

praised or rewarded. The frequency of reinforcement is an important consideration. While frequent praise

during the learning process can be beneficial, it can be hard to sustain indefinitely.[23]

A variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement, where the frequency of reinforcement varies unpredictably,

can be also be highly effective if used in instances where it is ethical to do so. Providing praise on a

variable-ratio schedule would be appropriate, whereas paying an employee on an unpredictable variable-

ratio schedule would not be.

Compensation and other reward programs provide behavioral reinforcement, and if carefully crafted, can

provide powerful incentives to employees. Behavioral principals can also be used to address undesirable

behaviors in the workplace, but punishment should be used judiciously. If overused, punishment can

negatively impact employee's perception of fairness in the workplace.[23]

In general, the less time that elapses between a behavior and its consequence, the more impactful a

consequence is likely to be.

[edit]Job-based theories

The job-based theories hold that the key to motivation is within an employee's job itself. Generally, these

theories say that jobs can be motivating by their very design. This is a particularly useful view for

organizations, because the practices set out in the theories can be implemented more practically in an

organization. Ultimately, according to the job-based theories, the key to finding motivation through one's

job is being able to derive satisfaction from the job content.[23]

[edit]Motivation–Hygiene Theory

It is impossible to discuss motivation and job attributes in I–O psychology without crediting Herzberg's

Motivation–Hygiene Theory (also referred to as Herzberg's 2-Factor Model). Published in 1968,

Herzberg's Motivation–Hygiene Theory holds that the content of a person's job is the primary source of

motivation. In other words, he argued against the commonly-held belief that money and other

compensation is the most effective form of motivation to an employee. Instead, Herzberg posed that high

levels of what he dubbed hygiene factors (pay, job security, status, working conditions, fringe benefits, job

policies, and relations with co-workers) could only reduce employee dissatisfaction (not create

satisfaction). Motivation factors (level of challenge, the work itself, responsibility, recognition,

advancement, intrinsic interest, autonomy, and opportunities for creativity) however, could stimulate

satisfaction within the employee, provided that minimum levels of the hygiene factors were reached. For

an organization to take full advantage of Herzberg's theory, they must design jobs in such a way that

motivators are built in, and thus are intrinsically rewarding. While the Motivation–Hygiene Theory was the

first to focus on job content, it has not been strongly supported through empirical studies.[23]

[edit]Job Characteristics Theory

Shortly after Herzberg's 2-Factor Model, Hackman and Oldham contributed their own, more refined, job-

based theory; Job Characteristics Theory. JCT attempts to define the association between core job

dimensions, the critical psychological states that occur as a result of these dimensions, the personal and

work outcomes, and growth-need strength. Core job dimensions are the characteristics of a person's job.

The core job dimensions are linked directly to the critical psychological states. According to JCT, an

organization that provides sufficient levels of skill variety, task identity, and task significance to its

employees will, in turn, provide experienced meaningfulness. That is, employees will feel that the work

they do has meaning and value. Sufficient levels of autonomy will inspire felt responsibility for the

employee, and proper feedback will provide the employee with knowledge of results. The combined effect

of these psychological states results in desired personal and work outcomes: internal motivation, job

satisfaction, performance quality, low absenteeism, and low turnover rate.[23] Lastly, the glue of this theory

is the "growth-need strength" factor which ultimately determines the effectiveness of the core job

dimensions on the psychological states, and likewise the effectiveness of the critical psychological states

on the affective outcomes.[29] Further analysis of Job Characteristics Theory can be found in the Work

Design section below.

Abstract

Employees' performance has been established to be directly related to employees' motivation. This assertion was corroborated by different management theories since the works of Frederick Taylor on 'The Principle of Scientific Management' in 1911 and Henry Gantt on 'Works, Wages and Profits' in 1913. Modern employees' motivation management methods have evolved over time which discredited Taylor's "differential rate piece-work" and Gantt's "task and bonus wage" systems.

The modern employees' motivation management methods are employees' oriented and are more effective. There are schools of thought that believe that no employee can be 'adequately' motivated while there are others that believe they can. This research work was to ascertain from the employees the motivating factors that can 'adequately' motivate them to work tirelessly and to achieve results. It found out that employees can be 'adequately' motivated and are best positioned to determine what can collectively motivate them 'adequately'.

Introduction

Motivation is the catalyst that spurns employees' eagerness to work without pressure. To motivate is to provide employees with a motive to do some tasks. It is to cause or provoke somebody to act either positively or negatively. To say that nobody can motivate employees at work is like saying there are no influential leaders, that there are no effective managers, that there are no motivational speakers, that the psychologists in sports management teams are useless and that motivation is not achievable. Motivation has been used by effective managers to prompt ordinary people to achieve uncommon results in all fields of endeavours.

If you doubt that there is motivation, read "I have a dream", the public speech by Martin Luther King, Jr., when he talked of his ambition for an America where blacks and whites, the poor and the rich, the educated and uneducated, the youths and the old and others would co-exist harmoniously and peacefully as equals on August 28, 1963 from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial (Lucas and Medhurst, 1999). Managers who have been able to motivate their employees successfully realised how easy it is to achieve tasks with motivated employees.

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (2006) defined employee "as a person who works for another in return for financial or other compensation". Employees do not only work because they want to collect only pay but for other numerous factors. People work because they have goals to achieve which surpass financial gains from their employment. There are various factors that bother on employment. These factors include: employer, employee, working environment, working terms and conditions and type of products and services provided by employer.

Maslow (1943) said that people work to survive and live through financial compensation, to make new friends, to have job security, for a sence of achievement and to feel important in the society, to have a sense of identity, and most especially to have job satisfaction. All employees that have job satisfaction are high performers in their respective workplaces.

Taylor (1911) opined that the most important motivator of workers is salary and wages when he said that "non-incentive wage system encourages low productivity". He said that if employees receive the same wage irrespective of their individual contribution to the goal, they will work less and that employees think working at a higher rate means fewer employees may be needed which discourages employees to work more. All these analogies affect only the unskilled and "unmotivated" workers in Midvale Steel Company where Taylor worked as a manager.

Taylor worked as an engineer in the production unit. His principle does not apply to administrative and managerial duties where it may be difficult to measure individual performance. Gantt (1913) suggested that compensating 'hardworkers' will be better done through basic pay for all and bonuses for extra performance. The two methods treat workers as 'labourers' who toiled only for money and has been discouraged by modern managers. Modern managers recognise employees as part of a team and who are collectively responsible for the team's performance. The inadequacy of one must be covered by others though there is room for recognition of good works of individual team members, rewards and awards.

This research work's aim was to find out if it is possible to adequately compensate employees and how managers and team heads can motivate their employees with the scarce resources available to them.

Review of Literature

Some theorists and writers on motivation of employees concluded it is not possible to adequately motivate employees based on Maslow's "Heirachy of Needs" and Frederick Herzberg's "theory of hygiene needs" or "two-factor theory" because these theories averred that human needs are 'insatiable'.

For example, Amabile and Kramer (2007) said "anyone in management knows that employees have their good days and their bad days and that, for the most part, the reasons for their ups and downs are

unknown. Most managers shrug their shoulders at this fact of work life". Other writers on motivation and satisfying human needs include, Henry Mintzberg's "Ten Managerial Roles", Michael E. Porter's "Competitive Strategy", Chris Argyris's "Bureaucratic/Pyramidal Value System and Humanistic/Democratic Value System", Douglas McGregor's "Theory X and Theory Y", Rensis Likert's Management System and Styles", Elton Mayo's "Hawthorne Experiments", Fredrick Herzbergs' "Two Factor Motivation Hygiene Theory" and David McClelland's "Achievement Theory".

Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper titled "A theory of Human Motivation", is an extension of human innate curiousity. Maslow devided human needs into five. Maslow said that human beings' first group of needs are physiological; the second needs are safety related; the third are love/belonging to the society; the fourth are esteem and the fifth are self-actualization.

The physiological needs are breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostatis and excretion; safety needs include security of body, of employment, of resources, of morality, of the family, of health, of property; love/belonging to society, bieng in friendship (being in love and being loved), family, sexual intimacy; esteem needs are self-esteem, confidence, achievements, respect for others, respect by others; and self actualization include morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice, and acceptance of facts (Maslow, 1943).

The Hawthorne studies allegedly discovered the influence of human relations or social factors on workers motivation (Roethlisberger and Dickson, 2003). According to Porter (1997) and Mintzberg (1989) motivation is only a secondary link in the chain represented by management. According to them, both motivation and market evolution are evolving in a linked relationship.

This analogy is called the Contingency Theory. The contingency theory is a behaviorial theory that says that there is no one best way to manage a company, to lead an organisation or to make decisions. But the critical path analysis, the employees suggestion programs, SMART analysis, analytic heirarchy process etc, are decision making ways that have been proved to work better than others in their categories. The only way to manage an underfunded organisation is to provide "adequate fund" through injecting more fund or downsizing.

Herzberg (1959) said we have basic needs (hygiene needs) which, when not satisfied, cause us to be dissatisfied. Meeting these needs does not make us satisfied...it merely prevents us from becoming dissatisfied. 'Hygiene' is a medical word and an analogy of the necessity to do something that is essential, but which does contribute towards making a patient well (it only prevents infection).

These needs are also called maintenance needs. Herzberg said there is a seperate set of needs which, when resolved, do make us satisfied. These are called motivators (Herzberg, 1959). A manager does not need to provide all employees' needs before being a motivator. All he needs to do is to make an employee happy through identifying their state of mind while in office and talking over moody employees' problems.

Mintzberg (1989) said to be able to motivate employees different factors would have to be put in place as much as we have employees. If management could go to the extent of carrying out opinion survey on employees, they will be able to motivate all employees and it will affect production. Recently, a company in Glasgow carried out a survey on motivating employees in the period of economic crunch.

The question is: should the company sack some workers and increase salaries of retained workers? The other question is, should the company leave employees population at status quo and reduce salaries of employees across board? The employees voted for lower salaries and remaining as a family. They all believed the economic conditions 'will change'. If the organisation has assumed that increased salaries and wages will motivate "retained workers" and sacked less-productive workers, they would have been wrong.

Herzberg (1987) identified two main categories of motivational factors: contextual factors and descriptive factors. The first factors include salaries, working conditions, organisation strategy etc. The second

factors include threats and opportunities, competences, achievements, sense of belonging etc. Herzberg (1959) discovered that the factors that lead to dissatisfaction are completely different from those that provide satisfaction. He discribed the positive factors "motivation factors". These met human needs in a unique way and include achievement, personal development, job satisfaction and recognition. Improving these factors can provide employees; job satisfaction. Herzberg (1959) concluded that organisations should ain to motivate employees through job satisfaction, rather than reward or pressure. Herzberg (1987) believes workers are not motivated by salaries and wages. But his study of 200 Pittsburgh Engineers and Accountants are based on middle-, and high-, cadre workers and cannot be generalised for low-cadre employees. Low-cadre employees see salary and wages as mtivating factors more than anything.

Levinson (1989) said "every manager must motivate and encourage employees somehow reconciling the individual needs with the goals of the organisation. All employees have aspirations and objectives which they want to achieve through their organisations. Responsible managers ought to help them to achieve their modest aspirations. Lewis-McClear and Taylor (1998) said that employee contract breach may act as demotivator and is related with employee's intention to quit an organisation.

Having clearly set-out objectives can motivate employees. Small business owners in UK have been informed that their staff do not know what their objectives are for next year and are not feeling motivated, according to a report by the Department for Business Innovation and Skills (BIS, 2009).The BIS report revealed that only 25% of staff have had objectives for 2010 clearly communicated to them and a further third do not even know if a vision for their business' future exists. 

The report suggested this is having a negative effect on employee motivation levels, as only 27% feel positive about the year ahead. "If leaders don't explain where the business is going and what it's seeking to achieve, how can people be motivated or know what they're meant to contribute? Clear goals are a key ingredient for achieving performance and productivity" (MacLeod, 2009).

Motivation factors that are affective and effective in one employee or in a group of employees may not be affective or effective in others. This is an area where study, query and feedback will have to be carried out. For example, the issue of bonus as motivation factor in employees may spurn employees to be 'distrustful', 'self-centred', 'selfish' and 'individualistic' instead of working for the collective success of a team. The Parliament in UK is considering a Financial Services Bill that Gordon Brown says will wipe out the old bonus system where bank bosses collect bonus based on percentage of profit (BBC News, 2009).

Bonus can instigate good performance, but experience over the years show that some bank bosses only cover up, produced 'cosmeticized' Annual Report and push the bad days forward. In trying to get more bonus, they go into shaddy deals, They do not write off "Bad Debts" as place them under "Debtors" so that they can have bogus and inflated "Turnover" and "Profit after Tax". The liability is always inherited by their successors. If employees collect bonuses for exceeding expectation, they should also be fined for receding expectation.

For employees to be fully motivated, managers must be aware that human beings are different in the way they think, see, view, feel, do things and reason. Myer-Briggs model (1956) talked about human differences. This model is about personality types. Myer-Briggs identified four ways people differ from each other. These are: the way they think; the way they view; the way they feel/perceive and the way they see things (Myers, 1980).

To satisfy an individual you must know what he needs either by observation or through interviewing. Psychologist Eduard Spranger said there are six values in human beings which we all have in varying degrees. They are: theoretical (passion for knowledge), utilitarian (passion for money and what is useful), aesthetic (passion for beauty, balance, and harmony), social (passion for service to others), individualistic (passion for power and control), traditional (passion for finding the highest meaning in life). He said your top two values are what drive you and must be fulfilled for you to achieve happiness in life (Spranger, 1955).

Motivating employees begins with recognizing that to do their best work, people must be in an environment that meets their basic emotional drives to acquire, bond, comprehend, and defend (Nohria et al, 2008). According to Amabile (1998), "in today's knowledge economy, creativity is more important than ever. But many companies unwittingly employ managerial practices that kill it. How? By crushing their employees' intrinsic motivation, the strong internal desire to do something based on interests and passions. Managers don't kill creativity on purpose. Yet in the pursuit of productivity, efficiency, and control - all worthy business imperatives - they undermine creativity".

Mishra and McKendall (1993) suggested that employees suggestion programs (ESPs) should be used to involve employees in decision making and motivate them. "An ESP represents an opportunity to tap the intelligence and resourcefulness of an organization's employees, and by doing so, reap significant cost savings. Those companies and managers that have an ESP program uniformly list economic advantages first when describing the benefits of their employee suggestion programs" (Mishra and McKendall, 1993).

Employees motives and psyche have changed appreciably in production. All employees want is the opportunity from the management to prove their worth. Employees no more want to be "driven", but to be "moved", not to be "ordered", but to be "shown the way" and not to be "paid" but to be "compensated".

Research Findings

Managers can successfully motivate their employees through empathy, leading by example, management by objectives (MBO), fairness to all, rewards, awards and recognition for long-service and good work, opportunity for employees' training and development, periodical promotion and increase in take-home pay, welfare package like employees' children scholarship, free medical services for employees and their families, recognition of birthdays of employees, the creation of a sense of belonging among all employees, regular feedback from employees, effective communication in the project environment and assurance of employees future within and without the organisation, providing a conducive and attractive working environment for the employees, and instituting conflict resolution management.

Nothing motivates better than working in a cohesive team and being seen as part of a success story. Workers are motivated when they are getting results, otherwise, they feel depressed and weak. Other motivating factors are secondary. Managers should be aware that their job is to plan, organise, control, supervise and direct a motivated employees to achieve objectives.

Conclusion/Recommendations

A manager can adeqautely motivate his or her employees. He or she should, through methods like psychometric test and physical observation of the employees, inquire about an employee's needs to know the type of motivators that can spurn the employees to get the best from him or her. Motivation to some people means a 'fat salary', to others, motivation means working in a neat and hygienic environment, while to some employees motivation is having sense of belonging and having opportunity to train and develop a career.

Salaries and wages are not the only motivators that can improve productivity. In a multi-national company in Nigeria, the human resources department found out that by introducing a 'cold water tap' and a 'colour television' in the junior staff waiting room, production increased by more than fifteen percent within a year. The workers derived a sense of belonging in the organisation and worked harder. The two motivators could not have affected every employee as their motivators are different in the company. Some employees would have preferred to monetised the benefits. But the results cut across all employees as their total production increased.

Award and recognition and not salary, overtime and wages have helped organisations to motivate some employees. Managers should practice leadership by being close to all emplyees to know what will motivate them. An employee with large family size and huge bills to settle every month will probably prefer money as motivation than an employee with small family size. In some cases, the promise of accommodation, paid holidays, company car and company health facilities have been used to inspire

employees. Managers should identify individual employee's common motivators and prioritise the motivators, by needs of the employees, before they can successfully motivate their employees at work.

Employees that are familiar with the objectives of their organisation are more motivated than employees who have promise of higher pay. Organisations should have corporate culture", build teams and not encourage any scheme that recognises individual team members as the champion of a team. Review of wokers should be done before they start work at all where the minimum performance required of them will be exposed in a clear and writen form. Performance measurement of employees should not be shrouded in mystery.

If a bonus has to be paid to motivate an employee to exceed performance, it has to be for performing a measurable and obvious task. Organisations should recognise that there are external factors beyond the control of employees like politics of the area they operate, economic issues like interest rate, inflation, deflation, currency exchange rate etc, social issues like immigration, language barrier, culture etc, techology change, laws and legal issues, demography, climatology, societal risks etc and health and safety issues, whic can affect the performance of employees.

In a case where bonuses are paid for officers who receive salary and wages to perform a given job, the bonuses should be motivatinonal, an instigator of innovation and good work and not as a tradition. Employee receiving the bonus should be able to show that the exceptional performance was as a result of his action and nothing else. Workers should not be seen as 'greedy' by employers when drafting contract agreement. They should not be treated as miserable and as if it is only money they work for. Workers should be made to feel proud about a business as a "going-concern" and not to milk it dry. The exposition of the obvious - that a company which was in debt will go extinct if something was not done has motivated a company's workers to perform brilliantly without additional remuneration, turned around the fortune of the company and thereby saved their company and their jobs

The terms: Job Satisfaction and Motivation

(a)          Job satisfaction

Varied definitions have been given in literature for job satisfaction.  Nevertheless, 'there appears to be a general

agreement that job satisfaction is an affective (that is emotional) reaction to a job that results from the incumbent's

comparison of the actual outcomes with those that are desired (expected, deserved, and so on).' (Cranny, Smith and

Stone 1992). Job satisfaction is a positive feeling an individual has towards his or her job, (Daft, 2003). An employee

who is satisfied feels fulfilled doing the job.  It is an inherent feeling that one's talents are being fully utilized and that

one's contribution is impacting society, while at the same time, personal growth-needs are being met.

Job satisfaction has also been defined by Mullins (2005) as being 'more of an attitude, an internal state. It could, for

example, be associated with a personal feeling of achievement, either quantitative or qualitative.' Mullins further

stated that concept of job satisfaction is regarded as complex and multifaceted. (Mullins, 2005)

Spector, (1997), Kinneman et al, (1997) have also explained Job satisfaction as 'a complex construct and is often

measured as a global attitude of an employee toward his or her work'.  That is, the employee is either satisfied or

dissatisfied with the job. Cook et al (1981) and Spector (1997) have expressed the  belief that an employee's level of

satisfaction can differ with specific aspects of the job. They have projected a number of elements (variables) that

underlie this construct. These elements have been classified into 5 distinct dimensions: satisfaction with

work attributes (the nature of the work, autonomy, responsibility),  rewards (pay, promotion, recognition), other people

(supervisors, co-workers), the organisational context (policies, promotion opportunities, procedures, working

conditions), and self or individual differences (internal motivation, moral values), Locke (1976), Spector (1997), Cook

et al, (1997).

(b)         Motivation

Motivation has been defined as 'a decision making process through which the individual chooses desired outcomes

and sets in motion the behaviours appropriate to acquiring them' (Huczynski and Buchanan,1991).

Motivation has also been looked at based on the theories that have been proposed by writers on motivation like

Maslow and Herzberg who took a human resource perspective in their approach. The assumptions and perspectives

that managers have about the concept of motivation is likely to affect how they are able to employ it to motivate and

reward their employees. Daft distinguishes four perspectives on employee motivation. These are the traditional

approach, human relations approach, human resource approach and the contemporary approach.

The Meaning and Concepts of Job satisfaction and Motivation

From the 1960's through till the late 1980's, management theorists have studied the subject of Job satisfaction from

every angle and in trying to find ways to create a contented labour force: "one less concerned with money rewards

and less inclined to unionise" (Beardwell et al, 2004).

Job satisfaction is a psychological concept that refers to job related attitudes and characteristics such as pay and

reward, policies, leadership behaviours, management styles and co-workers. These characteristics are influenced to

a large extent by a person's disposition. For example extroverted individuals have been found to experience greater

job satisfaction. This was evident in work done by Boudreau et al (2001) which examined the role of personality and

cognitive ability on the job search process of 1900 high- level US business executives.

Motivation according to Dawson (1986) refers to the 'mainspring of behaviour; it explains why individuals choose to

expend a degree of effort towards achieving particular goals'. Studies on motivation are therefore concerned with why

people behave in a certain way. Motivation is considered a complex subject that is also influenced by numerous

variables. It is considered very personal and internal, driven by a variety of changing and often conflicting needs.

Davidman (2004) on the subject of motivation advances that: 'Motivation' views the commitment of the individual to

work and to his work place from the point of view of factors originating within himself, from the point of view of

individual needs, likes and preferences'.

According to Daft (2003) motivation refers to 'the forces either within or external to a person that arouse enthusiasm

and persistence to pursue a certain course of action' He goes on further to explain that people have basic needs like

food, security and achievement which translates into an internal tension that motivates the individual to exhibit

specific behaviours with which to fulfil these needs. The satisfaction derived from the behaviour that produced that

desired outcome is considered the reward. Daft further explains the nature of the rewards as being two fold; intrinsic

and extrinsic rewards.

Unsurprisingly understanding how motivation fully works is a challenge for managers because it arises from within

and differs for each individual.  Although different theories have been postulated on motivation it remains elusive but

it is still essential that managers and organisations for that matter pay heed to its workings and applications if they are

to get the best out of their employees. Even though various arguments have been made by authors like McKenna

(1999) as to the relevance of such motivational theories Linstead et al (2004) are also of the view that the word

motivation cannot easily be dropped from the management lexicon. These theories have helped to demonstrate the

many motives that influence the behaviour of people at work. In addition, these theories provide a framework that

managers can draw on to motivate and reward their staff in order for them to work willingly and effectively.

Spector (1997) puts circumstances affecting job satisfaction into two categories:

(1) The job environment and the factors related to the job.  This includes, nature of the job, relationships among

people in the work place, how people are treated by their supervisors and rewards systems. Arvey et al (1989) also

provided supporting evidence on the fact that emotionally stable people who are able to view their environment in a

positive way are likely to be more satisfied with their jobs and vice versa. Arvey et al (1989) work involved using 34

sets of twins that were reared apart from an early age. They concluded that the way individuals view their work

environment can affect their attitude and motivation, hence level of satisfaction.

(2) The individual factors that a person brings to the job including the individual's personality and experiences.

Hannagan (2005) described these as 'situational factors', which influence people's behaviour. Notable among

Hannagan's list are: other people, the presence and quality of management control systems and types of reward

systems and their effectiveness. Additionally, the type of work a person does, the working environment, the size of

the organisation and the culture prevailing within the organisation can also affect people's behaviour with relationship

with other people considered a critical factor.

Organisation and Management perspectives on job satisfaction and motivation

In early 1900s most manufacturing companies followed the scientific management approach proposed by Taylor

where mental work is separated from physical work. Taylor therefore advocated training workers in a standard way.

This however, fails to recognise the individuality of people and how to satisfy their needs. The focus then shifted

towards Human Relations approaches influenced by Mayo and Lewin. The later writers on the human relations

approach included Maslow (1942), Argyris (1964), Herzberg (1966, 1974), McGregor and McClelland. They favoured

an informal organisational structure that develops within the formal. On their part, they emphasised social factors and

self- actualisation. That is deriving meaning in work and at work. One of the main sources from which the writings on

management have been derived is from Mayo's interpretation of the Hawthorne Studies, (became very influential in

the 1950s and 1960s) and McGregor's theory Y management, which is based on his assumption that 'The average

human being learns under proper conditions, not only to accept but to seek responsibility'. Some of the areas

emphasised in his theory were: groups and teams, motivation and meaning in work, communication, and participative

styles of management.

In practice, organisations march their strategies to their goals (Huczynski and Buchanan,1991).  For example,

managers are faced with the dilemma of how to satisfy and motivate their staff, which motivational theories to employ

to suit their individual employees at the same time ensuring that organisational policies and boundaries are not over

stepped.  On the other hand employees are also expecting that the organisation satisfies their needs or expectations

for which they have joined the organisation. Daft (2003) referred to this psychological contract that exist between

employees and their organisations when he stated that different groups within an organisation have different goals

and aspirations. Management therefore require skill and understanding of these diverse goals to bring about a

coordinated approach and workings to realise organisational goals through employees. This will ensure that both

workers and management expectations are not compromised. Job satisfaction is one of the functions of management

that is essential in ensuring total commitment to the organisation.

Job Satisfaction and Motivation- A Function of Human Resources Management (HRM)

Different writers have defined the term HRM in various ways. Keenoy (1990, 1999) argues that 'the term has a

'brilliant ambiguity', which enables users to define it in a manner that suits their purpose, and is better understood with

the metaphor of 'HRM as hologram', an image which depends on and changes with the stand point of the viewer'.

Even though most writers have taken different views on this branch of management, it is believed to contribute overall

to organisation's effectiveness through the development of an integrated range of policies, which enhances the

quality of working life and encourage high commitment, flexibility, and high performance from employees (Huczynski

and Buchanan, 1991).

In other words, there are certain policies that affect employee behaviour, level of job satisfaction and motivation which

eventually affect the organisation. People are a valued resource and a critical investment in the organisation's current

performance and future growth. HRM advocates psychological approaches that laid emphasis on issues of

motivation, groups and teams, participative styles of management and informal rather than formal processes.  Purcell

et al.(2000) on their part, have classified the functions of HRM that are expected to guide organisational members

and yield desired outcomes to include: job security, career opportunity, performance appraisal, training and

development, recruitment and selection, pay satisfaction, work-life balance, job challenge and autonomy, team

working, involvement and communication. These basic HR policies are expected to motivate staff and produce in

them the ability andopportunity (abbreviated as AMO) that will eventually lead to commitment and job satisfaction.

Traditional views on Job Satisfaction and Motivation

The traditional views on job satisfaction and motivation were based on the traditional management practices also

known as scientific management. This dates back to the twentieth century. Believed to be very instrumental in this

practice of management was Taylor (Daft, 2003). These were termed theory X by McGregor in later writings. Taylor

blamed inefficiencies in organisations on poor management who did not know the best method of working. Taylor

also believed that it was rational for individuals to restrict their output (termed soldering) to a minimum, however

seeking maximum reward. He therefore, advocated the separation of mental work and physical work.   Taylor believed

that people were 'economic' beings whose only source of satisfaction and motivation was working for money. He

therefore proposed the use of financial economic incentives, which was then referred to as pay based reward (PBR),

currently referred to as performance related pay (PRP). This meant that workers had to work hard and depend on

their skills and abilities to achieve greater economic reward. Although the scientific management ideas have received

criticisms aspects are still employed in most organisations (Cole, 1996).

Contemporary views on Job Satisfaction and Motivation

Some contemporary views on job satisfaction and motivation were those proposed by the human relations movement

most of whom were writing in the 1920s and 1930s. They took a more humanitarian approach. Looking at man as a

'social' being and deserves to be treated fairly. Hence managers needed to promote a good relationship with their

subordinates at the same time endeavouring to meet their material, social and financial needs.   There was a second

wave of writers known as the neo-human relations writers. Notable among them was Maslow, Herzberg, McGregor,

Argyris and McClelland. Their theories were classified into two main groups: content and process theories. There

were however, individual contributions that did not really fall under any of the two main groups. These included

McGregor's theory X and Y, Ouchi's theory Z and Maccoby's Social theory.

Content theories dealt with recognising the motives that give rise to certain kinds of behaviour, whilst Process

theories focus on the mechanisms that encourage or reward behaviour in a dynamic context (Martin, 2005).

McGregor, a critique of Taylorism put forward a theory he called theory Y in which he criticized autocratic

management styles. This stated the following:o There is no inherent dislike of work, although an established way of doing work may be found to be not

appropriate.o People are able to direct and control themselves when they are committed to particular objectives.

The extent of people's commitment to work is believed to be link to the rewards they expect. McGregor's view was

that rewards people expected are not only monetary, but relates to the satisfaction of higher order needs such as self

esteem which is also emphasised in Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

Other Theories of job satisfaction and motivation

Job satisfaction and Motivation, have been treated separately in most academic text, however the writers have drawn

on the same theories to explain these two concepts. This was evident in work done by Alnoeim (2002) where he

considered all the motivation theories as theories of job satisfaction as well. McCormick and Ilgen (1992) did also

confirm that the theories on motivation are to some extent theories of job satisfaction.

The concern for worker's welfare and the impact of relationships with others on their motivational level became the

centre of attraction as a result of the now famous Hawthorne studies (Fournet, Distefano Jr., and Pryer 1966).   These

studies turned management theorists away "from the prevailing simplistic 'economic man' model to a more humanistic

and realistic view, the 'social man' model." (Kreitner 1989, 67)

Elton Mayo and his colleagues from the Harvard Business School conducted a series of studies at the Hawthorne

plants of Western Electric Company near Chicago between 1924 and 1932, to determine the relationship between

light intensity at the work place and productivity.  It was discovered that the amount of illumination was of marginal

importance and that productivity was affected more by the attitudes of the workers themselves; 'specifically,

relationships between members of a work group and between workers and their supervisors were found to be more

significant' as emphasised by Hannagan (2005). These observations helped the development of the content theories.

Content Theories of motivation

Content theory is one of the three contemporary approaches to employee satisfaction and motivation. Content theory

gives insight into the needs of people in an organisation in order to help managers to understand how employee

needs can be satisfied in the work place, (Daft, 2003). Content theory stresses the needs that motivate people.

Notable among those who developed content theories are:  Maslow, (1954) hierarchy of needs. Alderfer, (1972)

developed the ERG theory. Herzberg, (1968) developed the 'two-factor' theory and McClelland, (1985) developed the

acquired needs theory (Daft, 2003).

Maslow's Needs Hierarchy Theory

In 1954 Maslow identified what he called a "Hierarchy of Needs". Maslow's theory is built on the premise that humans

are motivated by various needs which exist in hierarchical order. Maslow identified five general types of needs in

ascending order. These are: physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem and self-actualisation (Daft, 2003). 

Maslow argues that once a need lower the hierarchy is met, it ceases to be a motivator. It is then replaced by needs

higher on the hierarchy.

The Hierarchy of Needs

1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep.

2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability.

3. Belongingness and Love needs - work group, family, affection, relationships.

4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige 

5. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak

experiences.

Achieving satisfaction, according to Maslow's model, is about fulfilling successive needs. This however did not mean

that the needs had to be met fully before subsequent needs arise. The higher level needs begin to show up gradually

as lower level needs are met. Additionally the relative importance of these needs changes during the psychological

development of the individual

Maslow's theory was considered flawed on three levels: The first is regarding how the needs group at different levels.

Maslow gives the impression that there is a standardized way in which these needs group and therefore a

standardized solution can be found for employee needs. The argument is that people's motivation and attitude is to

some extent influenced by or likely to change with age, time, accumulation of work experience and type of job among

others (Martin, 2005). Maslow's theory also emphasizes that human needs are satisfied mainly through work. This

has also been criticized as it is believed that not all people attach the same meaning to work. In other words, work

may not be of central interest as people do not satisfy their needs, especially high level needs through work.

Secondly, as Martin (2005) argues, it is very difficult to predict when a particular need sets in or becomes important.

There is also no clear distinction between the needs and behaviour hence the application of standardised solutions is

not possible. Thirdly, Maslow's theory is called a universal theory as he believes it applies to everybody. This has

also attracted the criticism that it is not able to explain the differences between individuals or different cultures.

In spite of these limitations Maslow has been commended to be the first to attempt to make a comprehensive list of

these human needs. His thinking has influenced and continued to influence management discussions with respect to

job design, pay and reward structures.  This is also evident in Huczynski and Buchanan's (1991) statement that

'Many subsequent management fashions such as job enrichment, TQM, business process re-engineering, self

managing teams, the 'new leadership' and employee empowerment incorporated Maslow's ideas in the search for

practical motivational methods'.

Herzberg's Motivation- Hygiene Theory

Herzberg and his associates, writing in 1959 proposed one of the most famous and controversial theories of job

satisfaction. Herzberg did not look directly at motivation, but at the causes of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction with

the aim of trying to understand what motivates people (Beardwell, Holden and Claydon, 2004). He takes a

psychological, but yet a contemporary view based on two human needs: the need to avoid pain and the need to grow.

This theory is known as the "Two Factor," "Dual" or "Motivator-Hygiene Theory." The basis of their theory was that

there are two entirely separate set of factors that contribute to employees behaviour at work. One set was termed

hygiene factors and the other motivators. Hygiene factors prevent dissatisfaction even though their presence does

not motivate. This includes factors like working conditions, company policies and administration, pay and

interpersonal relationships.

Motivators were considered as 'high level needs' believed to include achievement, recognition, responsibility and

opportunity for growth. Additionally, jobs had specific factors, which were related to job satisfaction or dissatisfaction.

Herzberg did not however, believe that all jobs can be enriched to bring about job satisfaction. The highlight of

Herzberg's findings was that the hygiene factors listed above do not motivate, but prevent dissatisfaction and pain.

They provide the right environment for work. Motivators allow for growth towards self-actualisation. The illustration

below provides a summary of Herzberg's job context/content continuum.

Illustration

 

1. Job context continuum: Hygiene seekers

Poor hygiene factors                                                  Good hygiene factors

Dissatisfaction/pain                                                    No Dissatifaction/no pain

 

2. Job content continuum: Motivation seekers

Poor motivation factors                                                Good motivation factors

No satisfaction /Negative growth                                    Satisfaction/Positive growth

 

Later research by Padilla-Velez (1993) and Bowen (1980) also name the following as motivator- hygiene factors:

Recognition, achievement, possibility of growth, advancement, salary, interpersonal relations, supervision,

responsibility, policy and administration, working conditions and the work itself.

Herzberg's theory has however been criticised by Moxley (1977), Padilla-Velez (1993), Poling (1990), Steers and

Porter (1992), Bowen (1980). Bowen's assertion was that Herzberg's theory was not applicable to certain category of

workers like teacher educators in Agriculture as his theory was born out of studying accountants and engineers. 

Moreover, Bowen views all the factors as related to job satisfaction except that the hygiene factors explained a higher

proportion of job satisfaction as compared to the satisfiers. Vroom assertion of the two factor theory was that, it was

just one of many conclusions that could be drawn from a research. Mullins (2005) has also commented that

Herzberg's model has at least five theoretical interpretations.

The two general criticisms are therefore that the theory least applies to unskilled workers and people whose jobs are

mostly repetitive and monotonous even though they happen to be in the majority and are the very people who often

present management with the biggest problem of job satisfaction and motivation. Moreover, some workers do not

seem to be interested in the job content of their work, or with motivators or growth factors.

The second general criticism is with the methodology employed by Herzberg. The view was that the method used

had an influence on the responses. That is the critical incident method and the description of the sequence of events

that give rise to good or bad feelings. Furthermore, the descriptions from the respondents were interpreted by

interviewers who could also be influenced.

It was argued that people were likely to attribute satisfying incidents at work (motivators) as a favourable reflection on

their own performance. The dissatisfying incidents (hygiene factors) are more likely to be attributed to external

influences and the efforts of other people. (Mullins, 2005).

Despite the criticisms of Herzberg's theory, it is believed to be a good attempt to practically look at the study of

motivation. His work also drew attention to job design and job enrichment. According to Crainer and Dearlove in

Mullins (2005) 'the current emphasis on self-development, career management and self-managed learning can be

seen as having evolved from Herzberg's insight'.

Process Theories of Job Satisfaction and Motivation

Process theories deal with the thought processes that influence behaviour. It explains how employees select

behaviours with which to meet their needs and determine whether their choices were successful (Daft, 2003).  The

two basic process theories are: equity theory and expectancy theory.

Equity Theory

Equity theory (Adams, 1963) considers the employment situation as an exchange relationship of benefits

/contributions between employers and employees, where benefits include pay, recognition and promotions.

Contributions include employee's education, experience, effort, and ability (Daft, 2003). The principle governing

equity theory suggests that people evaluate the fairness of their input/output balance by comparing it with their

perception of the input/outcome balance of another, where this other may be another person, a class of people, an

organisation, or the individual relative to the individual's experiences from an earlier point in time.

The equity model postulates that under conditions of perceived equity the individual experiences job satisfaction.   On

the other hand, under conditions of perceived inequity (under-rewarded or over-rewarded relative to others) the

individual experiences dissatisfaction. A state of equity is therefore said to exist whenever the ratio of one person's

outcomes to inputs equals the ratio of another's outcomes to inputs, (Daft, 2003). According to Martin (2005) this can

lead to tensions and some psychological discomfort. This may also be followed by a desire to do something about it

or take action to as it were lessen the tension being experienced. Adams suggests actions that an employee could

employ to ease the tensions: modify inputs, seek to modify outputs, modify perception of self, modify perception of

comparator, change comparator or leave the situation. ( Mullins, 2005). This is believed to restore a feeling of

balance.

Even though the equity theory is considered straight forward, it cannot cover every contingency (Martin, 2005). Martin

further added that even where inequities are perceived, employees are able to tolerate it to some extent providing

that the reasons for the inequity are justified.

The equity theory therefore has three implications for human resource managers according to Martin (2005).   His

assertion is that employees will make comparisons, which are subjective. Jobs must therefore be marched properly in

terms of the wage/effort bargain. Additionally, managers must be open regarding the basis on which the rewards are

made to avoid wrong conclusions about equity. Equity theory illustrates the importance of performance management

and reward systems in which, the outcomes are seen by individuals as relevant.

The second implication is that, there is a need for managers to redesign current compensation systems in order to

avoid the performance destroying of perceived inequities and thirdly, to ensure that the redesigned systems to do not

lead to over rewarding of performance as that will not guarantee higher productivity or improved performance.

Expectancy Theory

This is the process theory that proposes that motivation depends on the individuals' expectations or outlook about

their ability to perform tasks and receive desired rewards, (Daft, 2003). Developed by Vroom (1964), with inputs

made by other scholars, the theory which takes on a human resource approach, proposes that there is a relationship

between the individual effort (E), the individuals' performance (P) and the desired outcomes (O) associated with high

performance. E-P expectancy advances whether putting effort into a task will lead to high performance. P-O

expectancy on the other hand advances whether successful performance will lead to the desired outcome.

Expectancy theory makes no attempt to define specific types of needs of rewards, but tries to establish that these

needs exist and may be different for every individual. It therefore measures the strength of the individual's motivation

to behave in a particular way. If P-O expectancy is high, the individual is highly motivated. Motivation is also said to

be high if E-P is high, that is the individual believes that effort will lead to high performance. There is however a third

factor in the expectancy theory, which must also be present for employees to be highly motivated. That is valence-the

attraction an individual has for an outcome, (Daft, 2003). When either valence or expectancy is zero, motivation is

also zero.

Expectancy theory therefore states that the strength or 'force' of the individual's motivation to behave in a particular

way is

F= E x V

Where  F = motivation to behave

E = the expectation (the subjective probability) that the behaviour will be followed by a particular outcome

V = the valence of the outcome.

This is called the expectancy equation adapted from 'Organisational Behaviour' by Huczynski and Buchanan

(1991).The expectancy theory is however, considered complex compared to Maslow's theory. Lawler's (1973) view

was that human rationality is limited. Therefore human behaviour is based on perceptions that are simplified by taking

into account only a limited number of factors and alternatives, which he believes the theory is able to illustrate. The

expectancy theory is believed to have been influential in stimulating research and in providing a tool for diagnosing

and resolving organisational problems (Huczynski and Buchanan, 1991).

Conclusion

From the discussions it is clear that employees who are satisfied with their work do not necessarily mean they are

highly motivated employees and vice versa. However one cannot rule out the fact that the satisfaction of workers and

their will to work are linked to some extent by how enriched their jobs are, the job design, level of empowerment,

training, performance appraisal, incentives, and flexible working hours among others.

Additionally the relationship between job satisfaction and motivation cannot be overlooked and organisations who

have a desire to be successful must appreciate the interrelatedness of the two in fulfilling the aspirations of their staff

which is key to organisational performance. Furthermore it is important for organisations to put in place monitoring

systems to assess the needs of employees at all levels in other to develop programmes for staff development and to

appreciate employee perceptions about the conditions under which they work. This can help organisations to stay

competitive in an era where it is believed that employees who are satisfied are likely to be more committed to

organisational goals. In concluding, management must strive to incorporate individual workers needs and aspirations

with organisational goals and leave no stone unturned in finding a fit between the two.

 

 

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It is understood that the effectiveness of a change is an end result of how efficiently the change has been implemented and executed by the employees without sacrificing the business objectives. For a company which is planning to launch its set of Organizational Behavior initiatives, it is extremely important that it motivates its employees for them to execute the organizational behavior practices across the board. Professionals understanding Organizational Behavior categorize this as Organizational Behavior Motivation - the factor which seamlessly ensures that employees implement the Organizational Behavior principles day in and out.

How does one motivate the employees to implement Organizational Behavior practices?

Visualize and get the employees to visualize the big picture - This is one of the classical motivational methods for employees of a company where organizational behavior practices have been launched. The business owner and the employees are enforced to think at factors like how the practices would improve the standing of the company in the industry, how the practices will enable to company to boost sales etc. The employees being empowered to visualize the big picture will enable them to see the benefits of implementing these practices.

Provide incentives or manage performance around implementation of Organizational Behavior practices - We must understand this clearly that what keeps the business running year after year is the money. And hence, at the end of the day what counts for a company is how an employee has performed on productivity and quality. At the same time, discipline and ethics are some things which the company cannot forsake in lieu of productivity and quality. Business owners could ensure this by attaching metrics to the implementation of the Organizational Behavior principles. This will ensure that employees would treat the initiatives as a part of their performance drivers and hence the business owner can ensure that the initiatives are implemented.

Reverse Motivation - Not many companies have used this technique, but in some cases, this has proved to be a highly effective tool for motivating employees. As per Reverse Motivation, employees are motivated by telling them the consequences of them not implementing the Organizational Behavior practices. The whole stream of Reverse Motivation works on a completely negative aspect of motivating the employees.

It is important that employees are motivated to ensure that Organizational Behavior strategies and initiatives are implemented across the board. Strategies can only be implemented properly which can be achieved if all the employees contribute to implementing them. Employees would be implementing the initiatives if they are motivated enough to do the same. And to do the same one would need to understand the motivational needs of every employee.

It is a tough task, but a small price to pay in lieu of implementing the Organizational Behavior practices.