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Nuclear weapon 1 Nuclear weapon The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan on August 9, 1945 rose some 18 kilometers ( mi) above the bomb's hypocenter. A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter. The first fission ("atomic") bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately 20,000 tons of TNT. The first thermonuclear ("hydrogen") bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately 10,000,000 tons of TNT. [1] A modern thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than 2,400 pounds ( kg) can produce an explosive force comparable to the detonation of more than 1.2 million tons (1.1 million tonnes) of TNT. [2] Thus, even a small nuclear device no larger than traditional bombs can devastate an entire city by blast, fire and radiation. Nuclear weapons are considered weapons of mass destruction, and their use and control have been a major focus of international relations policy since their debut. Only two nuclear weapons have been used in the course of warfare, both by the United States near the end of World War II. On 6 August 1945, a uranium gun-type fission bomb code-named "Little Boy" was detonated over the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Three days later, on 9 August, a plutonium implosion-type fission bomb code-named "Fat Man" was exploded over Nagasaki, Japan. These two bombings resulted in the deaths of approximately 200,000 peoplemostly civiliansfrom acute injuries sustained from the explosions. [3] The role of the bombings in Japan's surrender, and their ethical status, remain the subject of scholarly and popular debate. Since the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nuclear weapons have been detonated on over two thousand occasions for testing purposes and demonstrations. Only a few nations possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them. The only countries known to have detonated nuclear weaponsand that acknowledge possessing such weaponsare (chronologically by date of first test) the United States, the Soviet Union (succeeded as a nuclear power by Russia), the United Kingdom, France, the People's Republic of China, India, Pakistan, and North Korea. In addition, Israel is also widely believed to possess nuclear weapons, though it does not acknowledge having them. [4][5][6] One state, South Africa, fabricated nuclear weapons in the past, but as its apartheid regime was coming to an end it disassembled its arsenal, acceded to the NPT and accepted full-scope international safeguards. [7] The Federation of American Scientists estimates there are more than 17,000 nuclear warheads in the world as of 2012, with around 4,300 of them considered "operational", ready for use. [4]

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A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion.

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Page 1: Nuclear Weapon

Nuclear weapon 1

Nuclear weapon

The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan on August 9, 1945rose some 18 kilometers ( mi) above the bomb's hypocenter.

A nuclear weapon is an explosive devicethat derives its destructive force fromnuclear reactions, either fission or acombination of fission and fusion. Bothreactions release vast quantities of energyfrom relatively small amounts of matter.The first fission ("atomic") bomb testreleased the same amount of energy asapproximately 20,000 tons of TNT. The firstthermonuclear ("hydrogen") bomb testreleased the same amount of energy asapproximately 10,000,000 tons of TNT.[1]

A modern thermonuclear weapon weighinglittle more than 2,400 pounds ( kg) canproduce an explosive force comparable tothe detonation of more than 1.2 million tons(1.1 million tonnes) of TNT.[2] Thus, even asmall nuclear device no larger thantraditional bombs can devastate an entirecity by blast, fire and radiation. Nuclearweapons are considered weapons of massdestruction, and their use and control havebeen a major focus of international relationspolicy since their debut.

Only two nuclear weapons have been used in the course of warfare, both by the United States near the end of WorldWar II. On 6 August 1945, a uranium gun-type fission bomb code-named "Little Boy" was detonated over theJapanese city of Hiroshima. Three days later, on 9 August, a plutonium implosion-type fission bomb code-named"Fat Man" was exploded over Nagasaki, Japan. These two bombings resulted in the deaths of approximately 200,000people—mostly civilians—from acute injuries sustained from the explosions.[3] The role of the bombings in Japan'ssurrender, and their ethical status, remain the subject of scholarly and popular debate.

Since the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nuclear weapons have been detonated on over two thousandoccasions for testing purposes and demonstrations. Only a few nations possess such weapons or are suspected ofseeking them. The only countries known to have detonated nuclear weapons—and that acknowledge possessing suchweapons—are (chronologically by date of first test) the United States, the Soviet Union (succeeded as a nuclearpower by Russia), the United Kingdom, France, the People's Republic of China, India, Pakistan, and North Korea. Inaddition, Israel is also widely believed to possess nuclear weapons, though it does not acknowledge havingthem.[4][5][6] One state, South Africa, fabricated nuclear weapons in the past, but as its apartheid regime was comingto an end it disassembled its arsenal, acceded to the NPT and accepted full-scope international safeguards.[7]

The Federation of American Scientists estimates there are more than 17,000 nuclear warheads in the world as of2012, with around 4,300 of them considered "operational", ready for use.[4]

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Types

The two basic fission weapon designs

There are two basic types of nuclearweapons: those that derive the majority oftheir energy from nuclear fission reactionsalone, and those that use fission reactions tobegin nuclear fusion reactions that produce alarge amount of the total energy output.

Fission weapons

All existing nuclear weapons derive some oftheir explosive energy from nuclear fissionreactions. Weapons whose explosive outputis exclusively from fission reactions arecommonly referred to as atomic bombs oratom bombs (abbreviated as A-bombs).This has long been noted as something of amisnomer, as their energy comes from thenucleus of the atom.

In fission weapons, a mass of fissile material(enriched uranium or plutonium) isassembled into a supercritical mass—theamount of material needed to start anexponentially growing nuclear chain

reaction—either by shooting one piece of sub-critical material into another (the "gun" method) or by compressing asub-critical sphere of material using chemical explosives to many times its original density (the "implosion"method). The latter approach is considered more sophisticated than the former and only the latter approach can beused if the fissile material is plutonium.

A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed beforethe weapon destroys itself. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range from the equivalent of lessthan a ton of TNT upwards of 500,000 tons (500 kilotons) of TNT.[8]

All fission reactions necessarily generate fission products, the radioactive remains of the atomic nuclei split by thefission reactions. Many fission products are either highly radioactive (but short-lived) or moderately radioactive (butlong-lived), and as such are a serious form of radioactive contamination if not fully contained. Fission products arethe principal radioactive component of nuclear fallout.The most commonly used fissile materials for nuclear weapons applications have been uranium-235 andplutonium-239. Less commonly used has been uranium-233. Neptunium-237 and a number of isotopes of americiummay be usable for nuclear explosives as well, but it is not clear that this has ever been implemented, and even theirplausible use in nuclear weapons is a matter of scientific dispute.[9]

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Fusion weapons

The basics of the Teller–Ulam design for ahydrogen bomb: a fission bomb uses radiation to

compress and heat a separate section of fusionfuel.

The other basic type of nuclear weapon produces a large proportion ofits energy in nuclear fusion reactions. Such fusion weapons aregenerally referred to as thermonuclear weapons or more colloquiallyas hydrogen bombs (abbreviated as H-bombs), as they rely on fusionreactions between isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium and tritium). Allsuch weapons derive a significant portion, and sometimes a majority,of their energy from fission. This is because a fission weapon isrequired as a "trigger" for the fusion reactions, and the fusion reactionscan themselves trigger additional fission reactions.[10]

Only six countries—United States, Russia, United Kingdom, People'sRepublic of China, France and India—have conducted thermonuclearweapon tests. (Whether India has detonated a "true", multi-stagedthermonuclear weapon is controversial.)[11] All thermonuclearweapons are considered much more difficult to successfully design andexecute than primitive fission weapons. Almost all of the nuclearweapons deployed today use the thermonuclear design because it ismore efficient.

Thermonuclear bombs work by using the energy of a fission bomb tocompress and heat fusion fuel. In the Teller-Ulam design, whichaccounts for all multi-megaton yield hydrogen bombs, this isaccomplished by placing a fission bomb and fusion fuel (tritium,deuterium, or lithium deuteride) in proximity within a special,radiation-reflecting container. When the fission bomb is detonated,gamma rays and X-rays emitted first compress the fusion fuel, thenheat it to thermonuclear temperatures. The ensuing fusion reaction creates enormous numbers of high-speedneutrons, which can then induce fission in materials not normally prone to it, such as depleted uranium. Each ofthese components is known as a "stage", with the fission bomb as the "primary" and the fusion capsule as the"secondary". In large, megaton-range hydrogen bombs, about half of the yield comes from the final fissioning ofdepleted uranium.[8]

Virtually all thermonuclear weapons deployed today use the "two-stage" design described above, but it is possible toadd additional fusion stages—each stage igniting a larger amount of fusion fuel in the next stage. This technique canresult in thermonuclear weapons of arbitrarily large yield, in contrast to fission bombs, which are limited in theirexplosive force. The largest nuclear weapon ever detonated—the Tsar Bomba of the USSR, which released anenergy equivalent of over 50 million tons (50 megatons) of TNT—was a three-stage weapon. Most thermonuclearweapons are considerably smaller than this, due to practical constraints from missile warhead space and weightrequirements.[12]

Fusion reactions do not create fission products, and thus contribute far less to the creation of nuclear fallout thanfission reactions, but because all thermonuclear weapons contain at least one fission stage, and many high-yieldthermonuclear devices have a final fission stage, thermonuclear weapons can generate at least as much nuclearfallout as fission-only weapons.

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Other typesThere are other types of nuclear weapons as well. For example, a boosted fission weapon is a fission bomb thatincreases its explosive yield through a small amount of fusion reactions, but it is not a fusion bomb. In the boostedbomb, the neutrons produced by the fusion reactions serve primarily to increase the efficiency of the fission bomb.Some weapons are designed for special purposes; a neutron bomb is a thermonuclear weapon that yields a relativelysmall explosion but a relatively large amount of neutron radiation; such a device could theoretically be used to causemassive casualties while leaving infrastructure mostly intact and creating a minimal amount of fallout. Thedetonation of any nuclear weapon is accompanied by a blast of neutron radiation. Surrounding a nuclear weaponwith suitable materials (such as cobalt or gold) creates a weapon known as a salted bomb. This device can produceexceptionally large quantities of radioactive contamination.Research has been done into the possibility of pure fusion bombs: nuclear weapons that consist of fusion reactionswithout requiring a fission bomb to initiate them. Such a device might provide a simpler path to thermonuclearweapons than one that required development of fission weapons first, and pure fusion weapons would createsignificantly less nuclear fallout than other thermonuclear weapons, since they would not disperse fission products.In 1998, the United States Department of Energy divulged that the United States had, "...made a substantialinvestment" in the past to develop pure fusion weapons, but that, "The U.S. does not have and is not developing apure fusion weapon," and that, "No credible design for a pure fusion weapon resulted from the DOE investment."[13]

Most variation in nuclear weapon design is for the purpose of achieving different yields for different situations, andin manipulating design elements to attempt to minimize weapon size.[8]

Weapons delivery

The first nuclear weapons were gravity bombs,such as this "Fat Man" weapon dropped on

Nagasaki, Japan. They were very large and couldonly be delivered by heavy bomber aircraft

Nuclear weapons delivery—the technology and systems used to bring anuclear weapon to its target—is an important aspect of nuclearweapons relating both to nuclear weapon design and nuclear strategy.Additionally, development and maintenance of delivery options isamong the most resource-intensive aspects of a nuclear weaponsprogram: according to one estimate, deployment costs accounted for57% of the total financial resources spent by the United States inrelation to nuclear weapons since 1940.[14]

Historically the first method of delivery, and the method used in thetwo nuclear weapons used in warfare, was as a gravity bomb, droppedfrom bomber aircraft. This is usually the first method that countriesdeveloped, as it does not place many restrictions on the size of theweapon and weapon miniaturization requires considerable weapons design knowledge. It does, however, limit attackrange, response time to an impending attack, and the number of weapons that a country can field at the same time.

With the advent of miniaturization, nuclear bombs can be delivered by both strategic bombers and tacticalfighter-bombers, allowing an air force to use its current fleet with little or no modification. This method may still beconsidered the primary means of nuclear weapons delivery; the majority of U.S. nuclear warheads, for example, arefree-fall gravity bombs, namely the B61.[8]

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A Trident II SLBM launched from a Royal NavyVanguard class ballistic missile submarine.

More preferable from a strategic point of view is a nuclear weaponmounted onto a missile, which can use a ballistic trajectory to deliverthe warhead over the horizon. While even short range missiles allowfor a faster and less vulnerable attack, the development of long-rangeintercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and submarine-launchedballistic missiles (SLBMs) has given some nations the ability toplausibly deliver missiles anywhere on the globe with a high likelihoodof success.

More advanced systems, such as multiple independently targetablereentry vehicles (MIRVs), can launch multiple warheads at differenttargets from one missile, reducing the chance of a successful missiledefense. Today, missiles are most common among systems designedfor delivery of nuclear weapons. Making a warhead small enough to fitonto a missile, though, can be difficult.[8]

Tactical weapons have involved the most variety of delivery types,including not only gravity bombs and missiles but also artillery shells,land mines, and nuclear depth charges and torpedoes for anti-submarine warfare. An atomic mortar was also tested atone time by the United States. Small, two-man portable tactical weapons (somewhat misleadingly referred to assuitcase bombs), such as the Special Atomic Demolition Munition, have been developed, although the difficulty ofcombining sufficient yield with portability limits their military utility.[8]

Nuclear strategy

The United States' Peacekeeper missile was aMIRVed delivery system. Each missile couldcontain up to ten nuclear warheads (shown in

red), each of which could be aimed at a differenttarget. These were developed to make missiledefense very difficult for an enemy country.

Nuclear warfare strategy is a set of policies that deal with preventing orfighting a nuclear war. The policy of trying to prevent an attack by anuclear weapon from another country by threatening nuclear retaliationis known as the strategy of nuclear deterrence. The goal in deterrenceis to always maintain a second strike capability (the ability of a countryto respond to a nuclear attack with one of its own) and potentially tostrive for first strike status (the ability to completely destroy anenemy's nuclear forces before they could retaliate). During the ColdWar, policy and military theorists in nuclear-enabled countries workedout models of what sorts of policies could prevent one from ever beingattacked by a nuclear weapon.

Different forms of nuclear weapons delivery (see above) allow fordifferent types of nuclear strategies. The goals of any strategy aregenerally to make it difficult for an enemy to launch a pre-emptivestrike against the weapon system and difficult to defend against the

delivery of the weapon during a potential conflict. Sometimes this has meant keeping the weapon locations hidden,such as deploying them on submarines or rail cars whose locations are very hard for an enemy to track and othertimes this means protecting them by burying them in hardened bunkers.

Other components of nuclear strategies have included using missile defense (to destroy the missiles before they land)or implementation of civil defense measures (using early-warning systems to evacuate citizens to safe areas beforean attack).

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Note that weapons designed to threaten large populations, or to generally deter attacks are known as strategicweapons. Weapons designed for use on a battlefield in military situations are called tactical weapons.

There are critics of the very idea of nuclear strategy for waging nuclear war who have suggested that a nuclear warbetween two nuclear powers would result in mutual annihilation. From this point of view, the significance of nuclearweapons is purely to deter war because any nuclear war would immediately escalate out of mutual distrust and fear,resulting in mutually assured destruction. This threat of national, if not global, destruction has been a strongmotivation for anti-nuclear weapons activism.Critics from the peace movement and within the military establishment have questioned the usefulness of suchweapons in the current military climate. According to an advisory opinion issued by the International Court ofJustice in 1996, the use of (or threat of use of) such weapons would generally be contrary to the rules of internationallaw applicable in armed conflict, but the court did not reach an opinion as to whether or not the threat or use wouldbe lawful in specific extreme circumstances such as if the survival of the state were at stake.Perhaps the most controversial idea in nuclear strategy is that nuclear proliferation would be desirable. This viewargues that, unlike conventional weapons, nuclear weapons successfully deter all-out war between states, and theyare said to have done this during the Cold War between the U.S. and the Soviet Union.[15] Political scientist KennethWaltz is the most prominent advocate of this argument.[16][17]

The threat of potentially suicidal terrorists possessing nuclear weapons (a form of nuclear terrorism) complicates thedecision process. The prospect of mutually assured destruction may not deter an enemy who expects to die in theconfrontation. Further, if the initial act is from a stateless terrorist instead of a sovereign nation, there is no fixednation or fixed military targets to retaliate against. It has been argued, especially after the September 11, 2001attacks, that this complication is the sign of the next age of nuclear strategy, distinct from the relative stability of theCold War.[18] In 1996, the United States adopted a policy of allowing the targeting of its nuclear weapons atterrorists armed with weapons of mass destruction.[19]

Governance, control, and law

The International Atomic Energy Agency wascreated in 1957 to encourage peaceful

development of nuclear technology whileproviding international safeguards against nuclear

proliferation.

Because of the immense military power they can confer, the politicalcontrol of nuclear weapons has been a key issue for as long as theyhave existed; in most countries the use of nuclear force can only beauthorized by the head of government or head of state.[20]

In the late 1940s, lack of mutual trust was preventing the United Statesand the Soviet Union from making ground towards international armscontrol agreements. The Russell–Einstein Manifesto was issued inLondon on July 9, 1955 by Bertrand Russell in the midst of the ColdWar. It highlighted the dangers posed by nuclear weapons and calledfor world leaders to seek peaceful resolutions to international conflict.The signatories included eleven pre-eminent intellectuals andscientists, including Albert Einstein, who signed it just days before hisdeath on April 18, 1955. A few days after the release, philanthropist

Cyrus S. Eaton offered to sponsor a conference—called for in the manifesto—in Pugwash, Nova Scotia, Eaton'sbirthplace. This conference was to be the first of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, held inJuly 1957.

By the 1960s steps were being taken to limit both the proliferation of nuclear weapons to other countries and the environmental effects of nuclear testing. The Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963) restricted all nuclear testing to underground nuclear testing, to prevent contamination from nuclear fallout, while the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968) attempted to place restrictions on the types of activities signatories could participate in, with the goal

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of allowing the transference of non-military nuclear technology to member countries without fear of proliferation.In 1957, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was established under the mandate of the United Nationsto encourage development of peaceful applications for nuclear technology, provide international safeguards againstits misuse, and facilitate the application of safety measures in its use. In 1996, many nations signed theComprehensive Test Ban Treaty,[21] which prohibits all testing of nuclear weapons. A testing ban imposes asignificant hindrance to nuclear arms development by any complying country.[22] The Treaty requires the ratificationby 44 specific states before it can go into force; as of 2012, the ratification of eight of these states is still required.[21]

Additional treaties and agreements have governed nuclear weapons stockpiles between the countries with the twolargest stockpiles, the United States and the Soviet Union, and later between the United States and Russia. Theseinclude treaties such as SALT II (never ratified), START I (expired), INF, START II (never ratified), SORT, andNew START, as well as non-binding agreements such as SALT I and the Presidential Nuclear Initiatives[23] of 1991.Even when they did not enter into force, these agreements helped limit and later reduce the numbers and types ofnuclear weapons between the United States and the Soviet Union/Russia.Nuclear weapons have also been opposed by agreements between countries. Many nations have been declaredNuclear-Weapon-Free Zones, areas where nuclear weapons production and deployment are prohibited, through theuse of treaties. The Treaty of Tlatelolco (1967) prohibited any production or deployment of nuclear weapons in LatinAmerica and the Caribbean, and the Treaty of Pelindaba (1964) prohibits nuclear weapons in many Africancountries. As recently as 2006 a Central Asian Nuclear Weapon Free Zone was established amongst the formerSoviet republics of Central Asia prohibiting nuclear weapons.In the middle of 1996, the International Court of Justice, the highest court of the United Nations, issued an AdvisoryOpinion concerned with the "Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons". The court ruled that the use orthreat of use of nuclear weapons would violate various articles of international law, including the GenevaConventions, the Hague Conventions, the UN Charter, and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In view ofthe unique, destructive characteristics of nuclear weapons, the International Committee of the Red Cross calls onStates to ensure that these weapons are never used, irrespective of whether they consider them lawful or not.[24]

Additionally, there have been other, specific actions meant to discourage countries from developing nuclear arms. Inthe wake of the tests by India and Pakistan in 1998, economic sanctions were (temporarily) levied against bothcountries, though neither were signatories with the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. One of the stated casus bellifor the initiation of the 2003 Iraq War was an accusation by the United States that Iraq was actively pursuing nucleararms (though this was soon discovered not to be the case as the program had been discontinued). In 1981, Israel hadbombed a nuclear reactor being constructed in Osirak, Iraq, in what it called an attempt to halt Iraq's previous nucleararms ambitions; in 2007, Israel bombed another reactor being constructed in Syria.

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Disarmament

Ukrainian workers use equipment provided by theU.S. Defense Threat Reduction Agency to

dismantle a Soviet-era missile silo. After the endof the Cold War, Ukraine and the other

non-Russian, post-Soviet republics relinquishedSoviet nuclear stockpiles to Russia.

Nuclear disarmament refers to both the act of reducing or eliminatingnuclear weapons and to the end state of a nuclear-free world, in whichnuclear weapons are completely eliminated.

Beginning with the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty and continuingthrough the 1996 Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, there have beenmany treaties to limit or reduce nuclear weapons testing and stockpiles.The 1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty has as one of its explicitconditions that all signatories must "pursue negotiations in good faith"towards the long-term goal of "complete disarmament". The nuclearweapon states have largely treated that aspect of the agreement as"decorative" and without force.[25]

Only one country—South Africa—has ever fully renounced nuclearweapons they had independently developed. The former Sovietrepublics of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine returned Soviet nucleararms stationed in their countries to Russia after the collapse of theUSSR.

Proponents of nuclear disarmament say that it would lessen the probability of nuclear war occurring, especiallyaccidentally. Critics of nuclear disarmament say that it would undermine the present nuclear peace and deterrenceand would lead to increased global instability. Various American government officials, who were in office during theCold War period, have recently been advocating the elimination of nuclear weapons. These officials include HenryKissinger, George Shultz, Sam Nunn, and William Perry. In January 2010, Lawrence M. Krauss stated that "no issuecarries more importance to the long-term health and security of humanity than the effort to reduce, and perhaps oneday, rid the world of nuclear weapons".[26]

In the years after the end of the Cold War, there have been numerous campaigns to urge the abolition of nuclearweapons, such as that organized by the Global Zero movement, and the goal of a "world without nuclear weapons"was advocated by United States President Barack Obama in an April 2009 speech in Prague.[27] A CNN poll fromApril 2010 indicated that the American public was nearly evenly split on the issue.[28]

Others have argued that nuclear weapons have made the world relatively safer, with peace through deterrence andthrough the stability–instability paradox, including in south Asia.[29][30] Professor Kenneth Waltz has argued thatnuclear weapons have helped keep an uneasy peace, and further nuclear weapon proliferation might even help avoidthe large scale conventional wars that were so common prior to their invention at the end of World War II.[31] In theJuly 2012 issue of Foreign Affairs Waltz took issue with the view of most U.S., European, and Israeli, commentatorsand policymakers that a nuclear-armed Iran would be unacceptable. Instead Waltz argues that it would probably bethe best possible outcome, as it would restore stability to the Middle East by balancing Israel's regional monopoly onnuclear weapons.[32]

Professor John Mueller of Ohio State University, the author of Atomic Obsession,[33] has also dismissed the need tointerfere with Iran's nuclear program and expressed that arms control measures are counterproductive.[34] During a2010 lecture at the University of Missouri, which was broadcast by C-Span, Dr. Mueller has also argued that thethreat from nuclear weapons, by terrorists and governments alike, has been exaggerated, both in the popular mediaand by officials.[35]

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United Nations

Angela Kane at a ceremony marking theanniversary of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki

atomic bombings in 2012

The UN Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA) is a department ofthe United Nations Secretariat established in January 1998 as part ofthe United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan's plan to reform theUN as presented in his report to the General Assembly in July 1997.[36]

Its goal is to promote nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation andthe strengthening of the disarmament regimes in respect to otherweapons of mass destruction, chemical and biological weapons. It alsopromotes disarmament efforts in the area of conventional weapons,especially land mines and small arms, which are often the weapons ofchoice in contemporary conflicts.

Following the retirement of Sergio Duarte in February 2012, AngelaKane was appointed as the new High Representative for DisarmamentAffairs.

Controversy

Demonstration against nuclear testing in Lyon,France, in the 1980s.

Even before the first nuclear weapons had been developed, scientistsinvolved with the Manhattan Project were divided over the use of theweapon. The role of the two atomic bombings of the country in Japan'ssurrender and the U.S.'s ethical justification for them has been thesubject of scholarly and popular debate for decades. The question ofwhether nations should have nuclear weapons, or test them, has beencontinually and nearly universally controversial.

Radioactive fallout from nuclear weapons testing was first drawn topublic attention in 1954 when the Castle Bravo hydrogen bomb test at the Pacific Proving Grounds contaminated thecrew and catch of the Japanese fishing boat Lucky Dragon.[37] One of the fishermen died in Japan seven monthslater, and the fear of contaminated tuna led to a temporary boycotting of the popular staple in Japan. The incidentcaused widespread concern around the world, especially regarding the effects of nuclear fallout and atmosphericnuclear testing, and "provided a decisive impetus for the emergence of the anti-nuclear weapons movement in manycountries".[37]

Peace movements emerged in Japan and in 1954 they converged to form a unified "Japanese Council AgainstAtomic and Hydrogen Bombs". Japanese opposition to nuclear weapons tests in the Pacific Ocean was widespread,and "an estimated 35 million signatures were collected on petitions calling for bans on nuclear weapons".[38]

In the United Kingdom, the first Aldermaston March organised by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament tookplace at Easter 1958, when several thousand people marched for four days from Trafalgar Square, London, to theAtomic Weapons Research Establishment close to Aldermaston in Berkshire, England, to demonstrate theiropposition to nuclear weapons.[39][40] The Aldermaston marches continued into the late 1960s when tens ofthousands of people took part in the four-day marches.[38]

In 1959, a letter in the Bulletin of Atomic Scientists was the start of a successful campaign to stop the Atomic Energy Commission dumping radioactive waste in the sea 19 kilometres from Boston.[41] In 1962, Linus Pauling won the

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Nobel Peace Prize for his work to stop the atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons, and the "Ban the Bomb"movement spread.[42]

In 1963, many countries ratified the Partial Test Ban Treaty prohibiting atmospheric nuclear testing. Radioactivefallout became less of an issue and the anti-nuclear weapons movement went into decline for some years.[37][43] Aresurgence of interest occurred amid European and American fears of nuclear war in the 1980s.[44]

Between 1940 and 1996, the U.S. spent at least $8.63 trillion in present day terms[45] on nuclear weaponsdevelopment. Over half was spent on building delivery mechanisms for the weapon. $541 billion in present dayterms was spent on nuclear waste management and environmental remediation.[46]

Non-weapons uses

The 1962 Sedan nuclear test formed a crater 100m (330 ft) deep with a diameter of about 390 m

(1,300 ft), as a means of investigating thepossibilities of using peaceful nuclear explosions

for large-scale earth moving.

Apart from their use as weapons, nuclear explosives have been testedand used for various non-military uses, and proposed, but not used forlarge-scale earth moving. When long term health and clean-up costswere included, there was no economic advantage over conventionalexplosives.[47]

Synthetic elements, such as einsteinium and fermium, created byneutron bombardment of uranium and plutonium during thermonuclearexplosions, were discovered in the aftermath of the first thermonuclearbomb test. In 2008 the worldwide presence of new isotopes fromatmospheric testing beginning in the 1950s was developed into areliable way of detecting art forgeries, as all paintings created after thatperiod may contain traces of cesium-137 and strontium-90, isotopesthat did not exist in nature before 1945.[48]

Nuclear explosives have also been seriously studied as potentialpropulsion mechanisms for space travel (see Project Orion) and for asteroid deflection.

References

Notes[1] See Trinity (nuclear test) and Ivy Mike.[2] Specifically the US B83 nuclear bomb, with a yield of up to 1.2 Megatons.[3] "Frequently Asked Questions #1" (http:/ / www. rerf. or. jp/ general/ qa_e/ qa1. html). Radiation Effects Research Foundation. . Retrieved

Sept. 18, 2007. "total number of deaths is not known precisely ... acute (within two to four months) deaths ... Hiroshima ... 90,000-166,000 ...Nagasaki ... 60,000-80,000"

[4] "Federation of American Scientists: Status of World Nuclear Forces" (http:/ / www. fas. org/ programs/ ssp/ nukes/ nuclearweapons/nukestatus. html). Fas.org. . Retrieved 2012-12-29.

[5] "Nuclear Weapons – Israel" (http:/ / www. fas. org/ nuke/ guide/ israel/ nuke/ index. html). Fas.org. Jan 8, 2007. . Retrieved 2010-12-15.[6] See also Mordechai Vanunu[7] "Nuclear Weapons – South Africa" (http:/ / www. fas. org/ nuke/ guide/ rsa/ nuke/ index. html). Fas.org. May 29, 2000. . Retrieved

2011-04-07.[8] The best overall printed sources on nuclear weapons design are: Hansen, Chuck. U.S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History. San Antonio,

TX: Aerofax, 1988; and the more-updated Hansen, Chuck. Swords of Armageddon: U.S. Nuclear Weapons Development since 1945.Sunnyvale, CA: Chukelea Publications, 1995.

[9] David Albright and Kimberly Kramer (2005-08-22). "Neptunium 237 and Americium: World Inventories and Proliferation Concerns" (http:/ /isis-online. org/ uploads/ isis-reports/ documents/ np_237_and_americium. pdf). Institute for Science and International Security. . Retrieved2011-10-13.

[10] Carey Sublette, Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions: 4.5.2 "Dirty" and "Clean" Weapons (http:/ / nuclearweaponarchive. org/Nwfaq/ Nfaq4-5. html#Nfaq4. 5. 2), accessed 10 May 2011.

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[11] On India's alleged hydrogen bomb test, see Carey Sublette, What Are the Real Yields of India's Test? (http:/ / nuclearweaponarchive. org/India/ IndiaRealYields. html).

[12] Sublette, Carey. "The Nuclear Weapon Archive" (http:/ / nuclearweaponarchive. org/ ). . Retrieved 2007-03-07.[13] U.S. Department of Energy, Restricted Data Declassification Decisions, 1946 to the Present (RDD-8) (http:/ / www. fas. org/ sgp/ othergov/

doe/ rdd-8. pdf) (January 1, 2002), accessed November 20, 2011.[14] Stephen I. Schwartz, ed., Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Since 1940. Washington, D.C.: Brookings

Institution Press, 1998. See also Estimated Minimum Incurred Costs of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Programs, 1940–1996 (http:/ / www. brook.edu/ fp/ projects/ nucwcost/ figure1. htm), an excerpt from the book.

[15] Creveld, Martin Van (2000). "Technology and War II:Postmodern War?". In Charles Townshend. The Oxford History of Modern War. NewYork, USA: Oxford University Press. pp. 349. ISBN 0-19-285373-2.

[16] Kenneth Waltz, "More May Be Better," in Scott Sagan and Kenneth Waltz, eds., The Spread of Nuclear Weapons (New York: Norton,1995).

[17] Kenneth Waltz, "The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: More May Better," (http:/ / www. mtholyoke. edu/ acad/ intrel/ waltz1. htm) AdelphiPapers, no. 171 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1981).

[18] See, for example: Feldman, Noah. " Islam, Terror and the Second Nuclear Age (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2006/ 10/ 29/ magazine/29islam. html)," New York Times Magazine (29 October 2006).

[19] Daniel Plesch & Stephen Young, "Senseless policy", Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=sgsAAAAAMBAJ& printsec=frontcover#v=onepage& q& f=false), November/December 1998, page 4. Fetched from URL on 18April 2011.

[20] In the United States, the President and the Secretary of Defense, acting as the National Command Authority, must jointly authorize the useof nuclear weapons.

[21] Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (2010). " Status of Signature and Ratification (http:// www. ctbto. org/ the-treaty/ status-of-signature-and-ratification)". Accessed 27 May 2010. Of the "Annex 2" states whose ratification of theCTBT is required before it enters into force, China, Egypt, Iran, Israel, and the United States have signed but not ratified the Treaty. India,North Korea, and Pakistan have not signed the Treaty.

[22] Richelson, Jeffrey. Spying on the bomb: American nuclear intelligence from Nazi Germany to Iran and North Korea. New York: Norton,2006.

[23] The Presidential Nuclear Initiatives (PNIs) on Tactical Nuclear Weapons At a Glance (http:/ / www. armscontrol. org/ factsheets/ pniglance),Fact Sheet, Arms Control Association.

[24] Nuclear weapons and international humanitarian law (http:/ / www. icrc. org/ web/ eng/ siteeng0. nsf/ htmlall/ section_ihl_nuclear_weapons)International Committee of the Red Cross

[25] Gusterson, Hugh, " Finding Article VI (http:/ / www. thebulletin. org/ web-edition/ columnists/ hugh-gusterson/ finding-article-vi)" Bulletinof the Atomic Scientists (8 January 2007).

[26] Lawrence M. Krauss. The Doomsday Clock Still Ticks, Scientific American, January 2010, p. 26.[27] Obama Prague Speech On Nuclear Weapons (http:/ / www. huffingtonpost. com/ 2009/ 04/ 05/ obama-prague-speech-on-nu_n_183219.

html)[28] CNN Poll: Public divided on eliminating all nuclear weapons (http:/ / politicalticker. blogs. cnn. com/ 2010/ 04/ 12/

cnn-poll-public-divided-on-eliminating-all-nuclear-weapons/ )[29] http:/ / www. stimson. org/ images/ uploads/ research-pdfs/ ESCCONTROLCHAPTER1. pdf[30] http:/ / krepon. armscontrolwonk. com/ archive/ 2911/ the-stability-instability-paradox[31] https:/ / www. mtholyoke. edu/ acad/ intrel/ waltz1. htm Kenneth Waltz, “The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: More May be Better,”[32] Waltz, Kenneth (July/August 2012). "Why Iran Should Get the Bomb: Nuclear Balancing Would Mean Stability" (http:/ / www.

foreignaffairs. com/ articles/ 137731/ kenneth-n-waltz/ why-iran-should-get-the-bomb). Foreign Affairs. . Retrieved 25 August 2012.[33] http:/ / www. oup. com/ us/ catalog/ general/ subject/ Politics/ InternationalStudies/ InternationalSecurityStrategicSt/ ?view=usa&

ci=9780195381368[34] http:/ / bloggingheads. tv/ videos/ 2333 From 19:00 to 26:00 minutes[35] http:/ / www. c-spanvideo. org/ program/ AtomicO: John Mueller, "Atomic Obsession"[36] Renewing the United Nations: A Program for Reform (A/51/950) (http:/ / daccess-dds-ny. un. org/ doc/ UNDOC/ GEN/ N97/ 189/ 79/ IMG/

N9718979. pdf?OpenElement)[37] Wolfgang Rudig (1990). Anti-nuclear Movements: A World Survey of Opposition to Nuclear Energy, Longman, p. 54-55.[38] Jim Falk (1982). Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power, Oxford University Press, pp. 96–97.[39] A brief history of CND (http:/ / www. cnduk. org/ pages/ binfo/ hist. html)[40] "Early defections in march to Aldermaston" (http:/ / century. guardian. co. uk/ 1950-1959/ Story/ 0,,105488,00. html). Guardian Unlimited.

1958-04-05. .[41] Jim Falk (1982). Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power, Oxford University Press, p. 93.[42] Jerry Brown and Rinaldo Brutoco (1997). Profiles in Power: The Anti-nuclear Movement and the Dawn of the Solar Age, Twayne

Publishers, pp. 191–192.[43] Jim Falk (1982). Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power, Oxford University Press, p. 98.[44] Spencer Weart, Nuclear Fear: A History of Images (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988), chapters 16 and 19.

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Nuclear weapon 12

[45] Staff. Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–2012 (http:/ / www. minneapolisfed. org/ community_education/ teacher/ calc/ hist1800. cfm).Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved February 22, 2012.

[46] Brookings Institution, "Estimated Minimum Incurred Costs of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Programs, 1940-1996", at http:/ / www. brook. edu/fp/ projects/ nucwcost/ figure1. htm

[47] "Q&A with Scott Kirsch: Digging with bombs" (http:/ / www. usnews. com/ usnews/ news/ articles/ 060106/ 6kirsch. htm). Usnews.com. .Retrieved 2010-11-25.

[48] "Can past nuclear explosions help detect forgeries?" (http:/ / www. theartnewspaper. com/ article. asp?id=8529). Theartnewspaper.com. .Retrieved 2010-11-25.

Bibliography• Bethe, Hans Albrecht. The Road from Los Alamos. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991. ISBN 0-671-74012-1• DeVolpi, Alexander, Minkov, Vladimir E., Simonenko, Vadim A., and Stanford, George S. Nuclear

Shadowboxing: Contemporary Threats from Cold War Weaponry. Fidlar Doubleday, 2004 (Two volumes, bothaccessible on Google Book Search) (Content of both volumes is now available in the 2009 trilogy by AlexanderDeVolpi: Nuclear Insights: The Cold War Legacy available on (http:/ / www. Amazon. com).

• Glasstone, Samuel and Dolan, Philip J. The Effects of Nuclear Weapons (third edition). (http:/ / www. cddc. vt.edu/ host/ atomic/ nukeffct/ ) Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977. Available online (PDF).(http:/ / www. princeton. edu/ ~globsec/ publications/ effects/ effects. shtml)

• NATO Handbook on the Medical Aspects of NBC Defensive Operations (Part I – Nuclear) (http:/ / www. fas. org/nuke/ guide/ usa/ doctrine/ dod/ fm8-9/ 1toc. htm). Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force: Washington,D.C., 1996

• Hansen, Chuck. U.S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History. Arlington, TX: Aerofax, 1988• Hansen, Chuck. The Swords of Armageddon: U.S. nuclear weapons development since 1945. Sunnyvale, CA:

Chukelea Publications, 1995. (http:/ / www. uscoldwar. com/ )• Holloway, David. Stalin and the Bomb. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-300-06056-4• The Manhattan Engineer District, " The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (http:/ / www.

atomicarchive. com/ Docs/ MED/ index. shtml)" (1946)• Smyth, Henry DeWolf. Atomic Energy for Military Purposes. (http:/ / www. atomicarchive. com/ Docs/

SmythReport/ index. shtml) Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1945. (Smyth Report – the firstdeclassified report by the US government on nuclear weapons)

• The Effects of Nuclear War (http:/ / www. fas. org/ nuke/ intro/ nuke/ 7906/ index. html). Office of TechnologyAssessment, May 1979.

• Rhodes, Richard. Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995. ISBN0-684-82414-0

• Rhodes, Richard. The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986 ISBN 0-684-81378-5• Weart, Spencer R. Nuclear Fear: A History of Images. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988. ISBN

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Nuclear weapon 13

External links• Current World Nuclear Arsenals (http:/ / www. cdi. org/ nuclear/ database/ nukestab. html) has estimates of

nuclear arsenals in the respective countries.

General• Nuclear Weapon Archive from Carey Sublette (http:/ / nuclearweaponarchive. org/ ) is a reliable source of

information and has links to other sources and an informative FAQ (http:/ / nuclearweaponarchive. org/ Nwfaq/Nfaq0. html).

• The Federation of American Scientists (http:/ / fas. org) provide solid information on weapons of massdestruction, including nuclear weapons (http:/ / fas. org/ nuke/ ) and their effects (http:/ / www. fas. org/ nuke/intro/ nuke/ effects. htm)

• Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues (http:/ / alsos. wlu. edu/ )—contains many resources related to nuclearweapons, including a historical and technical overview and searchable bibliography of web and print resources.

• Everything you wanted to know about nuclear technology (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ channel/ mech-tech/nuclear)—Provided by New Scientist.

• Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Nuclear weapons (http:/ / digital. library. unt. edu/govdocs/ crs/ search. tkl?q=nuclear+ weapons& search_crit=title& search=Search& date1=Anytime&date2=Anytime& type=form)

• Video archive of US, Soviet, UK, Chinese and French Nuclear Weapon Testing (http:/ / sonicbomb. com/modules. php?name=Content& pa=showpage& pid=39) at sonicbomb.com (http:/ / www. sonicbomb. com)

• The National Museum of Nuclear Science & History (United States) (http:/ / www. nuclearmuseum. org/)—located in Albuquerque, New Mexico; a Smithsonian Affiliate Museum

• Nuclear Emergency and Radiation Resources (http:/ / www. ibiblio. org/ rcip/ nuclear. html)

Historical• The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb (http:/ / www. atomicarchive. com/ History/ mp/ index. shtml)

at AtomicArchive.com• Los Alamos National Laboratory: History (http:/ / www. lanl. gov/ history/ ) (U.S. nuclear history)• Race for the Superbomb (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ amex/ bomb/ ), PBS website on the history of the H-bomb• U.S. nuclear test photographs (http:/ / www. nv. doe. gov/ library/ photos/ default. htm) from the DOE Nevada

Site Office• U.S. nuclear test film clips (http:/ / www. nv. doe. gov/ library/ films/ default. htm) from the DOE Nevada Site

Office• Recordings of recollections of the victims of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (http:/ / www. voshn. com)• The Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project (http:/ / www. wilsoncenter.

org/ program/ NPIHP/ ) or NPIHP is a global network of individuals and institutions engaged in the study ofinternational nuclear history through archival documents, oral history interviews and other empirical sources.

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Article Sources and Contributors 14

Article Sources and ContributorsNuclear weapon  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=542033774  Contributors: -ross616-, 0nizuka the Great, 119, 128.59.51.xxx, 129.186.219.xxx, 134.132.112.xxx, 136.186.1.xxx, 144.132.75.xxx, 15.253, 203.109.250.xxx, 208.28.113.xxx, 209.239.202.xxx, 209.75.42.xxx, 213.253.39.xxx, 216.237.32.xxx, 24.15.135.xxx, 24.93.53.xxx, 2D, 5-HT8, 62.253.64.xxx, 682635q, 84user, 9Nak, A Softer Answer, A bit iffy, A scientist, A. B., A3 nm, AAA765, ABF, ACSE, AGToth, ATLBeer, Aarchiba, Aardark, Aaron DT, Aaron Schulz, AbJ32, Abeg92, Academic Challenger, AdamW, Adambro, Addshore, Adilch, Admiral Valdemar, Adrian J. Hunter, Adrienhocky16, Aeons, Afa86, Afitillidie13, Afonsecajames, Ageekgal, Ahloahlo, Ahoerstemeier, Airconswitch, Aitias, Aivazovsky, Ajm81, Akamad, Akmoilan, Aksi great, Aktalo, Alansohn, Alavena, AlbertBickford, Ale jrb, Aleksandar Guzijan, Alex earlier account, Alex.tan, Alex756, Alexwcovington, Alfio, Ali K, Aliwalla, Alksub, AllanDeGroot, Allstarecho, Altair1453, Amenzix, Amjsjc, AnOddName, Ancheta Wis, Anders.Warga, Andonic, Andre Engels, Andrew Gray, Andrewlol546, Andy M. Wang, Andyconda, Anetode, AngelOfSadness, Angela, Animum, Anirvan, Anomaly1, Anonymous editor, Ansible, Antandrus, Antepenultimate, Antonio Lopez, Anville, Apox, Aprock, Aprudhomme, Apteva, Arakunem, Arbor to SJ, Archaeopteryx, Arclem, Arda Xi, Arigato1, Arjun01, Arkuat, Armaced, Arnegrim, Arvindn, Asdfasdf321, Aspuar, AstroNomer, Astronautics, AtheWeatherman, Atlant, Atombombfootball, Atomicarchive, Aude, Auntof6, Austin+mariah, AvicAWB, Avicennasis, Avillia, Avono, Awesome Truck Ramp, Awesomeman42, AxelBoldt, Ay nako, Ayla, Aym710, Ayrton Prost, BM, Babbler, Babilingbaboon, Bahman15, Balderdash707, Balok, Bambuway, Barnaby dawson, Barneca, Barneyboo, Bart133, Bascombe2, Bassbonerocks, Batman278, Bawolff, Bcrowell, Beeblebrox, Beland, Ben515, Benfranklinlover, Benji Franklyn, Bensaccount, Berkeley0000, Betterusername, Bevo, Beyond My Ken, Bfgoobla, Bfiene, Bhawani Gautam, BiH, BigFatBuddha, Bigcheesegs, Bigjimr, Bilbobjoe, Bill37212, Billy1223billy, Billyx1337x, Bisqwit, Bk0, Bkell, Black sheep997, Blightsoot, Bloigen, Bloodvayne, Bluemoose, Bobandbulider1, Bobblehead, Bobblewik, Bobfran, Bobo192, Bogey97, Bomac, Bongwarrior, Bookofjude, Bootha, Boothy443, Borislav Dopudja, Boundarylayer, Brandmeister, Brandox1, Brian0918, Brian53199, BrokenSegue, Bryan Derksen, Bubba hotep, Buchanan-Hermit, Buffs, Buklaodord, Bullzeye, Burntsauce, Butros, C.Fred, CDOG13, CMD Beaker, CN111111111, CQJ, CST, CWenger, CWii, Cabhan, Cadiomals, Cal 1234, Calabraxthis, CambridgeBayWeather, Cameron Dewe, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canadian-Bacon, Cantiorix, Cantus, CapitalR, Capricorn42, CaptainVindaloo, CaribDigita, Carom, Cause of death, Cdmajava, Ceremony1968, Chainmaster, Chair7, Chairboy, Chairman Meow, Challisrussia, Chessy999, Chetvorno, ChillyMD, ChineseGoldFarmer, Chocolateboy, Chongo713, Chowells, Chridd, Chris 73, ChrisO, Chrissmith, Christopher Parham, Christopher Thomas, Christopherlin, Chrisxmas, Cigale, Civil Engineer III, Cj67, Ckatz, ClaudeMuncey, ClockworkSoul, Cmk5b, Cn7abc, Cockopops, Comet Tuttle, Comonline, Confession0791, Conti, Corsair18, Cos-fr, Cpl Syx, Cprompt, Crazycomputers, Creidieki, Cremepuff222, Croquant, Crosbiesmith, Cstorm462, Cube lurker, Curby4, Curps, Cxz111, CycloneGU, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DJ Clayworth, DJ LoPaTa, DJ Sturm, DV8 2XL, DVD R W, Daa89563, Dabobsta123, Daedalus CA, Daf, Dagingsta, Dan100, Daniel Quinlan, Daniel.Cardenas, Daniel11, Daniel4004, DanielCD, Danny B-), Dansen3008, Dante Alighieri, Dante4, Dark Shikari, DarkArctic, Darth Panda, Dattebayo321, Davewild, David Gerard, David Newton, David R. Ingham, DavidSaff, Dbev69, Dbtfz, Dchall1, DeadEyeArrow, Deanos, Deathmak, Deglr6328, Dekisugi, Delldot, Deltabeignet, DerHexer, Dersen, Desk003, Destroyer 2943, Detah, Dethme0w, Deus Ex, Dgw, Diberri, Digitalme, Digitize, Dilholio, Dimimimon4, Dina, Dinnyy, Dino, Dioneces, Discospinster, Dj Capricorn, Dj stone, Djmutex, Dkasak, Dlamini, Dlohcierekim, Dmoss, Doc Tropics, DocWatson42, Docman500, Dominus, DontMessWithThis, DopefishJustin, Dori, DoubleBlue, Download, Dr who1975, Dreadstar, Dreamyshade, Drift, Drivenapart, Dsadinoff, Dublan, Dude4747, Duk, Duncan, Dusti, Dustybunny, Dylan Lake, Dysepsion, E23, EEng, ERRORHUNT, ESkog, Ec5618, Ed Poor, Edgeris, Edwardmking, Eesoov, Ehn, El C, Electric goat, Eleron123, Ellywa, Eloquence, Emt147, Engwar, Enigma 3, Enormousdude, Epbr123, Eric-Wester, Eric119, Erzengel, Esbboston, Essexmutant, Estel, Esurnir, Everyking, Evil Monkey, Evil saltine, Evildoer187, Evilhairyhamster, EvocativeIntrigue, Extraordinary Machine, Ezietsman, F-22G10, FF2010, Falcon8765, Fang Aili, Fangz, Faradayplank, Farosdaughter, Fastfission, Favonian, Feezo, Ferkelparade, Ferman2727, FiP, FidelFair, Fidelfair, Finbarr Saunders, Finlay McWalter, Fintelia, Firien, FisherQueen, FiveFourTwo, Fleiger, Flewis, Flintsparkler, FlorianMarquardt, Fluffy the Cotton Fish, Forsaken88, Foxj, FrancoGG, Frank Shearar, Freakofnurture, Fredrik, Frenchman113, FreplySpang, Fui in terra aliena, Fulvius, Funeral, Funnyediting, Fuzheado, GABaker, GHe, GSlicer, GTBacchus, Gadfium, Gaff, Galoubet, Games14pmw, GangofOne, Garfield226, Garion96, Gary Jacobsen, Gary King, Gblay, Gc9580, GeeJo, Gemini1980, Gene Nygaard, Geneb1955, Geord0, George Burgess, Georgepauljohnringo, Georgewilliamherbert, Gevalt, Gilliam, Gioto, Give Peace A Chance, Glen, Glenn, Gogo Dodo, Golbez, Gorgan almighty, GorillaWarfare, Gorillawataru, Gorrister, Gracefool, GraemeL, Grafikm fr, Graft, Graham87, Grantbonn, GreatGatsby, GregLindahl, GregorB, Grimgor79, GrouchyDan, Grumpyapp, Gsp8181, Gtdp, Guanaco, Gurch, Guy M, Guythatedits, Gwernol, HJ Mitchell, HJ32, HPaul, Hacbarton, Hadal, Haham hanuka, Hairy Dude, Halfvamp, Hans Moravec, Happy guy of happyness, Hapsiainen, Harrisale, Harry the Dirty Dog, Harryboyles, Hatch68, Haukurth, Hdt83, Headmaster2008, Heidit, HellecticMojo, Hello32020, HenryLi, Hephaestos, Hermes 1900s, HexaChord, Hgrenbor, Hibernian, Hiberniantears, Hidenori watanave, Himypiedie, Hipdog11, Hmsbeagle, Hob, Hohum, HoodedMan, Hooduphodlum, Hookemhornsgannon, Hrishie, Hu, Hudson Stern, Husond, Hydra Rider, Hydrogen Iodide, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, IRP, IW.HG, Ialsoagree, Ianblair23, Iapetus, Ice Cold Beer, Iced Kola, Icseaturtles, Ilyanep, Imaginaryoctopus, InShaneee, Infrogmation, Instinct, Inter, Interfector, Inventors, Ioliver, Iridescent, Irroy, Itinerant, Ixfd64, J mcandrews, J.delanoy, JCDenton2052, JDoorjam, JForget, JHMM13, JIMBO WALES, JLaTondre, JaGa, Jack conway2, Jackal242, Jackehammond, Jacob1207, Jacotto, Jade Knight, Jag123, Jahiegel, Jakew, James Kemp, Jannex, JarlaxleArtemis, Java 109, Javieranfispatria, Jaxl, Jaydec, Jburt1, Jedibob5, Jefelex, Jeff G., Jeffdb123, Jengod, Jennavecia, JeremyA, Jersyko, Jessel, Jfeckstein, Jfiling, Jhartshorn, Jherico, Jhickey04, Jhjh112, JiMidnite, Jiang, Jimbo D. Wales, JinJian, Jj137, Jni, JoanneB, Joefu, Joema, John, John M. DiNucci, John Quincy Adding Machine, John254, JohnCD, JohnOwens, JohnWittle, Johndoe85839, Johnfos, Johnl1479, Johnleemk, Jojit fb, Jomorepinch, Jonadab, Joomple, Jordoboy123, Jorvik, Josh, Josh Parris, JoshBuck123456789, Joshbaumgartner, Joshbuddy, Jossi, Jpk, Jumbuck, Jumping cheese, Junglecat, Jusjih, JustinM, Jwissick, K, KFP, KNLR, Kaal, Kadin2048, Kafka Liz, Kaiba, Kaisershatner, Kalmia, Kampking13, Kandar, Kander, Kansas Sam, Karl Dickman, Karl Meier, Karmos, Karn, Kbdank71, Kdmoss, Ke4roh, Keenan Pepper, Keilana, Keithgnield, Kenny&becca, Kentucho, Kevlar67, Khalid Mahmood, Khoikhoi, Khukri, Kim Bruning, King of Hearts, Kingthwomp, Kingturtle, Kipala, Kizor, Kjkolb, Kkken, KnowledgeOfSelf, Knutux, Korinkami, Kormoran, Kotjze, KrakatoaKatie, Kreb Dragonrider, Kroack, Kschultz15, Kubigula, Kuru, Kuzaar, Kyle2131, L Kensington, L'Aquatique, L.tak, L1ttleTr33, LAX, LOTRrules, LX, La Pianista, Lagrange613, Lanzarotemaps, LarryMac, Lazylaces, Lbunker, Lcarscad, Lcolson, 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Octevious, Oda Mari, Ohconfucius, Oliezekat, Olivier, Omegatron, Omg a llama, Omicronpersei8, One of them, Oooooooyuuuu, Opelio, Operation Fiscal Jackhammer, Optimist on the run, Optimusprimechucknorris, OrbitOne, Osingh, Owen, OwenBlacker, OwenX, PBS, PC supergeek, PDH, Pacific1982, Paepaok, Pamejudd, Panoptical, Parthian Scribe, Pascal.Tesson, PasswordUsername, Paste, PatGallacher, Patrick, Paul August, PaulGarner, Pavel Vozenilek, Pavel from Russia, Payam81, Pcbene, PeRshGo, Peaser2009, PeaveyStrat5, Pedro, Penguincornguy, Perl, Persian Poet Gal, Peruvianllama, Peter Grey, PeterisP, Pethr, Petwil, Pgk, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Philbj, Phileas, PhilipO, Phr0gor, PhySusie, Piano non troppo, Pigstinky, Piledhigheranddeeper, Pistonhonda4, Pit0001, Pizza Puzzle, Po.box1595, Poiu18894012, Pokemeharder, PolaroidKiss, Polonium, Ponder, Poolatino12, Pools200, Postlewaight, Ppntori, Prasi90, Prateep, PrestonH, Prmacn, Prodego, Pschemp, Psiphiorg, Pstudier, Psy guy, Punkrockpiper, Pyrospirit, Quadell, Quasihuman, Qwertyman4444, Qxz, R3venans, RG2, RTC, RW Marloe, Racepacket, Ragesoss, Rahzvel, RainbowOfLight, Ral315, RamanVirk, Rami Neudorfer, Ramius, Randalllin, Randy Johnston, Raul654, Ray Van De Walker, Rd232, Rdsmith4, Rearete, Red Slash, Redaktor, Redbeanpaste, Redvers, Reichner1000, Reinoutr, RenniePet, RexNL, Rfc1394, Rfl, Rhallanger, Rhobite, Rhombus, Ribonucleic, Rich Farmbrough, Ricoswavez, Riddley, Rise Above the Vile, Rjd0060, Rje, Rjwilmsi, Rmhermen, Roadrunner, Robchurch, Robert Merkel, RobertG, Roberta F., RobyWayne, Robzz, RockMFR, Rogermw, Roleplayer, Romanm, RomeijnLand II, Ronabop, Ronhjones, Rory096, Rotblats09, RouterIncident, RoyBoy, Royalguard11, Royboycrashfan, Rwoodsco, Ryan, Ryanjunk, Ryulong, SJK, Sagaciousuk, Saganaki-, SallyForth123, Sam Korn, Sam Weber, Sam8, Sander123, SandyGeorgia, Sango123, Santryl, Sardanaphalus, Saric, Saros136, Sasuke9031, Savidan, Sbharris, Scarian, Sceptre, Scetoaux, Scimitar, Sciurinæ, Scohoust, Scott Ritchie, 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Page 15: Nuclear Weapon

Article Sources and Contributors 15

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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:nagasakibomb.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nagasakibomb.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: The picture was taken by Charles Levy from one of theB-29 Superfortresses used in the attack.File:Fission bomb assembly methods.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fission_bomb_assembly_methods.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: FastfissionFile:Teller-Ulam device 3D.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Teller-Ulam_device_3D.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:FastfissionFile:Fat man.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fat_man.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Avron, Davepape, Fastfission, HowardMorland, Oldie, Patricka,Superm401, Tiptoety, Twinsday, Vonvon, Wikifreund, 8 anonymous editsFile:Trident II missile image.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trident_II_missile_image.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: DragonFire1024, Dual Freq,Edward, GDK, High Contrast, Martin H., Matrek, Para, Shizhao, Sumanch, Yann, 2 anonymous editsFile:W87 MX Missile schematic.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:W87_MX_Missile_schematic.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Acdx, Avron, Bomazi,Dual Freq, Fastfission, Foroa, GDK, High Contrast, 2 anonymous editsFile:Flag of IAEA.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_IAEA.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: IAEAFile:SS-24 silo destruction.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SS-24_silo_destruction.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:FastfissionFile:Angela Kane at Nagasaki Peace Memorial Ceremony.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Angela_Kane_at_Nagasaki_Peace_Memorial_Ceremony.jpg  License:Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: The Official CTBTO PhotostreamFile:Essais nucleaires manif.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Essais_nucleaires_manif.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors:Community of the Ark of Lanza del Vasto.File:Sedan Plowshare Crater.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sedan_Plowshare_Crater.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Federal Government of the UnitedStates

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