Chapter 4

Motivating Self and Others

Motivating Self and Others

What do theories tell us about motivating ourselves and others?

How do we motivate for specific organizational circumstances and/or individual differences?

Are rewards always necessary?

Questions for Consideration

What Is Motivation?

Motivation The processes that account for an

individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal Intensity: how hard a person tries Direction: where effort is channeled Persistence: how long effort is maintained

Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X Assumes that employees dislike work, will

attempt to avoid it, and must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment if they are to perform.

Theory Y Assumes that employees like work, are

creative, seek responsibility, and can exercise self-direction and self-control.

Motivators

Intrinsic A person’s internal desire to do

something, due to such things as interest, challenge, and personal satisfaction.

Extrinsic Motivation that comes from outside the

person, such as pay, bonuses, and other tangible rewards.

Needs Theories of Motivation

Basic idea: Individuals have needs that, when

unsatisfied, will result in motivation Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Herzberg’s two factor theory (motivation-

hygiene theory) Alderfer’s ERG theory McClelland’s theory of needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Physiological

Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, and other bodily needs

Safety Includes security and protection from

physical and emotional harm

Social Includes affection, belongingness,

acceptance, and friendship

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Esteem

Includes internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement; and external esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention

Self-actualization The drive to become what one is capable

of becoming; includes growth, achieving one’s potential, and self-fulfillment

Exhibit 4-1

Physiological

Safety

Social

Esteem

Self-actualization

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory Hygiene factors are necessary, but

not sufficient, for healthy adjustment Extrinsic factors; context of work

Company policy and administration Unhappy relationship with employee's

supervisor Poor interpersonal relations with one's

peers Poor working conditions

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Motivators - the sources of satisfaction Intrinsic factors; content of work

Achievement Recognition Challenging, varied or interesting work Responsibility Advancement

Exhibit 4-3 Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction

Satisfaction Dissatisfaction

Traditional view

Satisfaction No satisfaction

Herzberg's view

No dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction

Hygiene Factors

Motivators

Criticisms of Motivation-Hygiene Theory

The reliability of Herzberg’s methodology is questioned

No overall measure of satisfaction was used

The theory is inconsistent with previous research

Alderfer’s ERG Theory Existence

Concerned with providing basic material existence requirements

Relatedness Desire for maintaining important

interpersonal relationships Growth

Intrinsic desire for personal development

McClelland’s Theory of Needs Need for Achievement

The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed

Need for Power The need to make others behave in a way that

they would not have behaved otherwise

Need for Affiliation The desire for friendly and close interpersonal

relationships

Exhibit 4-4 Summarizing the Various Needs Theories

HygieneFactors

Need for Achievement

Need for Power

Need for Affiliation

Self-Actualization

Esteem

Affiliation

Security

Physiological

Motivators

Relatedness

Existence

Growth

Maslow Alderfer Herzberg McClelland

Summary: Hierarchy of Needs Maslow: Argues that lower-order needs must be

satisfied before one progresses to higher-order needs. Herzberg: Hygiene factors must be met if person is

not to be dissatisfied. They will not lead to satisfaction, however. Motivators lead to satisfaction.

Alderfer: More than one need can be important at the same time. If a higher-order need is not being met, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases.

McClelland: People vary in the types of needs they have. Their motivation and how well they perform in a work situation are related to whether they have a need for achievement, affiliation, or power.

Summary: Impact of Theory Maslow: Enjoys wide recognition among practising

managers. Most managers are familiar with it. Herzberg: The popularity of giving workers greater

responsibility for planning and controlling their work can be attributed to his findings. Shows that more than one need may operate at the same time.

Alderfer: Seen as a more valid version of the need hierarchy. Tells us that achievers will be motivated by jobs that offer personal responsibility, feedback, and moderate risks.

McClelland: Tells us that high need achievers do not necessarily make good managers, since high achievers are more interested in how they do personally.

Summary: Support and Criticism of Theory

Maslow: Research does not generally validate the theory. In particular, there is little support for the hierarchical nature of needs. Criticized for how data were collected and interpreted.

Herzberg: Not really a theory of motivation: Assumes a link between satisfaction and productivity that was not measured or demonstrated.

Alderfer: Ignores situational variables. McClelland: Mixed empirical support, but theory

is consistent with our knowledge of individual differences among people. Good empirical support, particularly on needs achievement.

Process Theories of Motivation

Looks at the actual process of motivation Expectancy theory Goal-setting theory

Expectancy Theory The strength of a tendency to act in a

certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

Expectancy Relationships The theory focuses on three relationships:

Effort-performance relationship The perceived probability that exerting a given

amount of effort will lead to performance. Performance-reward relationship

The degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level will lead to a desired outcome.

Rewards-personal goals relationship The degree to which organizational rewards

satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and and are attractive to the individual.

Exhibit 4-7 Steps to Increasing Motivation, Using Expectancy Theory

Improving Expectancy

Improve the ability of theindividual to perform

• Make sure employees have skills for the task• Provide training• Assign reasonable tasks and goals

Improving Instrumentality Improving Valence

Increase the individual’s belief that performance will lead to reward

• Observe and recognize performance• Deliver rewards as promised• Indicate to employees how previous good performance led to greater rewards

Make sure that the reward ismeaningful to the individual

• Ask employees what rewards they value• Give rewards that are valued

Goal-Setting Theory The theory that specific and difficult

goals lead to higher performance. Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and

how much effort will need to be expended. Specific goals increase performance Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher

performance than do easy goals Feedback leads to higher performance than does

nonfeedback. Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output

than does the generalized goal of “do your best.” The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal

stimulus.

Management by Objectives

A program that encompasses Specific goals Participative decision-making Explicit time period Performance feedback

Responses to the Reward System

Equity Theory Fair Process

Equity Theory Main points

Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond so as to eliminate any inequities.

Equity theory recognizes that individuals are concerned not only with the absolute amount of rewards for their efforts, but also with the relationship of this amount to what others receive.

Exhibit 4-8 Equity Theory

Person 1Inequity, underrewarded

Equity

Inequity, overrewarded

Ratio of Output to Input Person 1’s Perception

Person 2

Person 1

Person 2

Person 1

Person 2

Responses to Inequity

Change Inputs Change Outcomes Adjust Perceptions Choose a Different Referent Leave the Field

Fair Process and Treatment

Historically, equity theory focused on: Distributive justice

However, equity should also consider Procedural justice

Fair Process Distributive Justice

Perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals

Procedural Justice Perceived fairness of the process used to

determine the distribution of rewards

Interactional Justice The quality of the interpersonal treatment

received from another

Role of Money

Money is most commonly used reward in organizations Money certainly helps some needs get

met

But, money is not all employees’ top priority Many emphasize relationships in the

workplace

Motivating for Specific Organizational Goals Employee Recognition: Motivating

to Show People Matter Employee recognition plans

Variable-Pay Programs: Motivating for Improved Productivity Individual-based incentives: piece rate Group-based incentives: gainsharing Organizational-based incentives: profit sharing,

ESOPs

Variable-Pay Programs A portion of an employee’s pay is based on

some individual and/or organizational measure(s) of performance. Individual-based

Piece-rate wages, bonuses Group-based

Gainsharing Organizational-based

Profit sharing Employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs)

Variable Pay Programs

Piece-rate pay plans Workers are paid a fixed sum for each

unit of production completed.

Gainsharing An incentive plan where improvements

in group productivity determine the total amount of money that is allocated.

Variable Pay Programs Profit-sharing plans

Organization wide programs that distribute compensation based on some established formula designed around a company’s profitability.

Employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs) Company-established benefit plans in

which employees acquire stock as part of their benefits.

Motivating Professionals

How are “professionals” different? Receive a great deal of “intrinsic”

satisfaction from their work. Strong and long-term commitment to

their field of expertise. Well paid/Chief reward is work itself. Value support. More focused on work as central life

interest.

Motivating Professionals

How do we motivate professionals? Provide challenging projects Give them autonomy in follow interests

and structure work. Reward with educational opportunities. Recognize their contributions.

Motivating Contingent Workers No simple solutions to motivating

contingent workers. Contingent or temporary workers have little or

no job security/stability; therefore, they don’t identify with the organization or display the commitment of permanent employees.

Contingent or temporary workers are typically provided with little or no health care, pensions, or similar benefits.

Motivating Contingent Workers

Greatest motivating factor is the opportunity to gain permanent employment.

Motivation is also increased if the employee sees that the job he or she is doing for the firm can develop saleable skills.

Motivating Low-Skilled Service Workers Many 15- to 24-year-olds have “McJobs”

with pay levels near minimum wage To motivate

Employees want more respect Make jobs more appealing Raise pay levels Find unusual ways to motivate:

Flexible work schedules Broader responsibility for inventory, scheduling,

and hiring Creation of a “family” atmosphere among

employees

Motivating Unionized Employees Constraints of contract affect some forms of

rewards Some unions against pay-for-performance

Additional ideas Create better work environments Show appreciation Provide opportunities for training and

advancement Listen to employees concerns

Motivating Public Sector Employees

Special challenge Much work is service-oriented, harder to

measure productivity Hard to link rewards to performance

What to do Goal setting helps

Goal difficulty and goal specificity help improve motivation

Cross-Cultural Differences in Motivation Canada and US rely on extrinsic

rewards more than other countries Japan and Germany rarely use

individual incentives Japan emphasizes group rewards

China more likely to give bonuses to everyone

Are Rewards Overrated? Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Allocating extrinsic rewards for behaviour that had been previously intrinsically rewarded tends to decrease the overall level of motivation.

Abolishing Rewards Alfie Kohn suggests that organizations

should focus less on rewards, more on creating motivating environments Abolish incentives Re-evaluate evaluation Create conditions for authentic motivation Collaboration Content Choice

Summary Need Theories

Be aware that individuals differ in their levels and types of needs

Goal Setting Theory Clear and difficult goals lead to higher levels of

employee productivity.

Expectancy Theory Offers a relatively powerful explanation of

employee productivity, absenteeism, and turnover.

Implications Recognize Individual Differences

Employees have different needs. Don’t treat them all alike. Spend the time necessary to understand

what’s important to each employee. Use Goals and Feedback Allow Employees to Participate in

Decisions That Affect Them