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8/2/2019 Nuclear and Hydel Power Plants
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Introduction
Life without electricity is unthinkable. This electricity is generated by power
plants using coal, water etc., Use of nuclear energy as a power source is becoming a
common trend in the world. This is due to the rapid depletion of conventional energy
source. Fuel transportation network and large storage facility in case of thermal
power plants and dependence on whether conditions in case of hydel power plants are
the major hurdles faced by today's power sectors. Utilization of nuclear power helps
to save a considerable amount of fossil fuels which can be used in other areas.
Nuclear power engineering is basically concerned with the phenomenon taking place
within the nucleus of the atoms.
One of the outstanding attractions is the large amount of energy that can be
released from a small mass of active material. Complete fission of one kg of uranium
92U235 results in energy equivalent to 4500 tones of high grade coal or 1900 tones of
oil. The economic advantage of nuclear power can be realized only at a load of
about 75%.
Nuclear energyThe energy released due to the split up of nucleus into two or more smaller
nuclei is known as atomic or nuclear energy. An atom consists of a relatively heavy,
positively charged nucleus and a number of much lighter negatively charged electrons
that revolves in different orbits around the nucleus. These electrons are held in their
orbits by electro static forces. The nucleus consist of sub particles nucleons which, in
turn, has electrically neutral charge neutrons and positively charged protons. It is
difficult to bring these protons together in a nucleus of an atom. There, it requires
same to bring and keep the protons together in the nucleus of an atom. This energy is
known as binding energy.
The forces that hold the protons and neutrons inside the nucleus are million
times as strong as the electrostatic forces holding the electrons to the nucleus. Thus,
the binding energy is very large compared with chemical bond energy. Therefore, if a
nucleus disintegrates then a very large amount of energy is released. This energy is
due to the fission of neutrons and is used for power production in nuclear plants.
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This energy is known as atomic energy or prompt energy or nuclear energy. In
other words, the amount of energy what released now is only at the time of fission. At
the time of fission, the neutrons are under fast moving conditions. If the reaction
proceeds at this rapid movement, then maximum utilization of energy is not possible.
So, fast moving neutrons are decelerated with the help of moderator to get more
amount of energy. Thus, more energy is produced due to slow decay of the fission
fragments into fission products and the non fission capture of excess neutrons in
reactions (by means of reflectors). This produces energy much lesser than that of
energy obtained by fission. So, the total energy produced per fission reaction is
greater than the prompt energy and is about 200 MeV.
Nuclear fission and fusion reactions
Nuclear reaction plays a vital role in power production. So, it is necessary to
study the basic concepts behind the operation of nuclear reactors. These reactions are
three types namely fission, fusion and radioactivity. The fission and fusion concepts
are well applicable to power production systems as these reactions will release
enormous amount of heat energy than radioactivity.
Nuclear fusion
In nuclear fusion, two or more lighter nuclei (of similar electric charge) are
made to collide to fuse them together in a plasma at high temperatures (above 108oC
i.e., high particle velocities). As a result of this, a heavier nucleus is formed and the
mass difference is transformed into enormous amount of heat which is much greater
than that was produced by fission reaction. To cause fusion, the nuclei are necessary
to accelerate to high kinetic energies by raising their temperature to hundreds of
millions of degrees in order to overcome electrical repulsive forces.
The tremendous energy produced in the sun and stars are by continuous fusion
reactions. In the sun, quintillions of hydrogen nuclei collide with each another and
fuse to become helium nuclei. During this, they lose a small amount of their original
mass which is converted into extremely energetic particles, radiation and heat. This
process is also known as thermo-nuclear fusion. For generating power by this process,
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a controlled, relatively slow and sustained fusion is needed. The nuclear fusion is
presently under experimentation and the results are expected by 2015.
Nuclear fission
Figure 1 : Nuclear fission reaction
In nuclear fission, a high energy neutron is made to struck with a heavy nuclei.
Due to this effect the heavy nucleus will split into two almost equal fragments of
lighter atoms accompanied by release of heat plus two to three free neutrons. Fission
can be caused by bombarding with high energy a particles, protons, deutrons, X -rays
as well as neutrons. But, neutrons are most suitable for fission reaction because they
are electrically neutral and thus do not require high kinetic energy to overcome the
electrical repulsion from positively charged nuclei.
One of the elements whose nucleus easily fissions is 92U235 . All the other are
naturally available stable elements and hence splitting the nucleus of these atoms isnot as easy thing. Thus in a fission process, a high energy neutron is made to struck
with heavy unstable uranium ( 92U235) nuclei. During fission reaction, the following
results.
1. The immediate (prompt) products of a fission reaction, such as ( 54Xe 140) xenon
and strontium ( 38Sr94) are called fission fragments.
2. Fission fragments are released along with other decay products ( , , etc.)arecalled fission products.
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3. Two to three fast free neutrons accompanied by the release of heat for every
bombardment.
Controlled and uncontrolled chain reaction
Figure 2 : Chain Reaction
As discussed in nuclear fission reaction, when an unstable neutron enters the
uranium 92U235 nucleus, the nucleus splits into two fragments and releases 2 to 3
neutrons per fission accompanied with heat. The neutrons released during the fission
can strike other nuclei of 92U235 and causes further fission reactions under favorable
conditions. Thus the reaction becomes self-sustaining and results in continuous chain
reaction. Thus, a chain reaction is a self-sustained, continuing sequence of fission
reactions which is maintained under favorable conditions. This chain reaction may
either occur in controlled manner or uncontrolled manner shown in figure 2.
As discussed above, 2 to 3 neutron will be releasing as a result of fission
reaction. As an average, 2.5 neutrons are ejected per neutron absorbed. Out of 2.5neutrons, nearly 0.2 to 0.3 neutrons is lost due to escape at the surface and the
remaining is 2.2 neutrons. If these 2.2 neutrons are allowed to continue the chain
reaction, an exponential increase in reaction rate can be noticed. As a result of this,
enormous amount of heat energy will be evolved and such a type of chain reaction is
known as uncontrolled chain reaction. This extremely large amount of energy is
applied in atomic explosion.
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In other case, out of2.5 neutrons, about 0.9 neutron is absorbed by U238
converting it into fissionable material Pu239, 0.5 neutron is captured by control rod
material, coolant moderator and partly escape from the reactor and 0.1 neutron is lostfrom the reaction and the remaining is only one neutron. The only one neutron after
every fission is allowed to continue to cause further fission reaction. It is known as
controlled chain reaction. The energy produced by such a chain reaction is used in
nuclear power production.
Difference between fission and fusion reactions
S.No. Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion1 Nuclear fission is the process of
splitting up of heavy unstable
nucleus into two equal
fragments of equal mass and 2
to 3 neutrons accompanied by
the release of large amount of
heat.
Nuclear fusion is forming a
heavier nuclei by colliding two
or more nuclei so that they fuse
together into a heavier nuclei
accompanied with the large
amount of energy release.
2 Nearly about one thousandth of
the mass can get converted into
energy.
Nearly about four thousandth of
mass can get converted into
energy.
3 Fission process emits
radioactive rays.
Lesser or no more radioactive
rays emission in fusion process.
4 Process is possible even at
ordinary operating temperature.
Very high temperature is needed
for fusion process to occur.
5 It possibly gives rise to self-
sustained chain reactions in
controlled manner.
It does not give rise to chain
reaction in controlled manner.
6 Neutrons are emitted as a result
of fission reaction.
Protons are emitted as a result of
fusion reaction.
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Nuclear reactors
A nuclear reactor is an assembled apparatus in which, a self-sustaining nuclear fission
chain reaction is initiated and maintained at a steady controlled rate so that heat is
produced continuously. Its main function is to control the release and absorption of
neutrons during a chain reactor. It may be regarded as a furnace for burning nuclear
fuels like U 235 , U 233 or Pu 239 and produces useful products like heat, neutrons and
radio isotopes. The figure 3 shows the various essential elements of a typical nuclear
reactor. It consists of the following components.
1. Reactor core
Reactor core is a chamber in which nuclear fission chain reaction occurs and as a
result of this, large amount of heat is liberated. It consists of assemblage of fuel
elements, control rods, coolant and moderator. Fuel elements are usually made of
plates or rods of uranium metal and are usually clod in thin stainless steel sheet to
provide corrosion resistance and structural support.
Figure 3 : Components of a nuclear reactor
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2. Moderator
Moderator is a device used to slow down the high energy fast moving neutrons
by reducing their kinetic energy so that neutrons are utilized completely before it
escapes. This increases the possibility of absorption of neutrons by the fuel to cause
further fission and hence the quantity of fuel required to maintain a chain reaction is
also reduced. The common moderators used are ordinary water, heavy water, graphite
and beryllium.
3. Control rods
Control rods are inserted to control the chain reaction and controlling the heat
production rate. To startup the reaction, the control rods are moved out whichincreases the heat production rate and the reaction are maintained by adjusting the
position of control rods. To shutdown the reaction under emergency, the control rods
are pushed in, which reduces the heat production rate. The common materials for
control rods are boron, cadium, indium or silver.
4. Reflector
The main purpose of a reflector is to conserve the neutrons by decreasing theloss of the same. This results in the reduction of fuel consumption. The neutrons
produced during the chain reaction will be partly absorbed by the fuel rods,
moderator, coolant or structural material etc., while the remaining will try to escape
from the reactor core. These escaping neutrons can be reflected back into the core by
reflectors to take part in the fission reaction.
5. Reactor vessel
It is a strong walled container that encloses the reactor core at its bottom,
reflector and thermal shield. It also has holes at the top for inserting the control rods
and has passages for entrance and exit of the coolant.
6. Thermal shielding
It surrounds the entire reactor core and absorbs some of the radiations in the
form of -rays, -rays and escaping neutrons. So, it gets heated and prevents the
reactor wall from getting heated. This shield is cooled by circulating water over it. It
is made up of steel plate lined with concrete.
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7. Coolant
The main purpose of coolant is to transfer the large amount of heat produced in
the reactor due to the continuous fission reaction. It also keeps the fuel assemblies at a
safe temperature to avoid their melting and destruction. The commonly used coolantsare ordinary water, heavy water, gas (He, Co 2), liquid metal (Na, K) and an organic
fluid.
8. Biological (or) External (or) Radiation shield
It surrounds the whole reactor unit and prevents the escape or leakage of fast
moving neutrons and slow neutrons. It also prevents the operating personnel from the
harmful effects of dangerous radiations like , , rays which tends to escape to theatmosphere.
Types of nuclear reactors
Nuclear reactors can be classified as follows
1. Depending on the way of energy released by fission.
a. Fast reactors (Fission is caused by high energy fast neutrons)
b.
Thermal or slow reactors (Fission is caused by slow neutrons)c. Intermediate reactors (Fission is caused by neutrons in course of slowing
down)
2. Depending on the type of fuel used
a. Fissile material (Natural and enriched uranium)
b. Fertile material (Pu 239 and U 233)
3. Depending on the moderator used
a. Ordinary water moderated reactorsb. Heavy water moderated reactors
c. Graphite moderated reactors
d. Beryllium moderated reactors
4. Depending on the type of cool and used
a. Water cooled reactors
b. Gas cooled reactors
c. Liquid metal (Na, K) cooled reactors d. Organic liquid cooled reactors
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5. Depending on the fuel moderator assembly (core type)
a. Homogeneous reactors (Fuel and moderator are mixed)
b. Heterogeneous reactors (Separate fuel rods are surrounded by moderators)
Pressurized Water Reactors (PWR)
Figure 4 : PWR power Plant
Water is an excellent moderator and coolant for the reactor and thus water
cooled reactor are developed in nuclear power plants. PWR power plant shown in
figure 4 uses enriched uranium as fuel. The water under pressure is used here for both
moderator and coolant. A constant pressure of about 150 bar is maintained in the
primary loop so as to avoid the boiling of water. In this reactor, a pressuriser is
mounted in which water and steam if filled and provided with electric heater at
bottom and water spray at the top. If the pressure in primary loop drops. The heater is
opened which generates steam and increases the steam content in the vessel so that
pressure is increased in the primary loop. If the pressure in primary loop is high, then
too high cold water is sprayed into the steam and so the steam gets condensed so that
pressure is reduced in the primary loop.
Inside the reactor, continuous chain reaction takes place and is accompanied by
the liberation of a large amount of heat which is absorbed by the coolant (water). This
hot pressurised coolant flows to heat exchanger (steam generator) through pressuriser.
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Here, heat exchanger acts as steam generator. The steam is generated by transferring
the heat from the coolant to the feed water of secondary loop. Then, the pump returns
the coolant into the reactor again through primary loop. The steam generated in heat
exchanger is expanded in the turbine which is coupled with the generator. From the
turbine exit, the condensate passes to condensor and it condenses. The feed pump
delivers the same as feed water to the heat exchanger.
Advantages
1. Single fluid used here is water which is cheaper, available in plenty and multi-
purpose (coolant, moderator and reflector).
2. Reactor is more compact and higher power density.3. Lesser number of control rods are required.
4. Steam is free from contamination by radiation and hence normal turbine
maintenance is enough.
5. Fuel is utilized efficiently and thus minimizes the fuel cost.
Disadvantages
1.
High primary loop pressure requires strong and leak proof pressure vessel and sohigh capital cost.
2. Low pressure in the secondary circuit leads to poor thermodynamic efficiency of
the plant.
3. Use of high pressure, high temperature water causes severe corrosion problems.
4. Reactor must be shut down for fuel recharging.
5. Fuel reprocessing is difficult as fuel suffers radiation damage.
6. Preparation of fuel element is expensive.
Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
Boiling water reactor also uses enriched uranium as a primary fuel. Here, the
reactor pressure is substantially reduced to allow the boiling of coolant (feed) water.
Figure 5 illustrates the BWR power plant:
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Figure 5 : BWR Power plant
This system is also known as direct cycle boiling water reactor power plant. In
this reactor, the steam is generated inside the reactor itself.
Coolant ( water) enters the reactor at the bottom and gets heated by the heat
liberated due to the fission reaction. Inside the reactor itself, the water is completely
converted into steam. The steam is leaves the reactor top and supplied to the steam
turbine and gets expanded. Exhaust steam from the turbine passes through the
condenser and condensed. The condensed water is rerouted again by using feed
pump.
Advantages
1. Elimination of heat exchanger results in reduction in cost.
2. Maintenance of comparatively lower pressure inside the reactor makes the
reactor much lighter and reduces the cost.
3. Low metal surface temperature.
4. Thermal efficiency is high of about 30% due to single loop operation.
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Disadvantages
1. Steam leaving the reactor is slightly radioactive.
2. Safety is a major problem in BWR plants than PWR plants.
3. Steam wastage during part load operation results in lower thermal efficiency.4. Lower power density makes to use larger vessel.
Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)
Figure 6 : Fast breeder reactor power plant (Liquid metal cooled reactor)
Fast breeder reactor is a small vessel in which the chain reaction is sustained
primarily by fast moving neutrons (without using moderator). In fast breeder reactor,
fuel such as enriched uranium and plutonium or a mixture of these is kept inside the
reactor core without using moderator. This active core region is surrounded by a
blanket of breeding material (fissible material) such as fertile uranium to absorb the
excess neutrons otherwise those neutrons would possibly lost by leakage. The reactor
core is cooled commonly by liquid sodium. Fast breeder reactors are normally
designed to produce more amount of fissible material than that is being consumed by
it.
The figure 6 shows the fast breeder reactor power plant which is more similar to
liquid metal ( sodium graphite) cooled reactor plant. When the enriched uranium
undergoes fission reaction, heat will be liberated with the release of fast moving
neutrons. Excess neutrons are absorbed by the surrounded uranium blanket and are
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converted into fissionable material (Pu 239) which is capable of sustaining chain
reaction continuously. Heat evolved in the reaction is carried by the primary coolant
(sodium) and given to the primary heat exchanger. In primary heat exchanger the heat
is transferred to the secondary coolant (sodium, however different coolant could be
used). The hot secondary coolant passes through the secondary heat exchanger (steam
generator) and the feed water coming from the condenser is heated and converted into
steam. It is then supplied to steam turbine for mechanical power. The electric power
is produced by coupling an electric generator to the steam turbine.
Advantages
1. It does not require moderator.
2. High breeding is possible.3. High power density makes to use small core.
4. More fuel is produced than consumed.
5. Absorption of neutrons is low.
Disadvantages
1. It requires highly enriched fuel and thus initial cost is very high.
2. Safety is essential against melt-down.3. Circulation of special coolants are essential to carryout large quantity of heat
from the reactor core.
4. Handling of sodium is difficult as it becomes highly radioactive.
Advantages and Disadvantages of nuclear power plants
Advantages of nuclear power plants
The following are the merits of nuclear power plant over conventional power plants:-1. Power generation is more economic when compared with thermal plant.
2. Fuel transportation, handling and storage charges are absent.
3. No ash disposal problems.
4. Power production is not affected by weather conditions.
5. Space requirement is less.
6. Capital cost is low for bigger unit sizes.
7. Less number of workers is needed than thermal plant.
8. Water quantity required is very less.
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9. Enormous amount of heat can be generated from small quantity of fuel
consumption.
10. It is well suited for large power requirements.
11. Highly reliable operation.
12. Nuclear power plants have no effect on atmosphere by pollution.
Disadvantages of nuclear power plants
1. Disaster is the major safety problem faced by nuclear power plants due to
nuclear explosions.
2. Radioactive wastes may affect the health of workers and other surrounding
people.
3. High initial cost and maintenance cost.
4. Nuclear waste disposal is a major problem.
5. Nuclear plants require well trained personals for its operation.
Waste disposal and safety
Disposal of waste materials is a major and common problem in nuclear power
industry. All the wastes being highly radioactive and are injurious to human, animals
and plant life. Therefore, proper care must be taken to dispose the waste safely
without polluting the atmosphere. The waste materials produced in the nuclear plants
are in the form of solids, liquids and gaseous.
1. Solid waste
Solid waste consists of discarded control rods, fuel cans, scrap material or
disordered objects contaminated with radioactive matter. The solid containing the
combustible matter is burnt and the resulting gases are disposed to atmosphere afterdilution. The remaining is mixed with concrete and buried deep in the ground. It is
necessary to keep the radioactive solid waste first in water as nearly SOOIo of the
radioactive material disappear during cooling.
2. Liquid waste
Liquid wastes are diluted by adding water to remove most of the activity in the
form of solid precipitate and then discharged into the ground if the activity level islow. However, ground water may get contaminated, if dilution is insufficient. So, the
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treated liquids are kept in hold-up tanks before discharge for a period to allow part of
the radioactivity to decay and then buried in ground. The tank should be leak proof
and has long term strength.
3.
Gaseous wasteGaseous waste could easily pollute air and hence the gas should be treated in a
clean-up plant to remove radioactive iodine which causes major health hazards. They
are also commonly diluted with air and after passing through the filters and then
released to the atmosphere through a high chimney.
Site selection of nuclear power plant
i)
A vailability of waterThe modern nuclear power plant requires plenty of water for condenser cooling
and makeup water requirement. Therefore it should be nearer to a river, reservoir or
sea.
ii) Distance from populated area
The nuclear power plant should be constructed far away from the populated area
to avoid the radioactive hazard.
iii) Distance from load centreIt should be located nearer to the load centre to reduce the tranmission loss and
power loss.
iv) Waste disposals
The nuclear wastes are radioactive. Therefore the sufficient safely space for
disposal is required.
v) Safe against Earth Quakes
The country divided in to five seismic zone codes (zone 1,2,3,4 and 5) by
seismic survey of geological survey of India. The zone 5 will not be the most suitable
because of frequently occurred tremors arid earth-quakes. The zone 1 will be highly
suitably place for nuclear plant.
vi) Soil condition
The bearing capacity of the soil place very important role in selection of foundation.
vii) AccessibilityThe power plant should be connected with excellent transport facility.
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