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MughalArchitecture

in India


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PROJECT ON

MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE

IN INDIA

Submitted by

KAPADIA ZEAL (22) POTDAR NAMITA (38)

MOOLUR TANVI (31)

Under the guidance of

Ms. Shaikh Afzal(Professor)

Class: F.Y.B.M.M Date: 14th August, 2006

Bhartiya Vidhya Bhavans CollegePalanjji Sadan, Munshi Nagar, Andheri (west).

Mumbai: 400 058


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our deep gratitude towards all the people whohave helped us in our project.

We take the opportunity to thank our respected Principal, Dr.V.Kattchi,our co-ordinator, Miss. Rumina Rai and Ms.Shaikh Afzal, for showingconfidence in us and assigning such a challenging project. We are indeedthankful to them for their valuable guidance, help, encouragement and

time to time assistance during the progress of the project work. Ourspecial thanks to our Prof.Ms.Shaikh Afzal, for her expert advice andpractical knowledge for our project work.

Last but not the least, we cannot forget the assistance, rendered to us, bythe other staff members of our institution and also our parents, who havedirectly indirectly, helped us in our project work

KAPADIA ZEAL

POTDAR NAMITA

MOOLUR TANVI

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CONTENTS

Introduction

Evolution Of Architecture n India

Introduction to Mughal Architecture

Buildings & Architecture- An Overview

Delhi -

Qutub Minar Complex

Red Fort

Humayuns Tomb

Jama Masjid

Agra

Agra fort

Taj Mahal

Fatehpur Sikri

Important Buildings

Lessons from the past

Conclusion

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INTRODUCTION

erhaps no branch of human culture reflects with greater exactitudethe progress or decadence of man than architecture. In the progress

of architecture from the most primitive types of human habitation ofmagnificent temples and palaces, we can discover the ceaseless effort ofman to express his social and religious environment and his attitudetowards life. In the development of architecture, we can also detect theaesthetic taste, which actuated man to combine beauty with utility. Theprogress of Indian architecture from the primitive to the sophisticated wasno exception to this historical process.

P

One definition of a great civilization is the magnificence of its architecturallegacy, and India is surely among the foremost. In ancient India,architecture was a huge part of its culture. It is one of the most

interesting things about India, and probably one of the main reasons thatmost tourists come to India. Architecture and sculpture were usedtogether on almost all structures.

The country is dotted with the remains of ages gone by, many worldfamous like the Taj and Qutab Minar, and some still cloaked in obscurity,off the tourist circuit, waiting to be 'discovered', but architectural gemsnevertheless. Sadly, because of invaders coming to the Indian lands manyof its ancient temples were destroyed.

Indian architecture is as diverse as its culture. The architecture of Indiaoffers a unique blend of Vedic/Hindu, Islamic, Jain, Buddhist and Britisharchitectural designs.

Until the arrival of Islam, Vedic art and architecture was dominant in India.The rise of the Mughal Empire in the 16th century established Mughalarchitecture in northern Indian subcontinent. The colonization of India inthe 19th century paved the way for the development of Anglo-Indianarchitecture while Portuguese and French architectural designs prevailedin their former colonies in India.Works of art and architecture produced onthe Indian subcontinent are now divided among India, Pakistan, and

Bangladesh.

With a past stretching back to 2500 B.C., there are innumerable examplesto choose from. It is difficult to select truly representative monuments -those that clearly typify the spirit of their age and/or usher in a new style.Equally, it is difficult to decide which ones to omit.

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EVOLUTION OF ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA

Between 1856 and 1919, workers on the Lahore-Multan railway in Indiaused a convenient supply of ancient kiln-dried bricks to provide a solidfooting for their tracks. Unknown to anyone at the time, the brickshundreds of thousands of themcame from Harappa, one of the world'soldest cities. In the 1920s archaeologists began work at Harappa andother sites in the Indus Valley, including the great city of Mohenjo-daro.The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization are the first surviving evidence ofarchitecture/town planning in the sub-continent.

INTRODUCTION TO MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE

The Mughal Empire is arguably the greatest of the Indian empires. From1527, with the victory of Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire and firstof a dynastic succession of great princes, until 1707 and the death of theAurangzeb, the Mughals unified the fragmented subcontinent of manyHindu clans and squabbling Muslim factions into a great nation. The powerof the Mughals was so great that even after their downfall at the hands ofthe northern Hindu Rajputs, the Marathas and ultimately the British; theirlegacy has survived, particularly in the form of unparalleled architectural

splendor.

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The mix of Muslim and Hindu designon the Diwan-i-Am at the Agra Fort

BUILDING & ARCHITECTURE AN OVERVIEW

The Mughals built many forts, palaces, mosques, and tombs throughout

their realm. These structures were as much functional as they wereimperial symbols of wealth, power, and indomitability. Nothing is knownabout the inspired individuals directly responsible for the construction ofthe great Mughal monuments. At the time, design was an anonymousgroup effort, glory belonging to the purse that paid rather than the handsthat carved. Thus no one individual was credited with the labor other thanthe emperor, and no emperor was ever content just to inherit the work ofhis predecessor, rather seeing fit to build more, sometimes using materialsalvaged from the former structures razed to make room for new. It wasimportant for each new ruler to put a stamp on his own particular reign.

Many people have thought Mughal architecture as little more thanimported Muslim Persian design. While it is true that the Mughals wereMuslim and that artisans certainly had to conform to certain Islamicstrictures, it must also be remembered that the conquerors were newarrivals to a land with a long Hindu and Buddhist tradition and 300hundred years of earlier Muslim influence. Locally hired craftsmen werenot brought in to follow a particular plan but to help improvise a new oneand add their unique abilities to it. And so, they were wont to rely on whatthey knew. Thus, local history and practice heavily influenced much of thedesign, which, neither Persian nor Hindu, can be considered as something

uniquely Mughal. Touched with classically Muslim features (like thepointed arch) the buildings were nevertheless inspired by local design.

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The Mughals were not shy about using their wealth for construction. Eachof its greatest leaders wanted his own palace, a mosque built under hispatronage, a glorious tomb prepared as a monument to hisaccomplishments, and so much more. Today, there are complex Mughalstructures all over India and Pakistan. While the most enduring and

impressive are clustered around Delhi and Agra, those located inprovincial centers - Srinagar (Kashmir), Lahore (Pakistan), Allahabad andAjmer - should not be forgotten. Our attention here will focus mostly onthe structures in Delhi, Agra, and at Fatehpur Sikri.

DELHI

Delhi is a city of eight cities. Unlike many cities around the world, manyconquering invaders in Delhi opted to build new cities next to the old onerather than destroy and rebuild on the same location. Thus, today, spread

across a wide plain on the west bank of the Yamuna River, lies evidence ofmany cities. Although there were older settlements, the oldest city ofwhich there are significant remains is that of Qutb-ud-din Aibak, firstsultan of Delhi and former deputy of Muhammad of Ghur, the first Muslimconqueror to take Delhi (1192 AD). Qutb-ud-din's city incorporated twoolder 11th-century forts; the older of these, known as Lol Kot, was the firstcity of Delhi. Six more Muslim cities were established between the 12thand 19th centuries. Little more than a few buildings and squat rampartsremain of the first four of these cities - Siri, Tughlaqabad, Jahanpannah,and Ferozabad. The last two, Purana Qila and Shahjahanabad, built by theMughal emperors Humayun and Shah Jahan, respectively, survive the

latter corresponding to today's Old Delhi and comprising the famous RedFort and the Jama Masjid. The last of Delhi's eight cities, inaugurated in1931, is the extensive New Delhi, designed by the British to be in keepingwith India's grandeur.

QUTUB MINAR

At 72.5 metres high, the Qutub Minar is the tallest brickminaret in the world.

One of the earliest Muslim monuments in India, it waserected (c.1230) by Iltutmish of the Delhi Sultanate. It is240 ft (73 m) high, covered with relief work, and wasprobably built to celebrate a victory.

The Qutb complex is an array of monuments andbuildings at Mehrauli in Delhi, India, the most famousof which is the Qutub Minar. This complex was first

constructed by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, the first ruler of the Slave Dynasty, and

his successor Iltutmish (aka Altmash) in his new city called the Qila-Rai-Pithora near Prithivraj Chauhan's older city. The complex was added to by

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many subsequent rulers, including Iltutmish and Ala-ud-din Khilji as well asthe British.

The most famous monument situated in the complex is the Qutub Minar;other important constructions in the complex are the Quwwat-ul-Islammosque, the Ala-I-Darwaza, the Alai Minar and the iron pillar.

Qutub Minar is the tallest brick minaret in the world, and an importantexample of Indo-Islamic Architecture. The Qutub Minar is 72.5 metres (239ft) high. The diameter of the base is 2.3 metres wide while the top floormeasures 2.7 metres in diameter. It is listed as a UNESCO World HeritageSite.

Inspired by the Minaret of Jam in Afghanistan and wishing to surpass it,Qutb-ud-din Aibak, the first Muslim ruler of Delhi, commenced constructionof the Qutub Minar in 1193; but could only complete its basement. Hissuccessor, Iltutmish, added three more stories and, in 1368, Firuz ShahTughluq constructed the fifth and the last storey. The developments ofarchitectural styles from Aibak to Tuglak are quite evident in the minaret.

The Qutub Mahal comprises several superposed flanged and cylindricalshafts, separated by balconies carried on Muqarnas corbels. The minaret ismade of fluted red sandstone covered with intricate carvings and versesfrom the Qur'an. The Qutub Minar is itself built on the ruins of Lal Kot, theRed Citadel in the city of Dhillika, the capital of the Jat Tomars and theChauhans, the last Hindu rulers of Delhi.

The purpose for building this beautiful monument has been speculatedupon, apart from the usual role of a minaret - that of calling people forprayer in a mosque- in this case it is the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque. Otherreasons ascribed to its construction are as a tower of victory, a monumentsignifying the might of Islam, or a watch tower for defence. Controversyalso surrounds the origins for the name of the tower. Many historiansbelieve that the Qutub Minar was named after the first Turkish sultan,Qutb-ud-din Aibak but others contend that it was named in honour ofKhwaja Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiar Kaki, a saint from Baghdad who came to livein India who was greatly venerated by Akhbar.

Alai Minar

The incomplete Alai Minar.

Ala-ud-din Khilji started building the Alai Minar, which was conceived to betwo times higher than Qutub Minar. The construction was abandoned,

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however, after the completion of the 24.5 meter high first storey; soonafter death of Ala-ud-din. The first story of the Alai Minar still stands today.

Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque

Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque

(Might of Islam) (also known asthe Qutb Mosque or the GreatMosque of Delhi) was built byQutb-ud-din Aibak, founder ofthe Mamluk or Slave dynasty. The mosque constructionstarted in the 1190s whenAibak was the commander ofMuhammad Ghori's garrisonoccupied Delhi. The mosque is

said to be built by the partstaken by destruction oftwenty-seven Hindu and Jain temples. It was the first mosque built in Delhiafter the Islamic conquest of India.

Expansion of the mosque continued after the death of Qutub. Hissuccessor Iltutmish extended the original prayer hall screen by three morearches. By the time of Iltutmish, the Mamluk empire had stablized enoughthat the Sultan could replace most of his conscripted Hindu masons withMuslims. This explains why the arches added under Iltutmish arestylistically more Islamic than the ones erected under Qutb's rule.

The mosque is in ruins today but indigenous corbelled arches, floralmotifs, and geometric patterns can be seen among the Islamicarchitectural structures.

To the west of the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque is the tomb of Iltutmish whichwas built by the monarch in 1235. The construction of this mausoleumclearly represented a departure from the Hindu custom of cremating thedead.

Ala-I-Darwaza

The Ala-I-Darwaza is a magnificent gateway in the complex. The gatewaywas built by the first Khilji sultan of Delhi, Ala ud din Khilji. The gateway isdecorated with inlaid marble decorations,latticed stone screens and showcases theremarkable craftsmanship of the Turkishartisans who worked on it.

Iron pillar

The iron pillar is one of the world's foremostmetallurgical curiosities. The pillar, almostseven metres high and weighing more than

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six tonnes, was erected by Kumara Gupta I of the Gupta dynasty that rulednorthern India 320-540. Admired as a metallurgical achievement, the 98%wrought iron column has never rusted.It is the only piece of the Hindutemple remaining, which stood there before being destroyed by Qutb-ud-din Aibak to build the Qutub Minar and Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque. Qutubbuilt around it when he constructed the mosque.

A fence was erected around the pillar due to the popularity of a traditionthat it was considered good luck if you could stand with your back to thepillar and make your hands meet behind it. Inscriptions have survived thetest of time on the iron pillar.

Purana Qila

Located at the eastern edge of Delhi on thebanks of the Yamuna River, the ruins ofPurana Qila are all that is left of the first of theMughal Delhis. Construction commencedduring the early years of Humayun's reign.When Sher Shah Sur defeated Humayun andforced him into exile, Sher Shah continued thework on Purana Qila. The two buildings thathave survived to this day Sher Mandal andQila-i-Kholina Masjid are both from SherShah's time, although Humayun used both

structures when he reconquered the realm. The large mound in the centerof this old fort is believed by some archaeologists to be the original site of

Indraprastha, the first settlement along the Yamuna as described in theMahabharata.

In plan the Old fort, now simply called Purana Qila by Delhites, isirregularly orbital. The walls of the immense Qila tower down on the roadthat takes one to Pragati Maidan from the height of18m, and run on for about 2km. It has three maingates the Humayun darwaza, Talaqi darwaza andBara darwaza (which one uses to enter the fort today). The double-storeyed gates are quite huge and arebuilt with red sandstone. Of all the gates entry was

forbidden from Talaqi (forbidden) darwaza, thenorthern gate. It is not clear why this was so.

Qila-i-kuhna Masjid

One of the most fascinating buildings, and also one of the few that stillsurvive, in the Purana Qila is the Qila-i-kuhna masjid. Sher Shah Suri builtit in 1541 and he was obviously out to make a definite style statement.The mosque is quite a place; its prayer hall measures 51.20m by 14.90mand has five doorways with the 'true' horseshoe-shaped arches.Apparently the idea was the build the whole mosque in marble, but thesupply ran out and red sandstone had to be used instead. But the builderused the materials at hand very skillfully and the result is quite

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spectacular the red sandstone and the marble contrast beautifully witheach other to give the mosque a very distinctive air. The mihrabs (prayerniches) inside the mosque are richly decorated with concentric arches.From the prayer hall, staircases lead you to the second storey where anarrow passage runs along the rectangular hall. The central alcove istopped by a beautifully worked dome. In the courtyard at one time there

was a shallow tank, which had a fountain. The mosque has an inscriptionwhich says 'As long as there are people on this earth, may this edifice befrequented, and people be happy in it.' A noble thought amen to it.

Why don't we know for sure whether ancient Indraprastha waslocated on the spot where the Purana Qila stands?

There are several reasons for this. First of all, we are not sure whether theMahabharata is purely a legend, or whether it is a legend based on eventsthat actually happened. Secondly, even in some of the events and peoplementioned in the story were real, the evidence from the excavations atthe Purana Qila really doesn't tell us about these events or people. What isdoes tell us is that there was a very old settlement at or near the PuranaQila perhaps from about 1000 B.C. onwards.

Here is a table showing the seven layers orperiods identified by archaeologists at thePurana Qila. Different sorts of artifacts werefound at the different levels. Remember thatthe older layers are found at the bottom of a

site, and the upper layers are more recent.Think of these archaeological levels as differentfloors in a seven-storeyed building. As youtravel in a lift from the ground floor to theseventh floor, you are traveling forward in time,from earlier to more recent periods.

Period VII: 16th - 19th centuryPeriod VII: 13th - 15th centuryPeriod VI: 10th - 12th centuryPeriod V: 7th - 9th century

Period IV: 4th - 6th centuryPeriod III: 1st - 3rd century A.D.Period II: 2nd - 1st century B.C.Period I: Northern Black Polished Ware level (4th / 3rd century B.C.)(Pieces of Painted Grey Ware pottery were found but the PGW level wasnot identified).

In the sixteenth century, the Mughal king Humayun built his fort at thisplace. Today, we can see the fort, but the older history of this site is burieddeep underground, invisible.

RED FORT

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The Red Fort is a good example of Mughal military architecture. The tallramparts, heavily fortified gateways, a moat surrounding the fort, etc.,reflect the architectural skills of the Mughal rulers. The style ofarchitecture followed in building the monuments within the periphery of

this fort conforms to the Islamic style with liberal local influences. A goodexample of the Islamic style is the use of elaborate patterns and intricatelycarved marble screens (jali).

Red Fort - A monument of India

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Shahjahan, the fifth Mughal emperorand grandson of Akbar, moved theimperial capital back to Delhi fromLahore in 1638. Within eight years,Shahjahanabad was completed withthe Red Fort-the then Quila-I-Mubarak

(fortunate citadel)-ready in all itsmagnificence toreceive Shahjahan.However, Shahjahan could not enjoy his new city as hisson Aurangzeb imprisoned him in the Agra Fort, wherespent the rest of his life. Though much has changed nowbecause of large-scale demolitions during the Britishoccupation of the fort, its important structures havesurvived.

The Red Fort gets its name from the use of red sandstone in itsconstruction. It is situated on the western banks of the Yamuna (which hassince changed its course). The walls of this fort extend for 2 km and varyin height. The height of the walls is 18 m on the riverside, while it is 33 mon the city side.At the Red Fort, an entire complex of buildings andreception rooms, cusped-domed roofs, dry waterways and gardens. Thetrue luster has dulled but it is not difficult to see how magnificent this oncewas. The years have tarnished but not tainted. A pervasive odor of dustand smoke hovers just above the ground. The crumbling stone flakes redinto my hands as I pull around a pillar, slide off a ledge. The fort has two

important gateways-Lahori Gate and Delhi Gate.

The Lahori Gate is the main entrance to the Red Fort. The gate faces thedirection to Lahore (now in Pakistan), hence the name Lahori Gate. Thegate forms a part of a massive stone fortification and is made up of dullpink sandstone. The grassy area above this massive gateway and belowthe tall ramparts of the fort is the place from where the prime minister ofIndia addresses and leads the nation in celebrating the Independence Day.

Important Monuments withinthe Red Fort

There are a number of importantand interesting buildings within theRed Fort. As soon as one enters theLahori Gate, one finds himself in avaulted arcade-the ChattaChowk-that is full of shops sellingsouvenirs and gift articles. Duringthe time of the Mughals, the

shopkeepers used to sell silk items,jewelry, and gold. This arcade ofshops was then known as the

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Meena Bazaar. The arcade leads to the Naubat Khana (drum house),where musicians played for the emperor and announced the arrival of theroyalty and important dignitaries.

Passing the Naubat Khana, one comes face to face with the Diwan-I-Aam(hall of public audience). It was in this flat-roof hall, having rows of cusped

arches, that the emperor met his subjects. The emperor sat on a lavishmarble-paneled throne set within an inlaid and painted alcove, built intothe back wall of the hall. The throne was also studded with preciousstones. A platform is located below the throne where the announcer readout royal farmans (royal edict) and list of gifts to be handed out toimportant people.

The Diwan-I-Aam served as a screen thatprotected the royal quarters behind it

from the prying eyes of outsiders. Theprivate quarters of the royalty consistedof a number of buildings. The Diwan-I-Khas (hall of private audience), made outof white marble, is a luxurious chamberwhere the emperor held private meetingswith important people or with other

members of the royal family. The roof and walls of this hall were paintedand decorated with inlay work (pietra dura). Though precious stones fromthe inlay work have gone, the originalsplendor remains. The floral patterns that

are still there reflect the high degree of skillof the Mughal artisans. The centerpiece ofthis hall was the magnificent PeacockThrone. It is said that the throne was builtout of solid gold and had figures of peacocksstanding behind it. However, presently, onecan only see the marble pedestal on whichthe throne used to rest. The other important feature of this hall was that ithad a ceiling made out of silver. Inscribed on the walls of the Diwan-I-Khasis the famous Persian couplet: "Gar firdaus, ruhe zamin ast, hamin asto,

hamin asto, hamin asto" (If there is a paradise on the face of the earth, itis here, it is here, it is here.).

Moti Masjid

Next to the Diwan-I-Khas are the hammams or royal baths; these consistof three rooms topped by domes, with a fountain inthe center. These rooms have floors and walls made ofmarble and inlaid with precious stones. Near thehammams is a three-story octagonal structure calledthe Shahi Burj (royal tower), which was emperorShahjahan's private working area. The waterworksfrom this tower on the northeastern part of the fort goto the Rang Mahal (palace of the chief queen) in the

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south. To the west of the royal baths is the Moti Masjid (pearl mosque)built in AD 1659 by Aurangzeb (Shahjahan's son) for his personal use.

HUMAYUNS TOMB

Humayun's tomb is known as the first example of the monumental scalethat would characterize subsequent Mughal imperial architecture.Commissioned, it is believed, by Humayun's senior widow, Haji Begam, orby her son Akbar, the tomb is the first to mark the grave of a Mughalemperor; Humayun's father Babur, who founded the dynasty, hadrequested out of piety that he be buried in a garden. Humayun's Tomb isnow one of the best-preserved Mughal monuments in Delhi.

The tomb design is attributed to Sayyid Muhammad and his father, MirakSayyid Ghiyath (Mirak Mirza Ghiyas), Persian architects and poets active inthe Timurid and later the Mughal courts. The tomb is situated south of thePurana Qila, on the eastern edge of Delhi. It is set in the center of agarden in the classical Mughal char bagh pattern. A high wall surroundsthe garden on three sides, the fourth side being bounded by what wasonce the bank of the river Jamna, which has since been diverted. Thegarden is divided into four parts by two bisecting water channels withpaved walkways (khiyabans), which terminate at two gates: a main one in

the southern wall, and a smaller one in the western wall.

The tomb sits at the center of a plinth, about21feet (7m) high. The top of its central domereaches 140 feet from the ground. The domeis double-layered; the outer layer supportsthe white marble exterior facing, while theinner one defines the cavernous interiorvolume. The rest of the tomb is clad in redsandstone, with white marble ornamentation.

A large iwan, a high arch,punctuates the center of eachfacade, and is set back slightly.

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Together with the other arches and openings, this effect creates a variedand complex impression of depth at each facade. Detailed ornamentationin three colors of stone adds to the richness to the surfaces. The plan ofthe main tomb building is intricate. It is a square 'ninefold plan', whereeight two-storyed vaulted chambers radiate from the central, double-height domed chamber. The chambers of each level are interconnected by

straight and diagonal passages. In Humayun's tomb, each of the mainchambers has in turn eight more, smaller chambers radiating from it. Thesymmetrical ground plan contains 124 vaulted chambers in all.

The sarcophagus of Humayun is found in the central domedchamber, the head pointing south, and facing eastaccording to Islamic practice. The vaulted chambers alsocontain sarcophagi that were added later. The sex of eachoccupant is marked by a simple carved symbol: a box ofwriting instruments indicates a male, and a writing slateindicates a female. The sarcophagi are not otherwiseinscribed, but among them are known to be thosecontaining the wives of Humayun, and several later Mughalemperors and princes.

Although the architect of the tomb was 'imported' from Persia, it has beenobserved that the distinctly Indian aspects of the tomb, such as the Hinduchattris (domed pavilions) that surround the central dome, set Humayun'stomb firmly in the Indo-Islamic tradition that was already emerging at thetime. Many of the tomb's basic elements, such as the octagonal plans andhigh iwans, are derived from earlier tombs built for Delhi sultans. The

unprecedented scale and grandeur of the monument, however, areaspects that were to define much of subsequent Mughal tomb building,and are among the similarities commonly cited between Humayun's tomband the Taj Mahal in Agra.

JAMA MASJID

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The Masjid-i-Jahan Numa, commonly known as Jama Masjid of Delhi is the principal mosque ofOld Delhi in India. Commissioned by the MughalEmperor Shah Jahan and completed in the year1656 AD, it is the largest and best known mosque

in India. (There are also Jama Masjids in manyother cities with a history of Islamic rule, or largeMuslim populations.)

Shah Jahan built several important mosques inDelhi, Agra, Ajmer and Lahore. The Jama Masjid'sfloorplan is very similar to the Moti Masjid at Agra,but the Jama Masjid is the bigger and moreimposing of the two. Its majesty is furtherenhanced because of the high ground that heselected for building this mosque.

The courtyard of the mosque can be reached from theeast, north and south by three flights of steps, all built ofred sandstone. The northern gate of the mosque has 39steps. The southern side of the mosque has 33 steps.The eastern gate of the mosque was the royal entranceand it has 35 steps. These steps used to house foodstalls, shops and street entertainers. In the evening, theeastern side of the mosque used to be converted into abazaar for poultry and birds in general.

The dome of Jama Masjid

The mosque faces west. Its three sidesare covered with open archedcolonnades, each having a lofty tower-like gateway in the centre. The mosqueis about 261 feet (80 m) long and 90feet (27 m) wide, and its roof is coveredwith three domes with alternate stripesof black and white marble, with itstopmost parts covered with gold. Two

lofty minarets, 130 feet (40 m) high,and containing 130 steps, longitudinally striped with white marble and redsandstone, flank the domes on either side. The minarets are divided bythree projecting galleries and are surmounted by open twelve-sideddomed pavilions. On the back of the mosque, there are four smallminarets crowned like those in the front.

The Dome of Jama Masjid

Under the domes of the mosque, is a hall withseven arched entrances facing the west and

the walls of the mosque, up to the height ofthe waist, are covered with marble. Beyondthis is a prayer hall, which is about 61 meters

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X 27.5 meters, with eleven arched entrances, of which the centre arch iswide and lofty, and in the form of a massive gateway, with slim minaretsin each corner, with the usual octagonal pavilion surmounting it. Overthese arched entrances there are tablets of white marble, four feet (1.2 m)long and 2.5 feet (760 mm) wide, inlaid with inscriptions in black marble.These inscriptions give the history of the building of the mosque, and

glorify the reign and virtues of Shah Jahan. The slab over the centre archcontains simply the words "The Guide!"

The mosque stands on a platform of about five feet(1.5 m) from the pavement of the terrace, and threeflight of steps lead to the interior of the mosquefrom the east, north, and the south. The floor of themosque is covered with white and black marbleornamented to imitate the Muslim prayer mat; athin black marble border is marked for theworshippers, which is three feet long and 1 feet

wide. In total there are 899 such spaces marked in the floor of themosque. The back of the mosque is cased over to the height of the rock onwhich the mosque stands with large hewn stones.

AGRA

Agra was once the capital of India. For 80 years starting in 1570 whenAkbar the Great transferred his court from Delhi to Agra's neighboringFatehpur Sikri up until Aurangzeb moved it back to the new Red Fort ofDelhi, Agra was the central site of imperial India. Typically, every emperor

who set foot in this city saw fit to build there. Both Babur and Humayunhad already undertaken some early projects there, but Akbar, Jahangir,and especially Shah Jahan raised fantastic structures at Agra, most notablythe Agra Fort and, of course, the Taj Mahal.

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AGRA FORT

This great monument of red sandstone dominating a bend in the river Yamuna, 2km northwest of Taj Mahalwas constructed by the Mughals during1565-1571. It was Emperor Akbar who

laid the foundation of this majesticcitadel in 1565. The fort was ready by1571 period of Shahjahan, Akbar'sgrandson. The fort is crescent shaped,flattened on the east with a long, nearlystraight wall facing the river. Fort'scolossal double walls rise 69 ft in heightand measure 2.5 km in circumferenceencircled by a moat and contain a mazeof buildings which form a small city within a city. The fort contains

splendid mosques and palaces in red sandstone and white marble built bytwo generations of creative builders during the time of Akbar and laterJehangir and Shahjahan.

The wall has 2 gates, the Delhi Gate and the Amar Singh Gate. The originaland grandest entrance was through the Delhi Gate, which leads to theinner portal called the Hathi Pol or Elephant Gate. But now the entrance tothe fort is only through the Amar Singh Gate.

Jehangiri Mahal:This is the first notable building asone enters through the Amar Singh Gate and emerges

out of the passage. Situated north of the gate at theend of a spacious lawn, the Jehangir's palace was builtby Akbar as a residence for his son Jehangir. Thelargest private residence in the fort, it is a blend ofHindu and Central Asian architectural styles. TheMahal is reached through an impressive gateway andits inner courtyard consists of a two storey facade ofbeautiful halls, profuse carvings on stone, heavybrackets exquisitely carved with animal and floralmotifs, piers and cross beams with remnants of the rich gilded decorationswhich once covered much of the structure. There is a verandah withslender pillars on the eastern front facing the river front. This is the mostimportant building remaining from Akbars period as his successorsdemolished several of Akbar's red sand structures replacing them withmarble one's. To the right of Jahangiri Mahal is a simple palace of Akbar'sfavourite queen Jodha Bai.

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Khas Mahal: Built entirely of marble by Shah Jahan in 1637, the Khas Mahal or the PrivatePalace demonstrates distinctive Islamic-Persianfeatures. The enclosure has three pavilionsoverlooking the Yamuna, with a fountainopposite the central pavilion. The central

pavilion an airy edifice, used by the emperor asa sleeping chamber has three arches on eachside, five in front, and two turrets rising out ofthe roof. It overlooks the Angoori Bagh (grape

garden). The Mahal is flanked by two golden (copper) pavilions, one withwhite marble and was supposedly decorated with gold leaf, while the otheris made with red stone, which were meant for the prominent ladies of theharem. The Khaas Mahal provides the most successful example of paintingon a white marble surface.

On the three sides of the Grape garden are residential quarters of women.

Musamman Burj: On the left of the Khas Mahal isthe Musamman Burj, an octagonal tower with anopen pavilion build by Shahjahan for his belovedwife Mumtaz Mahal. It is made of delicate marblelattices with ornamental niches for the ladies of thecourt to gaze out, unseen. The chamber with amarble dome on top is surrounded by a verandahwith a beautiful carved fountain in the center. Thetower looks out over the River Yamuna and is

traditionally considered to have one of the mostpoignant views of the Taj. This is where Shah Jahan spent his last fewyears as a captive of his son Aurangazeb and where he lay on his deathbed, gazing at the Taj.

Diwani-i-Khas: Diwan-I-Khas (hall of privateaudience) built by Shahjahan in 163637 wasused to receive kings, dignitaries andambassadors. It is a three sided pavilion with aterrace of fine proportions. Outside thestructure is the marble throne terrace, where a

pair of thrones was kept. The black thronebelonged to Jehangir.

Sheesh Mahal: Opposite to the Mussaman Burj andjust below the Diwan-i-Khas hall, at the northeasternend of the Khas Mahal courtyard is the Sheesh Mahalor the Glass Palace. It is believed to have been theroyal dressing room and its walls are inlaid with tinymirrors, one of the best specimens of glass-mosaicdecoration in India. The Sheesh Mahal is composed of

two large halls of equal size, each measuring 11.15m x6.40 m. Both are connected in the centre by a broad arched opening andon the sides by two narrow passages.

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Macchhi Bhawan: Opposite to the Diwan-i-Khas is the Macchhi Bhawan,a grand enclosure meant for harem functions. The emperor sat on thewhite marble platform of the Diwani-i-Khas facing this courtyard. It oncecontained pools and marble fountains which were carried off by Jat RajaSurajmal to his palace at Deeg. On another side stands a small mosquebuilt for Shahjahan by his son Aurangzeb.

Hammam-i-Shahi: To the right of Diwan-i-khas is the Hammam-i-Shahi orthe Shah Burj. It is an airy apartment, attached to the residential quarterswhich were used as a summer retreat.

Diwan-i-Am:The Hall of Public Audiences, made of red sandstone, wasconstructed by Shahjahan. It is here the emperor metofficials and commoners and listened to thepetitioners. The women of the palace could watch thecourt without being seen by others from the pavilionthrough jali (lattice) screens. The open sided, cuspedarched hall (64x23m) built of plaster on red stone, isvery impressive. The throne alcove of richly decoratedwhite marble completed after 7 years work in 1634was used to house the famous Peacock Throne, later shifted to Delhi byAurangazeb and was finally carried away to Iran. The Peacock Throne

The Nagina Masjid or the gem mosque is a private mosque raised byShah Jahan with typical cusped arches for ladies of the court. There isMina bazar for the royal ladies to buy things from the marble balconybeneath the Nagina Masjid.

The Moti Masjid near the Nagina Masjid is a perfectly proportioned pearlmosque built in white marble. This grand mosque has three domes inwhite marble raising their heads over the red sandstone wall.

TAJ MAHAL

Taj Mahal mausoleum, Agra, Uttar Pradeshstate, North India, on the Yamuna River. Itis considered one of the most beautifulbuildings in the world and the finestexample of the late style of Indian Islamicarchitecture. The Mughal emperor Shah Jahan ordered it built after the death(1629) of his favorite wife, Arjumand BanoBegum, who is better known as MumtazMahal. The building, which was completedbetween 1632 and 1638, was designed by

the local Muslim architect Ustad Ahmad Lahori; set in its carefully laid outgrounds, it is a reflection of the gardens of Paradise to which the faithfulascend. The entire complex, with gardens, gateway structures, and

mosque, was completed in 1643.

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The Taj Mahal mausoleum stands at one end of the garden adorned withfountains and marble pavements. The garden contains four waterchannels to echo the four rivers of the Islamic Paradise. It rises from aplatform 313 ft (95 m) on a side, bearing a white marble minaret at eachcorner; the enclosure, 186 ft (57 m) on a side, has truncated corners and ahigh portal on each side. The white marble exterior is inlaid with

semiprecious stones arranged in Arabic inscriptions (designed by a localartist Amanat Khan, who was Shah Jahan's calligrapher), floral designs,and arabesques, and the salient features of the interior are accented withagate, jasper, and colored marbles. The roofing dome, on the inside, is 80ft (24.4m) high and 50 ft (15.2 m) in diameter; outside it forms a bulb,which tapers to a spire topped by a crescent. The tomb chamber, with itstwo sarcophagi, is an octagonal room in the center of the edifice (the royalcouple, however, are buried in an underground vault). The chamber issoftly illuminated by the light that passes through double screens ofintricately carved marble set high in the walls.

Origin and inspiration

Location of the Taj Mahal within India

Shah Jahan, who commissioned the monument, was a prolific patron witheffectively limitless resources. He had previously created the gardens andpalaces of Shalimar in honor of his wife, Mumtaz. After her death inchildbirth (she had already borne him fourteen children) Shah Jahan wasreportedly inconsolable, and soon after he began construction of the Taj

Mahal. His lavish aesthetic and romantic nature is apparent in everyaspect of the Taj Mahal.

Influences on Taj Mahal design

The Taj Mahal incorporates and expands on many design traditions,particularly Islamic, Persian, Hindu and earlier Mughal architecture.

The overall design derived inspiration from a number of successful Timuridand Mughal buildings: these include the Gur-e Amir, Humayun's Tomb,

Itmad-Ud-Daulah's Tomb (sometimes called the Baby Taj), and his ownJama Masjid. Under Shah Jahan's patronage, Mughal building reached newlevels of refinement. Previous Mughal building had primarily been

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constructed of red sandstone; Shah Jahan promoted the use of whitemarble inlaid with semi-precious stones.

Interior of masjid dome, showing inlaid geometricdecoration

Hindu craftsmen, particularly sculptors and stonecutters,plied trade throughout Asia during this period, and theirwork was particularly prized by tomb builders. Whilst therock-cut architecture which characterises much of this

construction had little or no influence on the Taj Mahal, other Indianbuildings such as the Man Singh palace in Gwalior were an inspiration formuch Mughal palace architecture and the source for the chhatris whichcan be seen on the Taj Mahal.

Design elements

Consistent repeated design elements are employed throughout thecomplex. These unify the complex with a single aesthetic vocabulary.

Design elements of the Taj Mahal

Major design features of the tomb are echoed throughout the complex --both the tomb and the outlying buildings.

Finial: decorative crowning element of the Taj Mahal domes Lotus decoration: depiction of lotus flower sculpted on tops of

domes Onion dome: massive outer dome of the tomb (also called an

amrudor apple dome) Drum: cylindrical base of the onion dome, raising it from the main

building Guldasta: decorative spire attached to the edge of supporting walls Chattri: a domed and columned kiosk Spandrel: upper panels of an archway Calligraphy: stylized writing of verses from the Qu'ran framing

main arches Arch: also calledpishtaq (Persian word for portal projecting from the

facade of a building) Dado: decorative sculpted panels lining lower walls

Most of the elements can be found on the gateway, mosque and jawab aswell as the mausoleum.

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The garden

The complex is set in and around a large charbagh (a formal Mughalgarden divided into four parts). Measuring 320 m 300 m, the garden hassunken parterres or flowerbeds, raised pathways, avenues of trees,fountains, water courses, and pools that reflect the Taj Mahal.

Walkways besides reflecting pool

Outlying buildingsGateway to the Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal complex is bounded by acrenellated red sandstone wall on three sides.The river-facing side is unwalled. Outside thewall are several additional mausoleums,including those of many of Shah Jahan's otherwives, and a larger tomb for Mumtaz's favoriteservant. These structures, composed primarilyof red sandstone, are typical of smaller Mughaltombs of the era.

On the inner (garden) side, the wall is fronted by columned arcades, afeature typical of Hindu temples later incorporated into Mughal mosques.The wall is interspersed with domed kiosks (chattris), and small buildings

which may have been viewing areas or watch towers (suchas the so-called Music House, now used as a museum).

Interior of jawab

The main gateway (darwaza) is a monumental structure builtprimarily of red sandstone. The style is reminiscent of that ofMughal architecture of earlier emperors. Its archways mirrorthe shape of the tomb's archways, and its pishtaq arches

incorporate the calligraphy that decorates the tomb. It utilizes bas-reliefand pietra dura (inlaid) decorations with floral motifs. The vaulted ceilingsand walls have elaborate geometric designs, like those found in the othersandstone buildings of the complex.

At the far end of the complex, two grand red sandstone buildings open tothe sides of the tomb. Their backs parallel the western and eastern walls.

Taj Mahal mosque or masjid

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The two buildings are precise mirror images of each other. The westernbuilding is a mosque; its opposite is the jawab or"answer", whose primary purpose wasarchitectural balance (and which may havebeen used as a guesthouse during Mughaltimes). The distinctions are that the jawab

lacks a mihrab, a niche in a mosque's wallfacing Mecca, and the floors of thejawab have a geometric design, whilethe mosque floor was laid out the outlines of 569 prayer rugs in blackmarble.

The mosque's basic design is similar to others built by Shah Jahan,particularly to his Jama Masjid in Delhi: a long hall surmounted by threedomes. Mughal mosques of this period divide the sanctuary hall into threeareas: a main sanctuary with slightly smaller sanctuaries to either side. Atthe Taj Mahal, each sanctuary opens on to an enormous vaulting dome.

The tomb

Base

Simplified diagram of the Taj Mahal floor plan.

The focus of the Taj Mahal is the white marble tomb. Like most Mughaltombs, the basic elements are Persian in origin: a building with archedentrances, topped by a large dome. In India, and most especially at the TajMahal, this simple idea reached its zenith.

The tomb stands on a square plinth. The base structure is a large, multi-chambered structure. The main chamber houses the cenotaphs of ShahJahan and Mumtaz (the actual graves are a level below).

The base is essentially a cube with chamfered edges, roughly 55 meterson each side (see floor plan, above). On the long sides, a massivepishtaq,or vaulted archway frames an arch-shaped doorway, with a similar arch-

shaped balcony above. These main archesextend above the roof the building by useof an integrated facade.

To either side of the main arch, additionalpishtaqs are stacked above and below. Thismotif of stacked pishtaqs is replicated onthe chamfered corner areas.

Main arch and side pishtaqs

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The design is completely uniform and consistenton all sides of the building. Four minarets, one ateach corner of the plinth, facing the chamferedcorners, frame the tomb.

Dome

The marble dome that surmounts the tomb is its most spectacular feature.Its height is about the same size as the base building, about 35 m. Itsheight is accentuated because it sits on a cylindrical "drum" about 7 mhigh.

Because of its shape, the dome is often called an onion dome (also calledan amrudor apple dome). The top of the dome is decorated with a lotusdesign, which serves to accentuate its height. The dome is topped by agilded finial, which mixes traditional Islamic and Hindu decorativeelements.

Base, dome, and minaret

The dome shape is emphasized by four smallerdomed chattris (kiosks) placed at its corners. Thechattri domes replicate the onion shape of maindome. Their columned bases open through the roofof the tomb, and provide light to the interior. Thechattris also are topped by gilded finials.

Tall decorative spires (guldastas) extend from theedges of the base walls, and provide visualemphasis of the dome height.

The lotus motif is repeated on both the chattris and guldastas.

Finial

The main dome is crowned by a gilded spire or finial. Thefinial provides a clear example of the integration oftraditional Islamic and Hindu decorative elements. The finial is

topped by a crescent moon, a typical Islamic motif, whosehorns point heavenward. Because of its placement on themain spire, the horns of the moon and the finial pointcombine to create a trident shape -- reminiscent of thetraditional Hindu symbols of Shiva.

Similarly, the spire is made up of a number of bulbous forms. The centralform bears a striking resemblance to a Hindu sacred water vessel (kalashor kumbh).

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Minarets

At the corners of the plinth stand minarets: four large towers each morethan 40 m tall. The minarets again display the Taj Mahal's basic penchantfor symmetrical, repeated design.

The towers are designed as working minarets, atraditional element of mosques, a place for amuezzin to call the Islamic faithful to prayer. Eachminaret is effectively divided into three equal partsby two working balconies that ring the tower. At thetop of the tower is a final balcony surmount ed by achattri that mirrors the design of those on thetomb.

The minaret chattris share the same finishing touches: a lotus designtopped by a gilded finial. Each of the minarets was constructed slightly outof plumb to the outside of the plinth, so that in the event of collapse (atypical occurrence with many such tall constructions of the period) thematerial would tend to fall away from the tomb.

The inner chamber

The inner chamber of the Taj Mahal contains the cenotaphs of Mumtaz andShah Jahan. It is a masterpiece of artistic craftsmanship, virtually withoutprecedent or equal.

The inner chamber is an octagon. While the design allows for entry fromeach face, only the south (garden facing) door is used.

The interior walls are about 25 m high, topped by a "false" interior domedecorated with a sun motif.

Eight pishtaq arches define the space at ground level. As is typical withthe exterior, each lower pishtaq is crowned by a second pishtaq aboutmidway up the wall. The four central upper arches form balconies orviewing areas; each balcony's exterior window has an intricate screen orjali cut from marble.

In addition to the light from the balcony screens, light enters through roofopenings covered by the chattris at the corners of the exterior dome.

Each of the chamber walls has been highly decorated with dado bas relief,intricate lapidary inlay, and refined calligraphy panels, reflecting inminiature detail the design elements seen throughout the exterior of thecomplex.

The jali

The octagonal marble screen orjali which borders the cenotaphs is madefrom eight marble panels. Each panel has been carved through withintricate pierce work. The remaining surfaces have been inlaid with

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semiprecious stones in extremely delicate detail, forming twining vines,fruits and flowers.

The cenotaphs

Cenotaphs, interior of the Taj Mahal

Muslim tradition forbids elaborate decoration ofgraves, so the bodies of Mumtaz and Shah Jahanare laid in a relatively plain chamber beneath theinner chamber of the Taj Mahal. They are buriedon a north-south axis, with faces turned right(west) toward Mecca.

The Taj Mahal has been raised over their cenotaphs (from Greek kenotaphas, empty tomb). The cenotaphs mirror precisely the placement of thetwo graves, and are exact duplicates of the grave stones in the basementbelow.

Mumtaz's cenotaph is placed at the precise centre of the inner chamber.On a rectangular marble base about 1.5 by 2.5 m is a smaller marblecasket. Both base and casket are elaborately inlaid with precious andsemiprecious gems. Calligraphic inscriptions on the casket identify andpraise Mumtaz. On the lid of the casket is a raised rectangular lozengemeant to suggest a writing tablet.

Shah Jahan's cenotaph is beside Mumtaz's to the western side. It is the

only asymmetric element in the entire complex. His cenotaph is biggerthan his wife's, but reflects the same elements: A larger casket on slightlytaller base, again decorated with astonishing precision with lapidary andcalligraphy which identifies Shah Jahan. On the lid of this casket is asculpture of a small pen box. (The pen box and writing tablet weretraditional Mughal funeary icons decorating men's and women's casketsrespectively.)

Construction

Construction began with setting foundations for the tomb. An area of

roughly three acres was excavated and filled with dirt to reduce seepagefrom the river. The entire site was levelled to a fixed height about 50 mabove the riverbank. The Taj Mahal is 180 feet tall. The dome itselfmeasures 60 feet in diameter and 80 feet high.

View from the Agra Fort

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Instead of lashed bamboo, the typical scaffolding method, workmenconstructed a colossal brick scaffold that mirrored the inner and outersurfaces of the tomb. The scaffold was so enormous that foremenestimated it would take years to dismantle. According to legend, ShahJahan decreed that anyone could keep bricks taken from the scaffold, andit was dismantled by peasants overnight.

A fifteen-kilometre tamped-earth ramp was built to transport marble andmaterials from Agra to the construction site. According to contemporaryaccounts teams of twenty or thirty oxen strained to pull the blocks onspecially constructed wagons. To raise the blocks into position required,elaborate post-and-beam pulley system teams of mules and oxen providedthe lifting power.

The order of construction was

The plinth The tomb The four minarets The mosque and jawab The gateway

The plinth and tomb took roughly 12 years to complete. The remainingparts of the complex took an additional 10 years. (Since the complex wasbuilt in stages, contemporary historical accounts list different "completiondates"; discrepancies between so-called completion dates are probablythe result of differing opinions about the definition of "completion". For

example, the mausoleum itself was essentially complete by 1643, butwork continued on the rest of the complex.)

Materials

The Taj Mahal was constructed using materials from all over India andAsia. Over 1,000 elephants were used to transport building materialsduring the construction. The white marble was brought from Rajasthan,the jasper from Punjab and the jade and crystal from China. The turquoisewas from Tibet and the Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, while the sapphirecame from Sri Lanka and the carnelian from Arabia. In all, 28 types of

precious and semi-precious stones were inlaid into the white marble.

Costs

The total cost of the Taj Mahal's construction was about 40 million rupees.At that time, 1 gram of gold was sold for about 1.3 rupees. Based on theOctober 2005 gold price that would translate to more than 500 millionUS$. (Comparisons based on the value of gold in two different economiceras are often misleading, however).

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History

Soon after its completion, Shah Jahan was deposed and put under housearrest at nearby Agra Fort by his son

Aurangzeb. Legend has it that he spent theremainder of his days gazing through thewindow, at the Taj Mahal. Upon Shah Jahan'sdeath, Aurangzeb buried him in the TajMahal, next to his wife, the only disruption ofthe otherwise perfect symmetry in thearchitecture. By the late 19th century, partsof the Taj Mahal had fallen badly intodisrepair. During the time of the First war ofIndian Independence, the Taj Mahal faceddefacement by British soldiers, sepoys and

government officials who chiselled outprecious stones and lapis lazuli from its walls.

The Taj Mahal is often described as one of the seven wonders of themodern world. Millions of tourists have visited the site -- more than threemillion in 2004, according to the BBC -- making it one of the most popularinternational attractions in India.

LEGENDS & THEORIES SURROUNDING THE TAJ MAHAL

Origins of the name

The name comes from Taj Persian, the language of the Mughal court,meaning crown, and Mahal means palace. Most sources suggest that TajMahal is a shorter variant of Mumtaz Mahal, the nickname of ArjumandBanu Begum, meaning First Lady of the Palace. As early as 1663, theFrench traveller Francois Bernier referred to the place as Tage Mehale.

The "Black Taj"

A longstanding popular tradition holds that an identical mausoleum

complex was originally supposed to be built on the other side of the river,in black marble instead of white. The story suggests that Shah Jahan wasoverthrown by his son Aurangzeb before the black version could be built.Ruins of dark marble found across the river are, the story suggests, theunfinished base of this "Black Taj."

Recent scholarship disputes this theory, and throws some interesting lighton the design of the Taj Mahal. All other major Mughal tombs were sited ingardens that form a cross, with the tomb at the intersection of the verticaland horizontal pieces. The Taj Mahal gardens, by contrast, form a great 'T',with the tomb at the centre of the crosspiece. But the outline of the ruins

on the other river bank would extend the design of the Taj Mahal gardensto form a cross of proportions typical of other Mughal tombs. Further, themarble in the ruins opposite the Taj Mahal, while dark from staining, were

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originally white. In addition, an octagonal pool in these ruins would havereflected the Taj Mahal. Scholars have called these ruins the MahtabBaugh or "Moonlight Garden".

Shah Jahan's asymmetric tomb

Aurangzeb had Shah Jahan's tomb and cenotaph placed in the Taj Mahalrather than building him a separate mausoleum such as other emperorshad. He thus destroyed the symmetry of the Taj Mahal design. A variationon the Black Taj legend suggests that Aurangzeb's decision was madefrom malice or parsimony. In Itmad-Ud-Daulah's Tomb however, which wasa major influence on the Taj Mahal design, Aurangzeb's grandparents wereinterred in a similar asymmetric fashion. Aurangazeb was a pious man,and Islam discourages all kinds of ostentation - least of all in death. That iswhy they do not use box-coffins but rather bury their dead in a whiteshroud. Islamic books describe burying in coffins or boxes as 'wastingwealth that can be used in good deeds like feeding the hungry or needy'Shah Jahan's building itself was thus a waste of money according toAurangazeb's worldview. Thus he just buried his father next to hismother's tomb without much ado.

Mutilation of the craftsmen

A seemingly endless number of stories describe, often in horrific detail,deaths, dismemberments and mutilations which Shah Jahan visited onvarious craftsmen associated with the tomb. No respected authorities findthese legendary horrors credible. Perhaps the most common story

prevailing is that Shah Jahan had the finest architects and sculptors at hisdisposal. After the completion of the work, Shah Jahan had their hands cutoff and their eyes pulled out so that they would not build a monumentmore beautiful than Taj Mahal.

Stolen items

Legends abound concerning items originally attached to the Taj Mahalwhich were stolen. Some original items have been removed over time, butmany are mere legends only. These legends include:

Gold leaf, supposed to have covered all or part of the dome. A golden railing supposed to have circled the cenotaphs (suggested

perhaps by a temporary enamel railing that was replaced aftercompletion of the marble jali)

Diamonds supposedly inlaid in the cenotaphs A blanket woven of pearls supposedly covering Mumtaz's cenotaph

Numerous items from the Taj Mahal have gone missing however; theseinclude

An entrance door of carved jasper Gold leaf that adorned the cast iron joints of the jali screen around

the cenotaphs Numerous rich carpets that covered the interior of the tomb

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Enameled lamps from the interior chamber

Was the Taj Mahal originally a temple or a palace?

P.N. Oak, President of The Institute for Rewriting Indian History, hasrepeatedly asserted that the Taj Mahal was a Hindu temple of the god

Shiva, usurped and remodelled by Shah Jahan. The temple's name, hesays, was originally "Tejo Mahalaya"; this was corrupted over time to "TajMahal".

Oak also claims that the tombs of Humayun, Akbar and Itmiad-u-Dallah as well as the Vatican in Rome, and Stonehenge, and "all historicbuildings" in India were also Hindu temples or palaces.

The Taj is only a typical illustration of how all historic buildings andtownships from Kashmir to Cape Comorin though of Hindu originhave been ascribed to this or that Muslim ruler or courtier.

He further says that if Taj Mahal was nota Shiva temple, that it might thenhave been the palace of a Rajput king. In any case (he says), the Taj Mahalwas Hindu in origin, stolen by Shah Jahan and adapted as a tomb although Oak also claims that Mumtaz is not buried there.

Oak further states that the numerous eyewitness accounts of Taj Mahalconstruction, and Shah Jahan's construction orders and voluminousfinancial records, are elaborate frauds meant to hide its Hindu origin.

His many provocative assertions have gained a lot of popular interest andmade Oak a well-known media figure.

He has sued to break open the cenotaphs, and to tear down brick walls inthe lower plinth: In these "fake tombs" and "sealed apartments", Oak saysShiva lingams or other temple items were hidden by Shah Jahan.

According to Oak, the Indian government's refusal to allow him unfetteredaccess amounts to a conspiracy against Hinduism.

Oak's assertions are not accepted by legitimate scholars. But these stories

are widely believed and publicized by some contemporary Hindutva (Hindunationalist) activists.

In 2000 India's Supreme Court dismissed Oak's petition to declare that aHindu king built the Taj Mahal, and reprimanded him for bringing theaction. In 2005 a similar petition was dismissed by the Allahabad HighCourt. This case was brought by Amar Nath Mishra, a social worker andpreacher who claims that the Taj Mahal was built by the Hindu KingParmar Dev in 1196.

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FATEHPUR SIKRI

Located 25 miles west of Agra is the odd deserted city Fatehpur Sikri. Builtto house the relocated Mughal capital when Akbar chose to leave Delhi,Fatehpur Sikri was mysterious and suddenly abandoned in 1586. Theextensive display of structures that have survived unscathed by war andnone the worse, in extreme weathers, reveal the architectural glory of theMughal Empire when it was at its apogee.

Emperor Akbar

Legend has it that Akbar, concerned that he had no male heir, consulted aMuslim seer living in reclusion on a hill near Sikri. The latter's prediction ofthree sons came true. To honor his prescience and provide the fittingservices to his wives and their attendants who had been transferred toSikri to bask in the auspicious company of the seer, Akbar commandedthat an imperial city be built: Fatehpur Sikri, Fatehpurmeaning City ofVictory. The two surviving centers of attraction are the two principalstructures: the Palace and the Jama Masjid.

It is regarded as Emperor Akbar's crowning architectural legacy. Indeed,its numerous palaces, halls, and masjids satisfy his creative and aestheticimpulses, typical of Mughals.

Design

The layout of the city shows a conscious attempt to produce rich spatialeffects by the organisation of built forms around open spaces ininteresting ways. Of particular note is the way in which shifts in axes occuras one moves along the city and the location of squares in importantplaces with buildings forming a backdrop or envelope.

Unlike other important Mughal cities (such as Shahjahanabad, which has avery formal planning), Fatehpur Sikri has aspects of informality and

improvisation. Indeed, the newly constructed city bore a similarity to themovable imperial encampment also designed by Akbar.

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IMPORTANT BUILDINGS

The buildings of Fatehpur Sikri show a synthesis of various regionalschools of architectural craftsmanship such as Gujarati and Bengali. Thiswas because indigenous craftsman from various regions were used for theconstruction of the buildings. Influences from Hindu and Jain architecture

are seen hand in hand with Islamic elements. The building materialpredominantly used is red sandstone, quarried from the same rockyoutcrop on which it is situated.

Some of the important buildings in this city, both religious and secularbuildings, are:

Naubat Khana Drum house: near the entry, where importantarrivals are announced.

Diwan-i-Am Hall of Public Audience: a

building typology found in many Mughal citieswhere the ruler meets the general public. Inthis case it is a pavilion like multi-bayedrectangular structure fronting a large openspace.

Diwan-i-Khas Hall ofPrivate Audience: famous

for its central pillar with thirty-six volutedbrackets supporting a circularplatform for Akbar.

Raja Birbal's house: the house of Akbar's favourite minister, whowas a Hindu. Notable features of the building are the horizontalsloping sunshades or chajjas and the brackets which support them.

Birbals palace

Jodha Bai's palace: the palace ofAkbar's favourite queen, a Hindu fromGujarat. The building showsGujarati influence and is builtaround a courtyard, with special carebeing taken to ensure privacy.

Jodha bais palace

Pachisi Court: a square marked out as a large sized board game

(modern day Ludo) where live coins- people- participated.

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Char Chaman Tank: a tank with a central platform and fourbridges leading up to it.

Panch Mahal: A five-storied palacialstructure. The bottom floor has 176intricately carved columns. From the rightangle the building appears like a delicate,

truncated, off-center pyramid. This buildingmay have been a residence for women, aswere Jogh Bai's Palace, the residence of theemperor's most important wives.

The five-storey PanchMahal

Buland Darwaza the 'Gate of Magnificence': one of thegateways to the Jama masjid, a stupendous piece of architecture

from the outside, gradually making a transition to a human scale inthe inside. Much larger than the rest of themosque, this gate was added later. It is neverreally visible from anyperspective other thandirectly below it as thefarther away the viewergets, the farther down along flight of steps and

then an incline he or she goes. The sense ofheight is further exaggerated by powerful

vertical.

Jami Masjid: the mosque, built in the manner of Indian mosques,with liwans (aisles) around a central courtyard. A distinguishingfeature is the row of chhatris (small domed pavilions) over thesanctuary.

Tomb of Salim Chisti: a white marble encased tomb within theJama mosque's courtyard.

The Tomb of Salim Chisti seen immediately after entering through Buland Darwaza.

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LESSONS FROM THE PAST

To begin, it should be pointed out that in the large volume of publishedwork on world architecture, there is comparatively little on India (the word

'India' here denotes the sub-continent - including Pakistan, Bangladeshand Sri Lanka. These countries, though separated by political boundaries,share a common cultural heritage). This is not surprising - by far themajority of authors are Westerners. It has been traditionally difficult forWestern historians to make a correct and unbiased appraisal of Indianarchitecture - even if they should choose to do so. One chief cause is thatIndian architecture - both Hindu and Muslim - has been traditionallyconsidered exotic, not subject to the same rules of analysis as Westernexamples. Much research still needs to be done - a beginning has beenmade but the majority of the Indian vernacular still waits to be dissected.

This is a pity since there are many lessons to be learnt - lessons especiallyvalid today when modern Indian architects, trained in schools ofarchitecture closely patterned on Western examples, are lacking in all butthe most rudimentary knowledge of their own heritage and the conditions- social, cultural, political - which spawned it. Valuable insights on buildingmorphology, use of material and climatic appropriateness - which todayare all major issues - can be gleaned from the ingenious solutions in thevernacular.

This section is also an attempt to strip Indian architecture of its 'exotic'tag, and present it for what it is - an intelligent, innovative response tolocal conditions.

CONCLUSION

Indian architecture as it stands today is a body of production that cannoteasily be exemplified by the approaches, buildings and architects citedabove. It has evolved over the centuries and has been affected bynumerous invaders who have brought different styles from theirmotherlands. However, it is an unavoidable fact that certain expressionstend to be magnified and others reduced when set against the vast canvas

of the world. A more representative selection can occur only at a deeperlevel of study.

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