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INTRODUCTION

MICROBES :Those organisms which are not seen in naked eyes because they

have size of 0.1 mm.

Besides macroscopic plants and animals, microbes are the major

components of biological system on this earth. They are present

everywhere-in soil, water, air, inside our bodies and that of other

animals and plants. They are present even at sites where no other life

form could possibly exist-sites such as deep inside the geysers (thermal

vents) where temperatures may be as high as 100 degree Celsius, deep in

soil, under the layers of snow several meters thicks, and the highly

acidic environments. Microbes are diverse protozoa, bacteria, fungiand microscopic plants virus, viriods and also prions that are

proteinceous infections agents.

Microbes like bacteria and many fungi can be grown on nutritive

media to form colonies that can be seen with naked eyes.

While microbes are casual agents of most of the infectious diseases, but

they have also been used by humans in many important processes in

homes, industries agriculture and sewage treatment.

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MICROBES IN

HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTS

y CURD : Indian curd is prepared by inoculating cream and

skimmed milk with Lactobacillus acidophilus at 40 degrees. Curd

is more nutritious milk as it contains vitaimin-B12 and organic

acids. LAB present in curd checks growth of microbes.

y Y OGHURT : Yoghurt produced by curdling milk flavor of lactic

acid and acetaldehyde. Yoghurt is often sweetened and flavoured

with fruit.

y CHEESE : Consist of milk curd that has been separated from

whey or liquid part. Depending upon water content still present in

milk curd cheese is of three types : Soft (50%-80%), Semi hard

(45%), Hard (less than 40%)

i) Swiss cheese Swiss cheese are due to production of a large

amount of carbon dioxide by a bacterium Propionibacterium

sharmnii.

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ii) Roquefort cheese Roquefort cheese is ripened by growing

specific fungi on them which give them a particular flavor.

y BREAD: Small quantity of yeast Sacharomyces crevasse is

added to the wheat flour and kneaded. The kneaded flour is

leavened. The leavened dough is baked, carbon dioxide and

ethyl alcohol escape which makes bread porous and soft.

y DOSA, UPMA AND IDLI: The fermented preparation of rice

and black gram with Streptococcus species.

y TODD Y : Toddy is a traditional drink of some parts of southern

Indian and is made by fermenting sap from palms.

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MICROOBES ININDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS

F ERMENTED BEVERAGES:

Microbes especially yeasts have been used for the production of beverages like wine, beer, whisky, brandy or rum.

i) Alcoholic fermentation: Yeasts are used for fermenting malted

cereals and fruit juices to produce ethanol.

Yeast species used are:

a) Saccharomyces cerevisae Brewers yeast

b) Saccharomyces ellipodens Wine yeast

c) Saccharomyces sake Sake yeast

d) Saccharomyces pireformis ginger beer yeast.

ANTIBIOTICS:

Antibiotics are chemical substances which are produced by somemicrobes and can kill or retard the growth of other disease causing

microbes.

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The first antibiotic discovered was Penicillin by Alexander Fleming in

1928. It has been named after the mould penicillium notatum.

This antibiotic was use to treat wounded American soldiers in World

war II.

Fleming, Chain and Florey were awarded noble prize in 1945 for their

discovery.

Chemicals, enzymes and other bioactive molecules:

Microbes are used for production of certain chemicals like organic acids,alcohols and enzymes.

i) Acid producers

a) Aspergillus niger citric acid

b) Acetobacter aceti acetic acid

c) Clostridium butylicum butyric acid

d) Lactobaccius lactic acid

ii) Microbes used for production of enzymes Common enzymes :

a) Lipases detergent formulations and removes oily stains from the

laundry.

b) Pectinases and Proteases Bottled juices are clarified by the use of pectinases and proteases.

iii) Microbes as bioactive molecules :

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a) Streptokinse Produced by Streptococcus and modified by genetic

engeneering is used as clot buster for removing clots from the

blood vessels of patients who have undergone myocardial

infraction leading to heart attack.

b) Cyclosporin A used as an immunosuppressive patients is

produced by the fungs Trichoderma polysporum.

c) Statins Produced by yeast Monascus purpureus have been

commercialized as blood cholesterol lowering agents.

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MICROBES AS

BIO-FERTILIZERS

The use fertilizers and pesticides to meet the ever-increasing demand of

agricultural produce have contributed significantly to pollution. So ther

is a large pressure to switch to organic farming to use of biofertiliers.

Main source of biofertiliser-bacteria, fungi and cyanobacteria.

BACTERIA

Rhizobium bacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen into organic forms

i) which is used by plants as a nutrient.

ii) Azospirillium and Azotobacter are free living bacteria that can

fix atmospheric nitrogen thus enriching the nitrogen content of

soil.

F UNGI

i) Mycorrhiza they are fungi from genus Glomus that form

symbiotic associations with plants. They absorb phosphorus

from soil and pass it to the plant.

Other benefits they make the plants resistant to root-borne

pathogens tolerance to salinity and drought and an overall

increase in plant growth and development.

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y C Y ANOBACTERIA

They are autotrophic microbes widely distributed in aquatic and

terrestrial environments which can fix atmospheric nitrogen/

e.g. Anabaena, Nostoc, Oscillatoria

They serve as an important biofertiliser in paddy fields.

They also add organic matter to the soil and increase its fertility.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

I have successfully completed the project with the help of teachers of

biology department. Books like

y E lementary biologyy NC ERT book y Dinesh biology

And sites of CBS E, along with the help of my friends.

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INTRODUCTION

Soft drinks are non-alcoholic beverages cold soft drinks are mostlyused during summer for instant relief from exhaustion. Nowadays its

significance has been increasing on and off as a common household

drinks. In India companies which are the leading manufacturers of the

cold drinks are Thumbs UP, Miranda, 7UP and Slice based on the CO 2

content of the soft drinks they are categorized as follows:

y Category 1 : Still Soft drinks

Non-carbonated (which do not contain any dissolved CO 2) soft

drinks are of these types.

y Category 2 : Carbonated soft drinks

These soft drinks are also called as scale water as they containdissolved carbon dioxide. The amount of CO 2 dissolved in a soft drink

should not exceed the recommended limit i.e. it should not be more than

amount which can be dissolved in 1 atm. Pressure and a temperature of

60 0 F. the amount of dissolved CO 2 differs from soft drinks to soft

drinks.

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M aterials Required y Litmus Paper y

pH Paper y Sodium Metaly Benedicts Solutiony Molishs Solutiony Fehlings Solutiony Sodium Bicarbonatey Hydrochloric Acidy Nitric Acidy Sulphuric Acidy Ammonium Hydroxidey Silver Nitratey Ninhydrins reagenty Soft drinks on which the test is to be performedy E thyl Alcoholy Barium Chloride

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DESCRIPTION OF THE CHEMICALS REQUIRED

y LITMUS PAPER Where the solution is acidic or alkaline can be indicated by dipping a

litmus paper into the solution. Change of blue Litmus to red and red

litmus to blue indicates the acidic or basic nature.

y pH PAPER

pH of solution is defined as the negative logarithm or Hydronium or

Hydrogen ion concentration, present in the respective solution.

pH = - log (H+) or log (H 3O+)

The pH of a solution can be known by the change of color of pH paper is

the characteristic of the hydrogen ion concentration. pH value 7

indicates that the solution is acidic.

y SODIUM M E T A L

This metal is highly reactive and hence does not exist in pure state in

nature. In metallic state it is white and lustrous and to avoid any reaction

it is kept in kerosene.

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y B ENE DI C TS REAGEN T

This reagent is used for qualititative test of carbohydrate present in

compounds. T is usually prepared by dissolving 1.73gm of crystalline

CuSO4 with 100ml water (Solution A) and 1.75 gm of Na2CO3 in 80ml

of water (Solution B). Thereafter mixing both solutions A and B and

diluting with distilled water up to 500ml.

MOLIS H S REAGEN T This reagent is also used for qualitative test of carbohydrate. It is

prepared by dissolving 1 gm of Naphthalene in 100ml alcohol.

y F E H LI NG S SOLUTIO N

I. Fehling solution A: It is prepared by dissolving CuSO 4 in very

dilute H 2SO 4.

II. Fehling solution B: It is alkaline solution of Sodium Potassium

tartarate. It is prepared by dissolving 8.33 gm of Sodium

Potassium tartarate and 5.5gm of Sodium Hydroxide in 250 ml

of distilled water.

y SODIUM B I CAR B O NA T E It is commonly known as baking soda and has importance in bakery

factories. It is usually prepared by Solvays process.

Sodium bicarbonate is prepared by carbonate till saturation.

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Na 2CO 3 + H 2O NaHCO 3

y HY D R O C H LO R I C AC ID

It is an important inorganic acid having lot of application in laboratories

as ell as many industries. It reacts with metals, metal oxide, metal

hydroxide and carbonates to produce corresponding metal chloride.

i. NaOH + HC I NaCl + H 2O

ii. NaCO 3 + 2HCl 2Nacl + CO 2 + H 2O

There are two types of Hydrochloric acid:

a) Conc. HCl Where the percentage of water is less than of acid. It

is an important reducing agent.

b) Dil. HCl Where the percentage of acid is less than of water.

y N IT R I C AC ID

It is an acid having strong oxidizing power. It reacts with metal oxides,

hydroxide and carbonates to form corresponding metal nitrates. It is

prepared in laboratory by treating sodium nitrate with concentrated

H2SO 4.

NaNO 3 + H 2SO 4 NaHSO 4 + HNO 3 Pure nitric acid is colorless but impure nitric acid is yellow ecuase of

dissolved NO2 gas in it.

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There are two types of Nitric acid:

a) Conc. HNO 3 Where the percentage of water is less than acid.

Mixture of concentrated HNO3 in 3:1 ratio is called aquaregia and

is used as very strong oxidizing agent.

b) Dil. NHO3 Where the percentage of acid is less than water.

SUL P H U R I C AC ID

Sulphuric acid is actually called King of chemicals. It is prepared byContact Process. Concentrated H2SO4 is a syrupy liquid. It absorbs

SO3 to form fuming sulphuric acid or oleum.

H2SO4 + SO3 H2S2O7

(Pyro sulphuric acid or Oleum)

Concentrated H2SO4 is also used as a dehydrating agent because it has

strong affinity to absorb water. Usually acid is added to water (not the

reverse) to avoid accident due to spurting of acid.

y A MMO N IUM C H LO R ID E

It is a white crystalline substance and is insoluble in water producing a

neutral solution. It is commercially prepared from ammonium sulphateand sodium chloride.

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y SILV ER N IT RA T E

When metallic silver is dissolved in dilute nitric acid and the solution is

evaporated called as lunar caustic.

3Ag + 4HNO3 3AgNO3 + 2H2O +NO

Silver Nitrate is light sensitive, when exposed to light it reduces to

metallic silver.

y A MMO N IUM HY D R OXID E Ammonium is highly soluble in water because of intra molecular

hydrogen bonding between ammonia is called as ammonium hydroxide.

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EXPERIMENT

A IM : TEST R EQ UIR ED FOR TH E CHARACT ER ISAT ION OF

DIFFER E NT SOFT DR I NKS.

1. Test for Carbon Dioxide (CO 2) :

Carbon Dioxide is a colorless and odorless gas. The bottles of respective

soft drinks were opened and time was noted for completion of

effervescence due to release of compressed CO2.

Drinks Time of completion of effervescence

Thumps Up 16 min

Mirinda 14 min 4 sec

7 Up 5 min 10 sec

Slice O sec

2 . Test for F lavor and Color :

The colors of all the soft drinks were noted and were tested to know the

flavor.

DRINKS COLOUR F LAVOUR

Thumbs Up Black ColaMiranda Orange Orange

7 Up Transparent Soda

Slice Yellow Mango

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3 . Test for pH

A few ml of each drinks were taken in test tubes and pH of the soft

drinks were taken in test tubes and pH of the soft drinks were taken I test

tubes and pH of each solution was measured by putting a piece of paper

into their respective solutions.

DRINKS OBSERVED pH IN F ERENCE

Thumps Up 6.5 Slightly Acidic

Mirinda 6.5 Slightly Acidic

7 Up 6.5 Slightly AcidicSliece 6.5 Slightly Acidic

4 . Test for Aldehyde group :

When a little amount of soft drink is taken in a test tube followed by

addition of Fehlings solution, red precipitate of Cuprous Oxide is

formed is formed, indicating the presence of aldehyde group. The

presence of aldehyde group cu ion indicates the reducing property of

aldehyde group.

REACTION:

R CHO + 2Cu2 + 30H R-COO + 2H 2O + CU 2O

DR I NKS OBSERVAT ION I NF ER E NC E

Thumbs Up Red precipitate Aldehyde PresentMiranda Red precipitate Aldehyde Present

7 Up Red precipitate Aldehyde Present

Slice Red precipitate Aldehyde Present

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5 . Test for Alcoholic group :

When a piece of sodium metal was added to a few ml of a soft drink

strong effervescence indicated the evolution of Hydrogen gas showing

the presence of alcoholic OH group.

2R OH + 2Na 2R ONa + H 2O

DRINKS OBSERVATION IN F ERENCE

Thumps Up Red precipitate Alcohol present

Mirinda Red precipitate Alcohol present7 Up Red precipitate Alcohol present

Slice Red precipitate Alcohol present

6 . Test for Carboxylic Acid group :y Litmus Paper Test: Blue litmus turned red showing the presence of

acidic group (-RCOOH).


Thumps Up Blue litmus turned red Carboxylic group

present

Miranda Blue litmus turned red Carboxylic group

present7 Up Blue litmus turned red Carboxylic group

present

Slice Blue litmus turned red Carboxylic group

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y E ST ER T E ST : A sweet smelling solution is obtained when ethyl

alcohol is added to a few ml of a soft drink followed by a few

drops of concentrated H2SO4 indicating the formation of ester due

to the present of carboxylic group.

R-COOH + CH3CH2OH + H2SO4 R-COOHC2H5 + H2O


Thumps Up Sweet Smell Ester is present

Miranda Sweet Smell Ester is present7 Up Sweet Smell Ester is present

Slice Sweet Smell Ester is present

7 . Test for Carbonates :

Addition of dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4) resulted in brief

effervescence due to evolution of CO2. When Barium Chloride (BaCl2)

is added to a few ml of a drink a white precipitate is formed which is

dissolved by adding dilute Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) to it.

CO 3 + H 2SO 4 SO 4 + H 2O + CO 2 (g)

BaCO 3 + 2HCl BaCl 2 + H 2O + CO 2 (g)

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8 . Test for Protein :When Silver Nitrate solution was added to a few ml of a soft drink, a dull white

precipitate of silver chloride was formed indicating the presence of chloride ion in

the solution. Addition of aqueous Ammonia to the same solution dissolved the

precipitate forming a soluble Silver Amino complex.

Cl + AgNO 3 AgCl (s) + NO 3

AgCl + 2NH 4OH (Ag(NH 3)2) Cl + 2H 2O


Thumps Up No change Protein is Absent

Miranda No change Protein is Absent

7 Up No change Protein is Absent

Slice No change Protein is Absent

9 . Test for Phosphate ion (PO4) :

Addition of a few drops of nitric acid to a sample of the drink followed by Ammonium Molybedate solution resulted in yellow precipitate of

Ammonium Phosphate Molybedate indicated the presence of Phosphate

ion.


Thumps Up Yellow Precipitate PO 4

Miranda Yellow Precipitate PO 4

7 Up Yellow Precipitate PO 4

Slice Yellow Precipitate PO 4

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10. Test for Carbohydrates :

y M olish s T est : One percent solution of Molishs reagent was added

to a few ml of a soft drink followed by addition of 1ml of

concentrated Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) along the side of the test

tube. A purple ring was formed indicating the presence of

carbohydrate in the soft drink.DRINKS OBSERVATION IN F ERENCE

Thumps Up A purple Ring Was

Formed

Carbohydrate is

Present

Miranda A purple Ring Was

Formed

Carbohydrate is

Present

7 Up A purple Ring Was

Formed

Carbohydrate is

Present

Slice A purple Ring Was

Formed

Carbohydrate is

Present

y B enedict s reagent T est : Few drops of Benedicts solution was added

to a few ml of soft drink and was heated up. Formation fo red

precipitate indicated the presence of carbohydrate in the soft drink.

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Thumps Up Yellow Precipitate Carbohydrate is

Present

Miranda Yellow Precipitate Carbohydrate is

Present

7 Up Yellow Precipitate Carbohydrate is

PresentSlice Yellow Precipitate Carbohydrate is

Present

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CONCLUSION

y Invariably all the soft drinks which were taken for experimental

verification were found to have similar characteristics except of

carbon dioxide and phosphate content.

y Based on carbon dioxide content it was found that Thumps Up had

much more dissolved carbon dioxide and Slice contained very less

carbon dioxide.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

y NC ERT text book of Chemistry.y www.wikipedia.com y www.google.co.in y www.yahoo.com y www.sciencecornr.com y www.studentsscience.com

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