Number 11, January 2011 briefing paper - Bread

www.bread.org

Abstract

Bread for the World Institute provides policy analysis on hunger and strategies to end it. The Institute educates its network, opinion leaders, policy makers and the public about hunger in the United States and abroad.

• Tocomprehensivelyreformimmigrationpolicy,theUnitedStatesmustacknowledge the links in Latin America between poverty, inequality,andmigration,andworkwithmigrant-sendingcountriestoaddressthesourcesofunauthorizedimmigration.‡

• As the source of 60 percent of all unauthorized immigration to theUnitedStates,Mexico—andparticularlyruralMexico—presentsauniqueenvironmenttoimplementU.S.foreignassistanceprojectsthatpromotedevelopmentwiththeaimofreducingmigrationpressures.

• U.S. foreign assistance agencies working in migrant-sending regionsshouldintegrateanalysisofmigrationissuesintodevelopmentprojects.ProjectsthatseektoreducemigrationdeserveincreasedattentionfromU.S.policymakers,includingsupportforpilotprojectsandevaluations.

• Ruraldevelopmentprojectsinmigrant-sendingcommunitiescanincreasetheir impact though partnerships with small farmer organizations.Strengthening independent small farmer groups creates on-the-groundadvocatesthatinfluencetheMexicangovernmenttosupportpoliciesandleveragepublicresourcesthathelpsmallproducers.

Key Points

briefing paperNumber 11, January 2011

Theimmigrationdebate,whilefocusedondomesticissues,largelyoverlookssomeof the principal causes of unauthorizedmigration to the United States: povertyandinequalityinLatinAmerica.

The U.S. government identifies LatinAmerica as the primary source (80 per-cent) of unauthorized immigration, butitsresponsesinternally,attheborder,andthroughitsforeignassistancetomigrant-sending countries is focused on enforce-ment.

BorderenforcementfailstoimpactthecausesofunauthorizedmigrationinLatinAmerica and U.S. foreign assistance toLatinAmericatypicallydoesn’ttakeintoaccountitsimpactonmigrationpressures.

U.S. policy toward migrant-sendingcountries in Latin America mirrors itsenforcement-focuseddomesticpolicy.As-sistance to Mexico is dominated by theMérida Initiative, which emphasizes aidtoMexico’ssecurityagencies.

ThisreportanalyzesaprojectinruralMexicothatwasdesignedwithanaware-nessoftheconnectionsbetweendevelop-ment andmigration.The project is ana-lyzed in this report to inspire discussionand action linking development and thereductionofmigrationpressures.

Projects that make these connectionsdeserve increased attention in order tobroadentheimmigrationpolicydiscourseto include options for reducing povertyandmigrationpressuresatthesource.

Development and MigrationIn Rural Mexico by Andrew Wainer

LauraElizabethPo

hl

Andrew Wainer is immigration policy analyst for Bread for the World Institute.

2 BriefingPaper,December2010

s the sourceof60percentof allunauthorized im-migrationtotheUnitedStates,Mexicoisunrivaledas in its importance toU.S. immigrationpolicy

(seeFigure1).1Recognizingthis,theU.S.government’spri-maryresponsehasbeenreinforcingthecountry’s1,969-mileborderwithitssouthernneighbor.Whilethisispopularwiththe public, it hasn’t stopped unauthorized immigration.2Although unauthorized immigration has decreased in re-centyears,mostexpertsattributethatprimarilytothelossofavailablejobsintheUnitedStatesratherthanincreasedspendingonborderenforcement.3

U.S. spending on immigration enforcement increasedfrom$1billionto$15billionbetween1990and2009.Dur-ingthistimetheU.S.unauthorizedimmigrantpopulationin-creasedfrom3milliontoalmost12million.4Expertsrecog-nizethatgiventhepullofhigherwagesintheUnitedStates,itwouldtakeunrealisticamountsofpersonnelandfunding–nottomentiontheuseoflethalforce–tostopunauthorizedimmigrationthroughMexico.5

The enforcement-only approach tomigration is ineffec-tivebecause it ignores someof theprincipalcausesofun-authorizedmigrationto theUnitedStates:povertyand in-equalityinLatinAmerica,particularlyinMexico.6Althougheverymigranthashisorherownstory,mostofthosestoriesincludetheinabilitytofindworkorearnenoughmoneyintheirhomeland.

In a 2010 case study of an immigrant-sending commu-nity inMexico,61percentofmalemigrantsreported thateconomicopportunities–higherwagesandmorejobs–weretheprimarymotivating factor formigration to theUnitedStates.7As the2009UnitedNationsHumanDevelopmentReport stated,migration “largely reflects people’s need toimprovetheirlivelihoods.”8

In order to address immigration pressures directly, theUnitedStatesmustconsideramorebalanceddevelopmentagendatowardMexicoandothermigrant-sendingcountriesinLatinAmerica.This includes elevating the importanceof poverty reduction and job-creation projects targeted tomigrant-sendingcommunities—particularlyinruralMexico,wherepovertyandmigrationareconcentrated.9

Buildingsustainablelivelihoodsinmigrant-sendingcom-munitiesnotonlyhasthepotentialtoreduceamajorcauseofimmigrationtotheUnitedStatesbutcouldalsocontrib-utetothefightagainstviolenceandlawlessnessinMexico.Whilethereasonsfortheviolencearecomplex,povertyandalackofeconomicopportunityforMexicanyouthcertainlyfacilitateinvolvementinillicitactivityalongwithout-migra-tion.10

TheU.S.governmentandmultilateralorganizationssuchas theUnitedNations are expressing increased interest inthenexusofdevelopmentandmigration.TheU.S.AgencyforInternationalDevelopment(USAID)inparticularissup-porting researchon the role that thediaspora canplay intheirhomecountries’development.11

InNovember2010,U.S.StateDepartmentAssistantSec-retaryEricP.Schwartzsaid,“Governmentsandinternation-alorganizationsmustalsobetteranticipatetheimpactofde-velopmentprogramsonthemovementofpeople.”12Theseareapromisingsigns.Butpolicymakerslackmodelsandaprocess forconverting this increased interest intoconcretepoliciesandprojectsthatseektoreducemigrationpressuresinLatinAmericaingeneralandinMexicoinparticular.

U.S. Foreign Assistance to Mexico and the Mérida Initiative

TheU.S. embassy inMexicoCity states on itswebsite,“Thelackofopportunitiestoearnalivingwagespursmigra-tion—bothinternalandinternational.”13ButtheU.S.govern-ment’sforeignpolicyresponsetothecausesofimmigrationmatchesitsdomesticpolicy:anoverwhelmingfocusonsecu-rityandlawenforcement.14

Within theU.S. government’sLatinAmerica assistanceportfolio,Mexicohastraditionallybeenalow-prioritycoun-try because of its status as amiddle-income nation. Until2008,Mexico andCentral America received 16.2 percentofforeignassistancefundsdirectedtowardLatinAmerica.Thistypicallyamountedto$60-70millionperyearforMex-ico,withmorethanhalfofthatdirectedtoassistMexico’sfightagainstinternationaldrugtrafficking.Mexicoreceivedabout$27millionperyearinforeignassistanceforallnon-securityprogramspriorto2008.15

In an effort to combatMexico’s narcotic trafficking or-ganizations, U.S. assistance was dramatically increased in2008throughtheMéridaInitiative,amulti-year$1.8billion

A

Mexico60%

Other Latin America

20%

Asia11%

Europe & Canada4%

Africa & Other4%

Figure 1: Estimated U.S. Unauthorized Immigrant Population, by Region and Country of Birth, 2009

Source:PewHispanicCenter,September,2010.

www.bread.org BreadfortheWorldInstitute 3

programfocusedonlawenforcementassistancetoMexican(and,toa lesserextent,CentralAmeri-can)securityagencies.Throughthisprogram,U.S.assistance toMexico increasedfrom$65millioninfiscalyear2007toalmost$406millioninfiscalyear2008.16In2009,totalStateDepartmentassis-tancetoMexicowas$786.8million.Ofthistotalassistancepackage,$753.8million—96percentofU.S. funds toMexico—was directed towardmili-tary anddrug enforcement assistance.Althoughit’sdwarfedbythe$10billionannualborderen-forcement budget, the Mérida Initiative domi-natesU.S.foreignassistancetoMexico.17

In2009,U.S.developmentassistancethatcouldbe directed toward job-creation projects that re-duce migration pressures totaled $11.2 million,or .01percent of totalU.S. assistance (seeTable1onnextpage).TheMéridaInitiativeincreasedtotalU.S.assistancetoMexicobutdecreasedtheimportanceofeconomicdevelopmentintheover-allMexicanforeignassistanceagenda.18ThereareU.S.governmentagenciesother than theUnitedStates Agency for International Development(USAID) and the State Department that focuson poverty reduction and rural development inLatinAmerica,butwithintheentiretyofU.S.for-eignassistancetoMexico,povertyreductionandeconomic development remain a low priority.19USAID’s lack of emphasis on supporting ruralMexico—wherepovertyandmigrationareconcen-trated—ispartofaglobalforeignassistancetrendbeginning in the 1980s thatde-emphasized agri-culturaldevelopment.20

In spite of the growing interest, discussionamong U.S. policymakers and practitioners onmigrationanddevelopmenthaslargelybeentheo-retical.Otherthanremittanceprojects, therearefewmodelsofhowtodesignand implementde-velopmentprojectsthatseektoreducemigrationpressures.Inordertotranslateconceptualdiscus-sionsintopractice,policymakersandpractitionersneedtoknowwhatworksintermsofdevelopmentinmigrant-sendingcommunities.21

A Focus on Rural MexicoMexico’scountrysideisoneofthemostpromis-

ingenvironments to invest inruraldevelopmentto reduce migration pressures. Mexico has the14th largest economy in theworld,but it is alsoextraordinarilyunequal.22Dependingonthemea-sure,betweenonethirdandhalfofMexicansare

The Mérida InitiativeMexicohasalonghistoryofproducingandsupplyingdrugsfor

theU.S.market.Today,90percentofthecocaineenteringtheUnit-edStatespassesthroughMexico.1UpontakingofficeinDecember2006—andafterasteadyincreaseindrugtraffickingviolence—Mexi-can President Felipe Calderón declared his intention to fight thecountry’sentrenchedcartelswithunprecedentedforce.

FordecadesthecartelswereprotectedbyMexico’slong-rulingIn-stitutionalRevolutionaryParty(PRIbyitsSpanishacronym),whichservedasanarbiterandregulatorofthedrugtrade,therebyminimiz-ingconflictamongcompetingtraffickingorganizations.ButwhenthePRIbegantoweakenduringthe1990s,itsabilitytocontrolthecar-telsdiminishedanddrugtraffickersbegansettlingconflictsamongthemselves, through violence.Adding to the escalating intra-cartelviolenceandinresponsetoCalderón’scrackdown,thecartelsstartedtotargetMexicansecurityforces.Since2006,theconflicthascostanestimated28,000lives—morethan10,000in2010alone.2

Viewing the rising violence as a potential threat to national se-curity, theUnited States government has been a strong supporterofCalderón’s attempt todismantle the cartels.This support is ex-pressedthroughtheMéridaInitiative.NamedaftertheMexicancityinwhichCalderónandU.S.PresidentGeorgeW.Bushsolidifiedtheagreement inOctober 2007, the three-year $1.8billion initiative iscurrentlytheUnitedStates’largestforeignassistancepackagefortheWesternHemisphere.

Theinitiative’soriginalgoalsincluded:1. Breakingthepowerandimpunityofcriminalorganizations;2. AssistingtheMexicanandCentralAmericangovernments instrengtheningborder,air,andmaritimecontrols;3. Improvingthecapacityofjusticesystemsintheregion;and4. CurtailinggangactivityinMexicoandCentralAmerica.3Todate,Méridahasbeenalmostexclusively focusedonprovid-

ingequipmentandtrainingforMexico’ssecurityagencies.About59percentofthefundsgotoMexicanlawenforcement,while41percenthasbeentargetedtothemilitary.4

PresidentObamahasechoedhispredecessor’ssupportfortheini-tiative.Butin2009theObamaadministrationrevisedtheprogram“pillars” and added one focused on building “strong and resilientcommunities.”Thispillarcalls foraddressing socio-economicchal-lengesandprovidingalternativesforyouth.5

Calderón’sdrugwarledtothekillingandcaptureofmanyofthecartels’ leaders,but there isno sign that thedrug traffickingorga-nizationsarereadytosurrender.IndescribingCalderon’soffensive,aU.S.GovernmentAccountabilityOfficereportstatedthatit“doesnotappeartohavesignificantlyreduceddrugtraffickinginMexico.”6

Analystshavefoundthattheinitiativeisinsufficienttomeetthechallengesposedbythecartelsbecauseitdoesnotaddressthelong-termproblemsthatfeedthedrugtrade:povertyandinequality.TheObamaadministration’sexpansionoftheinitiativetoincludesomeattentiontopovertyisapositivechange,buttosecurelong-termim-pact,povertyreliefandjobcreationforyouthwillneedtobecomeacorecomponentoftheinitiative.7


consideredpoorandupto18percent liveinextremepov-erty,unabletomeettheirbasicfoodneeds.23

Reducingmigrationpressureswill requiredevelopmentand job creation throughoutMexico, but poverty and in-ternationalmigration are particularly concentrated in thecountryside.AlthoughaboutaquarterofallMexicansliveinruralareas,60percentofMexico’sextremepoorareru-raland44percentofallofMexico’sinternationalmigrationoriginatesinruralcommunities(seeFigure2).24

Thismeans thatmore thanhalf of ruralMexicans liveinpovertyand25percentliveinextremepoverty.25Asoneexpertstates,“Ruralpovertyisone…oftheprincipal“push-factors”inMexicanmigrationtotheUnitedStates”andthusshouldbetheprimaryfocusofdevelopmenteffortsaimedatreducingmigrationpressures.26

Afterdecadesofdecliningsupportamonginternationalassistanceagencies,27agricultureandruraldevelopment isnow re-emergingas a vitaldevelopment focus.TheWorldBank’s2008WorldDevelopmentReportstates,“Agriculturecontinues to be a fundamental instrument for sustainabledevelopment and poverty reduction.”28 Research has alsofoundthatagriculture isoneof thebestreturnson invest-mentintermsofpoverty-reductionspending.29Forexample,each1percentincreaseincropproductivityinAsiareducesthenumberofpoorpeoplebyhalfapercent.Thiscorrelationalsoholdsformiddle-incomecountriessuchasMexico.30

Amongtheoptionsforagriculturaldevelopment,supportforsmallholderfarmersisthemostpromisingpathforpover-tyreduction.TheWorldBankstates,“Improvingtheproduc-tivity,profitability,andsustainabilityofsmallholderfarmingisthemainpathwayoutofpovertyinusingagriculturefordevelopment.”31 And smallholder farmers in Mexico areespecially inneedofassistance.Afterdecadesofdeclining

supportfromtheMexicangovernmentandincreasedcom-petition from subsidized U.S. producers under the NorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement(NAFTA),small-Mexicanfarmershavefounditincreasinglydifficulttomakealiving.

NAFTA and Mexican Small FarmersAfterdefaultingon its foreigndebt inAugust1982, the

Mexicangovernmentbeganamajorshiftinitsdevelopmentstrategyfromaprotectionist,state-runmodelthatnurtureddomesticconsumptionandindustrializationtoamoremar-ket-basedmodel focused on cutting government spendingandencouragingexports,allwiththeaimofreducingdebt,inflation,andcurrencyinstability.32Althoughthereformsofthe1980swereaimedat stabilizing theeconomy, theshiftineconomicmodelwaswrenchingforMexicans.The1980ssawfallingwages,adeclineinlivingstandards,jobdisplace-ment,andloweredprospectsforeconomicmobility

Theimpactonsmallfarmerswasparticularlyharmful.Inadditiontoareductioninstatesupport,smallandmedium-sized producers faced the cumulative impact of long-termdrought, multiple economic crises, increased competitionfromU.S.producers, fallingagriculturalcommoditypricesandincreasesinthepriceofagriculturalinputs,andreducedaccess tocredit.Mexico’sruralpopulationdecreasedfrom58percentin1950to25percentin2005.WhilemanyoftheruralpoormigratedtoMexico’sovercrowdedcities,othersoptedfortheUnitedStates.33

The1994NorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement(NAF-TA)wastheculminationoftheeconomicliberalizationthatbeganinthe1980s.NAFTAwastoutedasaMexicanjob-cre-

Account FY2009

Child Survival & Health 2.9

Development Assistance 11.2

Economic Support Fund 15.0

Foreign Military Financing 299.0

International Military Education & Training 0.8

International Narcotics Control & Law Enforcement 454.0

Non-proliferation, Anti-terrorism 3.9& Related Programs

Total 786.8

Sources:U.S.DepartmentofState,CongressionalBudgetJustificationforForeignOperationsFY2008-FY2011,FY2009SupplementalAppropriationsAct(P.L.111-32).

Table 1: U.S. Assistance to Mexico by Account, FY2009 Total, U.S. $ millions

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

25%

75%

44%

56%

Percentage of Total Percentage of Mexican Mexican Population Migrants to the U.S.

RuralUrban

Source:Mexico-Uniuted States Migration: Regional and State Overview,MexicoCity:ConsejoNacionaldePoblación,2006.

Figure 2: Rural Versus Urban Immigration


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ationprogramthatwouldslowimmigration.ButNAFTA’spoliciesreinforcedsupportforlarge,export-orientedproduc-ersatthecostofsmallfarmers,andruralemploymentcon-tinuedtodiminish.Between1991and2007Mexicolost20percent(2.1million)ofitsagriculturaljobs.Thelossofruraljobsand the inability togenerate income impacted familyfarmsinparticular:non-salariedagriculturalfamilyemploy-mentdeclined58percentbetween1991and2007.ManyofthesedisplacedfarmersendedupintheUnitedStates,some-timesworkinginU.S.agricultureasfieldlaborers.34

AfterNAFTA,theoperationoftheMexicansmallfamilyfarmbecame thevocationofolderMexicans,while youthmigratedtothecitiesor theUnitedStates.Almostaquar-terofruralMexicansages15-24 in1990had leftby2000.Throughout30yearsofincreasingemigration,theMexicangovernmentalsohasdonelittletoslowtheexodus.Itslead-ing program for small agricultural producers—PROCAM-PO—doesnottargetareasofhighmigration.35

Although theMexicangovernment isprimarily respon-sibleforaddressingthecountry’sruralpoverty,theUnitedStatescanprovidecriticalsupportforprogramsthataddressmigrationpressuresattheirsource.Becauseofitspotentialfor long-term impact, such a strategy requires commensu-rate,sustainedpolicyattentionandresources.Furthermore,by supporting economic development projects with ruralMexicanorganizations,Mexicangovernmentagencies—par-ticularlyatthelocalandregionallevels—canbedrawnintodevelopmentprojectsthatreducemigrationpressures.

A comprehensive, smallholder-based approach to devel-opmentwouldbyitsverynaturegenerateruralemployment.Without support forMexico’s small andmedium farmers,thecountry’sruraleconomywillcontinuetobeincreasingly

The North American Free Trade Agreement

TheNorth American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)wasconceivedandnegotiatedduringthelate1980sandearly1990sinaneraofexpandingtradeblocs,mostnotablytheEuropeanUnion. InNorthAmerica,NAFTAbuilt on the1988Canada-UnitedStatesFreeTradeAgreement.1

NAFTAwaspursuedinboththeUnitedStatesandMexicobutwasparticularlypromotedbyMexicanPresidentCarlosSalinas.2SalinaspursuedNAFTAaspartofadevelopmentplanthataimedtoliftthecountryintotheranksoftheindus-trializedworldby increasing foreign investment and trade.Aftersufferingeconomicturmoilduringthe1980s,MexicanpolicymakersalsohopedthatNAFTAwouldcreatejobs,in-creasewages,andreducepoverty.

Mexico’s desire to emulate the rapid development ofSpainwithintheEuropeanCommonMarketalsoinfluenceditsdecisiontojoinaninternationaltradingbloc.3Butsinceitwas implementedin1994,assessmentsofNAFTA’s impactontheMexicaneconomyvary.4

Foreign trade and investment increased under NAFTAandthepacthelpedstabilizeMexico’seconomy.Butgrowthhasbeenslowandmanyanalysts state that itsbenefitsareunevenlydistributedamongtheMexicanpopulation.

NAFTA’s impact onMexican agriculture is particularlycontroversial. While NAFTA accelerated Mexico’s transi-tiontocapital-intensiveagriculturalproductionandassistedlarge-scale, mechanized producers, it didn’t generate suffi-cientruralemployment.Mexicolost2.1millionagriculturaljobsbetween1991and2007.

ThedeclineofruralemploymentandthefallingfortunesofsmallfarmersinMexicowasonlypartlyduetoNAFTA’sremoval of agricultural import barriers and the influx ofsubsidizedU.S.agricultureexports.AlsoconsequentialwereMexico’s domestic policies since the early 1980s that de-creasedgovernmentsupportforsmallfarmers.Nevertheless,NAFTAintensifiedaprocessthatresultedinincreasedpov-ertyandmigrationpressuresformillionsofsmallMexicanfarmers.5

dependent on migration and remittances. While the linkbetweensupportingsmallholderfarmersandpovertyreduc-tionisproven,thenextlogicalstepwithrespecttoitsimpactonmigrationpressuresislessrecognized.36

The Contemporary Mexican Countryside ThevillageofAvilaCamacho,about200milessouthofEl

Paso,Texas,istheperfectsiteforaHollywoodWestern(seemaponpage7).Alongthevillage’sdirtroadacowgrazesinfrontofabandoned,half-ruinedadobehomes.Butcloserinvestigationrevealsalesscinematicenvironment.

Up the hill from the ruinedbuildings, about 160 farm-ingfamiliesstruggletomaintainthesmall-scaleagriculturalproduction—mostly apple orchards—that are the commu-nity’s economicmainstay.Fordecades they’vebeen losing

Small farmers till their land in preparation for planting maize in the poor, migrant-sending Mexican state of Oaxaca.


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economicground—andpopulation.In1979,thevillagehadmorethan300residents.Butduetoalong-termdeclineinviableagriculturemuchofthevillage’syouthleft.

Evenwiththeremittancesthatflowtotheregion,thearearemainspoor.37Today,most ofAvilaCamacho’s residentsarewomenandoldermen.Mostyoungpeoplesimplyexpecttoleaveoncetheyreachworkingage.Aruinedelementaryschoolwith rustedchairsand tables is a relicof theonce-vibrantcommunity.Thefewschool-agedchildrenremainingtraveleightmilestothenearestclassroomalongroadsthataresometimesblockedbyoverflowingrivers.

Avila Camacho and ruralMexico’s youth exodus wereshapedbyavarietyoffactors,buttherateofmigrationbe-cameparticularlyintensestartinginthe1980swhenitwasspurredbyMexicanandinternationaleconomicpoliciesun-favorabletothecountry’ssmallfarmers(seeabove).

Although Mexican small farmers were hurt by the in-creasedimportsfromsubsidizedandmechanizedU.S.farm-ersthatNAFTAfacilitated,theMexicangovernment’sruralpolicyhasexacerbatedthe inequalityand impoverishmentof the countryside.NAFTAhas beenunsuccessful at sup-porting rural livelihoods for small producers like those inAvila Camacho. Mexican agricultural government subsi-dies—whichcouldhavebeenusedtocushiontheimpactofNAFTAforsmallfarmers—havelargelyincreasedinequalityandmigrationpressures.38

HowcantheUnitedStatesaddressthisflowofmigrantsfromruralMexico?OnepathistosupportMexicansmallfarmerstoearnalivingontheirlandandprovidealterna-tivestomigration.

Althoughrare,therearedevelopmentorganizationsseek-ingtorevitalizeruralMexicancommunitieswiththeexplicitgoalofreducingmigrationpressures.Toaddressunauthor-izedmigration at the source, theU.S. government shouldlearn from these (few) projects and consider funding and

evaluating additional efforts at poverty reduction and jobcreationinmigrant-sendingcommunities.Tothisend,onesuchproject—andthepromisingpracticesithasgenerated—isanalyzedbelow.

Key Elements in Developmentand Migration Projects

To successfully implement development programs that re-duce migration pressures, agencies must understand the crit-ical connection between migration, poverty, and inequality.

Whenworkinginmigrant-sendingregions,U.S.develop-ment organizations must incorporate migration concernsintotheircoremission.CatholicReliefServices’(CRS)Mex-icoprogramisagoodexampleofadevelopmentorganiza-tionthathasdonethis.

“Thethemeofreducingmigrationisafundamentalgoalof all theworkCRSMexicohas engaged in,” saidChuckBarrett, CRSMexico’s economic development consultant.“[CRSMexico]hasafundamentalundergirdingprincipletoreducethelong-termpressurestomigrate….It’spartofthelong-rangeplanning;it’spartofthevision.”39

BarrettengagedtheproblemsofAvilaCamacho’ssmallfarmers—andothersliketheminMexico—throughhisworkwithimmigrantMexicanfarmworkersintheUnitedStates,includingthoseworkinginappleorchards.“[Immigrationiscausedby]thedevastationintheruraleconomyinMexico,”hesaid.“SowhenIgotinvolvedindevelopmentinMexicothatwasfrontandcenterinmymind.Toworkin[Mexico]withoutthinkingaboutthislinkwouldbeturningawayfromthefaceofreality.”

But U.S. foreign assistance tomigrant-sending commu-nities rarely evenconsiders the impactofdevelopmentonmigration. InElSalvador—anothermajormigrant-sendingcountryinLatinAmerica—theMillenniumChallengeCor-poration’s (MCC) $461 million compact includes a ruraldevelopment component and a project evaluation, but inspiteoftheMCC’scomplexevaluationmetrics,thereisnoevidenceofanevaluationoftheimpactoftheprogramonmigrationpressures.40

ThelackofattentiontotheroleofmigrationpressuresisalsotruefortheMCCcompactsinNicaraguaandHondu-ras.Althoughtheproductive investmentelementsof thesecompactsmaybereducingmigrationpressures,thereisnomechanism to analyze and evaluate the projects’ effective-ness in this respect. This is typical formost developmentprojects inLatinAmerica, even inmajormigrant-sendingregions.41

As Barrett began making connections—and seeking apartnership—betweenMexicanimmigrantappleorchardistsin theUnitedStatesandsmallapple farmers like those inAvilaCamacho,helearnedofaprivatefoundationinWash-

An abandoned primary school now in ruins is evidence of the exodus of youth from Avila Camacho, a farming village in the Mexican state of Chihuahua.


ingtonstatethatwasalsointerestedinthelinksbe-tweenMexicanruralpov-ertyandmigration to theUnited States. The VistaHermosaFoundationservesas the charitable arm of anappleharvestingbusinessthatoperatesmorethan6,000acresofappleandcherryorchards inPrescott, Washington.42* The vastmajority of the orchards’ employeesare fromMexico, so the foundation isawareofthepovertythatdrovemanyofitsworkersnorth.

Thefoundation’sfirsthandknowledgeofthelinksbetweenMexicanpovertyandmigrationanditsfocusonagriculturematchedCRSMexico’sownvi-sionforcreatingeconomicdevelopmentprogramsaimedatthelong-termprocessofrevitalizingruralmigrant-send-ingcommunities.WhenBarrettapproachedthefoundationin2005withaproposalforapackageofprojectsinMexico’sapple-producingregion,thefoundationprovidedafundingstreamand thepartnershipwas solidified. “Itwas such anaturalfitforusasapplefarmerstobeworkingwiththesefarmersinMexicowhowerelivingwellbelowthepovertyline,”VistaHermosaExecutiveDirector SuzanneBroetjesaid. “[Theywere] caughtup in losing their landandmi-gratingnorthinsearchofwork.That’swhatweseeonthisend.”43

Innovative PartnershipsDevelopment projects seeking to reduce migration pres-

sures draw on the expertise of Mexican immigrants them-selves—particularly in agriculture. Their involvement can strengthen the impact of the project in the migrants’ home communities.

TheCRS-VistaHermosapartnershipresultedintheFor a Just Marketprojectaimedatimprovingtheproductivityandcommercializationofsmallandmedium-sizedapplefarmersinChihuahua,Mexico—thelargestapple-producingregioninthecountry.CRShadworkedwiththeapplefarmersthougha small-producer organization (see below) since the early2000s,buttheFor a Just Marketprojectwasnotimplementeduntilearly2005,Barrettsaid.44Theprojecthasgrowntoin-clude200farmersandtheirfamilies(seemapabove).45

Thegoaloftheprojectwastoincreaseruralincomesandcreate jobs by helping small farmers in a region drainedbymigration.Barrett’sapproachwasalignedwithexperts’analyses of agricultural development in middle-incomecountries. For example,Gates Foundation agricultural de-velopmentexpertPrabhuPingalistatesthatrevitalizationof

*After reviewing the literature on development andmigrationprojectsinLatinAmerica,CRSMexicowasfoundtobeuniqueinitsattentiontotheimpactsonmigrationachievedthroughru-raldevelopment.VistaHermosaisoneofseveralfundersforCRSMexicoprojectsandhasalsoprovidedBreadfortheWorldInsti-tutewithfundingforitsimmigrationprogram.

MEXICO CITY

theruralsectorinmodernizingeconomiesrequiresafocusonincreasingproductivityandassistingsmall-producerstoprofitably sell their products on themarket.Thiswas thedualapproach—increasingproductivityandfacilitatingcom-mercialization—which CRS adopted in seeking to provideChihuahua’ssmallappleproducerswithalternativestomi-gration.46

Immigrant ExpertsFordecades,smallChihuahuaapplefarmershavebeenat

themercyofagriculturalmiddlemenwhotargetthematthebeginningoftheharvestseasoninSeptemberwhenpricesarelowest.Althoughthefarmersearnedlittlemorethansub-sistenceincomefromthissystem,theyhadnootheroption.“The intermediariesoffereda low-ballpriceon the trees,”Barrettsaid.“Mostofthe[farmers]aretotallystrapped,so…theywilltakeanything.”

Theapplegrowerswereinclinedtogrowasmanyapplesastheycouldwithlittleregardforquality.Thiswouldgive


Migration and Development Organizations

CatholicReliefServices(CRS)isaleaderatintegratingmigrationconcernsintodevelopmentprojects.Butotheror-ganizations alsooperate at thenexusofdevelopment andmigration.Mostfocusonremittancesandengagingmigrantassociations in development projects.Contact informationfortheseorganizationsis foundonpage12inthe“Migra-tionandDevelopmentResources”section.

German Society for Technical Cooperation (GTZ): GTZ,aGermanoverseasdevelopmentagency,isoneoftheleading governmental organizations working on develop-mentandmigration.Itsprojectsfocusonremittancesanddi-asporaengagement.1GTZhasworkedwithremittancesandmigrantassociations inSerbia,Afghanistan,Vietnam,andRwanda,amongothernations.2AlthoughGTZhasbeenaleaderinimplementingdevelopmentprojectsthatintegratediasporas,LatinAmericahasnotbeenafocusofitsmigra-tionwork.

International Organization for Migration (IOM):IOMisthe leadingmultilateralorganization in thefieldofmigra-tion. IOM works on a wide range of immigration issues,includingensuringhumanetreatmentofmigrantsandpro-motinginternationalcooperationonmigrationissues.IOMalsodevotesabout10percentofitsbudgettomigrationanddevelopment.3LikeGTZ,IOMapproachesthelinksbetweenmigrationanddevelopmentwithanemphasisonharnessingthediasporafordevelopment.IOMoftenpartnerswithlocalorganizationsandsupportsdiasporaand remittance programs aroundtheworld,includinginLatinAmer-ica.SomeIOMprojects targetpro-ductiveinvestmentandjobcreationtoreducemigrationpressures.4

The Inter-American Foundation (IAF):TheInter-AmericanFounda-tion is oneof theU.S. governmentagenciesmostfocusedonmigrationanddevelopmentdue inpart to itsmandate to promote developmentthroughworkingwithLatinAmeri-can grassroots organizations. Mostof the IAF’sworkon transnationaldevelopment has been in MexicoandCentralAmerica.Ithasfocusedprimarily on remittance projectsin conjunction with local partners.Although remittance projects havebeenthemostcommontypeofde-velopmentprojectseekingtoreducemigration pressures, evaluations

havefoundthattheremittances-for-developmentmodelfacesmanychallenges(seeIADBbelow).SomeofIAF’stransna-tionalprojectsincludepromotingsavingsandinvestmentofremittancesinElSalvador;increasingaccesstoremittancetransfers in southwest Mexico; and investing in produc-tiveagriculturalactivities inmigrant-sendingcommunitiesthroughoutMexico.5

Inter-American Development Bank (IADB):TheIADBis the largest source of development financing for LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean.Ithasalsobeenamajorsup-porterofmigrantremittanceprojectsfordevelopment.TheIADB’sMultilateralInvestmentFundfinancesprojectsthatfacilitateinexpensiveremittancetransfersandseekstomakeformalbankingservicesavailabletopeoplewhoreceiveandsendremittances.TheIADBisalsoatopsourceofresearchandevaluationonremittancesandwasapioneer inusingremittancesfordevelopmentinLatinAmerica.6OnetypicalIADBmigrationanddevelopmentprojectinwesternMexicosoughttopromoteproductiveagribusinessactivitiesinmi-grant-sendingregionsthroughintegratingremittances intojobcreationprojectsinmigrants’hometowns.7AlthoughtheIADB is apioneer in funding remittanceprojects, accord-ingtoitsownreviewofremittance-for-developmentprojects,veryfewhavebeensuccessfulatdevelopingsustainablepro-ductiveactivitiesandjobcreation.8

Development projects in migrant-sending countries such as Guatemala, where this woman from Chontala is working in her field, rarely include attention to the impacts of development on reducing migration pressures.

RichardLord


themenoughmoney to survive,but littlemore.The2008WorldDevelopmentReportdescribesthechallengesinpro-viding pathways out of rural poverty for risk-averse smallfarmers, “The inability [of small producers] to cope withshocksinduceshouseholdstoadoptlow-risk,low-returnac-tivities.”47Thus,thefirststageoftheFor a Just Market proj-ecttrainedthesmallholderapplefarmershowtoaccesstheapplemarket on better termswhile also transmitting newtechniquesforproducinghigher-qualityapples.

In order to train the apple farmershow tomost profit-ablyworkwiththeapplemarket,CRShiredaWashingtonstateagronomistwhovisitedthefarmersinChihuahuaandtrained them how tomonitor theMexican applemarketson the Internet.Withbetterknowledgeof themarket, thesmallfarmerscouldincreasetheincomegeneratedbytheirorchardsbysellingtheappleswhentheirpricewaspeaking.

In addition to themarket analysis training,CRS facili-tated the transmission of state-of-the-art apple orchardisttechniques. Beginning in 2005, an exchange programwascreatedbetweentheChihuahuaapplefarmersandBroetjeOrchards’Mexican immigrant agricultural laborers.AfterdecadesofworkingonthecuttingedgeofapplefarmingintheUnitedStates,theimmigrantsknewhowtoproducethemostvaluableapplesformarket.Thetechniquestheyintro-ducedtotheChihuahuafarmersincludedtreepruningandtrimming,drip-irrigation,treespacingstrategies,andhowtouseanti-hailnetting.

InJanuary2006agroupofChihuahuaapplefarmersvis-itedBroetjeOrchardstolearnfromtheMexicanimmigrantworkers.ThefirstdelegationofBroetjeOrchardapplework-ers andmanagers visited the Chihuahua farmers in July,2006 to impart their orchardist expertise.One of the pri-marytechniquesintroducedtotheChihuahuafarmerswaslimitingtheamountofapplesgrownoneachtreebranchsothatasmallernumberofhigher-qualityapplesareproduced.“[It] totallychangedmymentality,”ChihuahuaapplefarmerDanielDelgadosaid.

Chihuahua farmers appreciated learning the tech-niquesfromcompatriotswhoshareacommonlanguageand culture. “[The immigrant technical advisors] arepeoplewhoknowthings,whohaveabigmentality,butwho aremodest,” Chihuahua farmer IsidroMolinarsaid.Barrettalsoemphasizedthedifferencesbetweentraditionaltechnicalassistanceandimmigranttrainers.“Ifabunchofgringosweredoing that, itwould justreinforcetheideathatthesegringoshavealltheknowl-edge,”Barrettsaid.

WhileUSAIDfacilitatesfarmer-to-farmerprogramsthatbringU.S.agriculturalvolunteerstothedevelop-ingworld to provide technical assistance to farmers,itdoesnotdrawupontheUnitedState’sagriculturalworkforce—a majority of whom are immigrants and

whoareintenselyinterestedinhelpingtheirhomelands—toprovideculturallyrelevantagricultural technicalassistanceoverseas.48

Credible, Motivated Local PartnersA key to working effectively with small farmers in Mexico

is partnering with a Mexican organization such as a local or regional farmers’ cooperative.

PerhapsthemostimportantcomponentintheFor A Just Market project is its local partner, theFrenteDemocráticoCampesino(FDCorFarmers’DemocraticFront).TheFDCis a regional small andmedium-sized farmerorganizationbasedinthenorthernMexicanstateofChihuahua.Itwasformed in 1985 in reaction to theMexican government’sremovalofbeanandcornpriceguarantees.49ForMexicansmallandmediumproducers, it’salmostarequirementtocollectivizeinordertoaccessaffordableagriculturalinputs,productmarkets,andgovernmentsupport.50

Sinceitsfounding,theFDChasadoptedatwo-prongedapproach to providing its 5,000 familymembership witheconomicopportunity:developingproductiveandcommer-cialstrategiestoincreaseincomeandgenerateemployment,andparticipatingincollectiveactionandadvocacyforpol-icychangesbeneficialtosmallandmedium-sizefarmersinChihuahua.

OrganizationsactiveinagriculturalpolicyadvocacyliketheFDCcanhaveatwo-foldimpactonreducingmigrationpressures.First, theseorganizationsprovidean infrastruc-tureabletoreceive,disseminate,andsustainruraleconom-ic development expertise and resources. Second, workingwithsmallandmediumproducerorganizationscangener-ate secondary impacts through strengthening civil societyorganizations thatadvocate forpolicies thatsupportruralpopulations.

CRS Mexico and Vista Hermosa Foundation representatives provide technical assistance to apple farmers in Chihuahua, Mexico.

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TheFDC’sdemocratic structureandopenness to inno-vation facilitated the implementation of multiple projectssupportedbyCRSthathelp farmers lower theircostsandincreasetheirincomes.AdditionalcomponentsoftheFor A Just Marketproject includecreatingapple treenurseriessothat farmerscan seedandgrowmoreprofitablebreedsoftrees.

CRSisalsoworkingwiththeFDCtobuildlocalcoldstor-ageunitssothataftertheappleharvest,FDCmemberswillnothavetopayotherstostoretheircropswhiletheywaitforthebesttimetosell.Thecoldstoragebuilding,alreadyun-derconstruction,willbethetemporaryhometo2,280met-rictonsofapples.BarrettsaidalltheelementsoftheFor A Just Marketprojectaremeanttoensurethatappleprofitsstaywith the small farmer producers rather than middlemen.“Otherwisetheexpenseofgoingintotheretailmarketissohighthatit’snotnearlyasprofitable,”hesaid.

PerhapstheFDC’smost importantprogramtoincreasesmall farmers’ incomes is a “revolving loan” program inwhichmemberscandrawoncredit—typicallynotavailabletosmallfarmersinMexico.Thefundprovidesloanstopro-ducers topay forbasic expensesduring the timebetweentheharvestandthesaleofapples.Onceproducers’applesaresoldinNovemberorDecember—atapriceseveraltimeshigherthantheharvestglutinOctober—theloansarerepaid.

Barrettsaidtherevolvingloanraisedsomeproducers’in-comes,allowingthemtoinvestinmoreandbetterinputsfortheir farms.“[We]nowhave thepossibility tocommercial-ize[our]products,”51FDCStateDirectorPedroTorressaid.“[We]don’thavetosell[our]productstothefirstpersonwhoarrives.Itallowstheproducertotakemoretimetomakeadecision.”

Policy Advocacy Direct technicalassistance to small farmers so theycan

profitablyaccessthemarketiscrucial,butpolicyadvocacyisanothertooltoprovidepotentialmigrantswitheconomical-ternatives.Thisistrueinruralareasaroundtheworld:“Thekey… is to enhance collective action andmobilize publicpolicytomaximizethelikelihoodofsuccessforruralhouse-holds,”accordingtothe2008WorldDevelopmentReport.52

AstheFDChasgrowninsizeandeffectivenesssincetheearly1980s,sohasitspoliticalclout.Inordertoassistsmallfarmersincreaseproductivityandincomes,theFDCsecuredfunding from theMexican secretary of agriculture for itscoldstorageproject.Theinternationalfundingwascrucialinwinninggovernmentsupport.

BecauseofCRS’ssupport,“Wenowhavethe‘hook’togettheresourcesweneed,”FDCAdvisorJesusEmilianosaid.“Ifwe go to the government and tell themwedon’t haveany[outside]money,theyarenotgoingtosupportus.Nowthatwehavesomemoneyfortheproject,weaskthem,‘howmuchareyougoingtoputin?’”53

Enhancing Rural Livelihoods and Reducing Migration Pressures

ThereisanecdotalevidencethatFor A Just Markethascre-atedopportunitiesandincreasedincomesforsomefarmersinChihuahua’sapple-growingregion,therebyprovidingal-ternativestomigration.Theprogramalsoisprovidingop-tionsformigrantswhoreturntocommunitiestypicallynotpreparedtofacilitatetheirreintegration.

Whileitisagradual—andperhapsgenerational—process,theFDCisstartingwiththeparentsofmigrantsinordertobuildan incentive for their children to return. “Theolderonesaretryingtoreactivate[thefarms]sothatyoungpeoplestayandputdownroots,”FDCadvisorJesusEmilianosaid.That’sbeenthecasefor53-year-oldfarmerDanielDelgado.Twoyearsago,his22-year-old son returned toChihuahuafromPhoenixafterhelosthisjobintherecession.Duepart-lytothesupportDelgadoreceivedthroughFor A Just Market,there’senoughworkonhisfarmtoemployhisson.“ThankGodheisworkingwithme,”Delgadosaid.“He’smyright-handman.”54

TheChihuahuaappleprojectissmall,includingseveralhundredfarmersandtheirfamilies.Butithasbegunincreas-ingthe incomesofsomeparticipatingfarmers.“Thebasicincomeshavemovedup,”Barrettsaid.InterviewswithFDCmembersandsmallfarmersintheapple-growingregionwestofthecityofChihuahuaalsosuggesttheprojectcouldpoten-tiallyprovidealternativestomigrationforsomeproducersandtheirfamilies.

“[Theproject]hasincreasedmyincomeabit,”5554-year-

Representatives from a Chihuahua small- and medium-size apple producer organization meet with CRS and to discuss the construction of a cold storage unit that will allow the farmers to save money getting their apples to market during peak demand.

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oldFDCmemberArturoCaraveosaid.CaraveoimmigratedtotheUnitedStates in1991andworkedasacustodianinLosAngeles.NowheworkswiththeFDC’snewappletreenurserythatisbeingusedtoproducemorelucrativebrandsofapples—suchasGalas—toseedneworchards.“Ifyouplantneworchardsthere’sachancetocreatesomethingovertime,toprovidemore income,”Caraveo said. “But it’s going totake[afew]years.”

Keytotheprojectisthelong-termvisionofregeneratingtheagriculturalsectorforsmallfarmers.Sinceincreasedin-comecanbeusedonconsumergoodsoreventofundmi-gration, it is important that projects emphasize long-termproductive investment and job creation.While education,health,governance,andothercomponentsofforeignassis-tanceareimportant,investmentsinproductiveactivitiesthatprovide jobsandstable livelihoodsarethemostly likelytoreducemigrationpressures.

SmallapplefarmerIsidroMolinarsaidthatprojectfund-ingadministeredbytheFDChashelpedhisfamilyplantad-ditionaltrees,fumigatetheorchards,buyfertilizer,upgradeinsect control, and purchase anti-hail netting. The projectalsoreunitedtheMolinarfamily,whosemembershadbeendispersedfor10years.Molinar’sthreebrothershaveslowlyreturnedtoChihuahuafromtheUnitedStates—thelatestinthesummerof2010.WhiletheymighthavejustwaitedouttherecessionandreturnedoncetheU.S.economyrecovered,theyarefindingworkonthefamilyfarm.

Whenaskedifhewasconcernedthathisbrotherswouldre-immigratetotheUnitedStates,Molinarsaid,“Theyarenoteventhinkingaboutitnow.Weareplantingsomeappletrees.We’renotsohelplessnow.”56Inadditiontoincorpo-ratinghissiblingsintothefamilyranchbusiness,Isidrohasalsohiredthreeotherlaborerstosupportthegrowingfamilyfarmproduction.

Non-Agricultural Rural LaborTheFDCisalsohelpingnon-agriculturalruralproduc-

tiveinvestment.AccordingtotheWorldBank,non-agricul-turalrurallaborisakeypartoftheoverallruraleconomy.“Thedemandforlabor,evenforlow-wageworkers,willnotincreasewithoutadynamicruraleconomyinbothagricul-tureandthenonfarmsector.”57BecauseoftheFDC’ssav-ingsandloanprogram,ruralentrepreneurshavebeenabletoacquireloanstostartsmallnon-farmenterprises inthecountryside.

AntonioGarcia, 25, returned toChihuahua afterwork-ingataTexasconstructionsiteforonlyfourmonths.GarciahadtheforesighttoknowhewantedtoworkintheUnitedStatestemporarily,savemoney,andreturntoMexicotoin-vestinasmallbusiness.“Ineverwantedtoworkforsomeoneelse,”58Garcia said.After returning toChihuahua,Garciainvestedhis savings in themachinery foraconcreteblock

factory.TheFDChelpedhimacquiretoolsforthebusiness.“Iboughtthemachineryand,littlebylittle,itstartedgrow-ing,”Garciasaid.Hissuccesshasenabledhimtohirethreelaborerstostaffhisgrowingbusiness.Withasolidsourceoflong-termincome,GarciaisanexampleofaruralMexicanyouthwhohasnoneedtore-migratetotheUnitedStates.“Ifeverythinggoeswell,Idon’tplanonreturning,”Garciasays.“Maybeonlyasatourist.”

With the support of local and international stakehold-ers,theMexicancountrysidehasthepotentialtobefertilegroundforproductiveactivitiesandinvestmentratherthanamajorsourceofpovertyandforcedmigration.59

Challenges to Development Projectsthat Reduce Migration

Developmentprojectsaimedatreducingmigrationfaceavarietyofchallenges.Severaloverarchingissueshavealreadybeenidentified:

Impact of Development on Migration:Theimpactofde-velopmentonmigrationisstillopentoacademicdebate.60Some migration experts find that development—up to apoint—encouragesmigration.Becauseanincreaseinincomecanprovideincreasedopportunitiesformigration,itisim-portantthatdevelopmentprojectsthatseektoreducemigra-tionpressures focusonbuilding long-term livelihoodsandeconomicalternativesinpotentialmigrants’homecommu-nities.

Pull Factors:Ruraldevelopmenthasthepotentialtoim-provesmallfarmers’incomesandgenerateemployment,butthedrawoftheU.S.economyisstillpowerful.Aftergenera-

Antonio Garcia, 25, combined savings from his four months working in Texas and the assistance of a local farmers’ cooperative to launch a small business in rural Chihuahua, Mexico.

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tions ofmigration to theUnited States, communities likeAvila Camacho have developed a “culture of migration”thatreinforceseconomicpushfactors.Investmentindevel-opmenttoreducemigrationpressuresisonlyonepartofalong-termstrategytoconstructamoreeffectiveimmigrationsystem.ArationalsystemfortheintegrationofimmigrantsintotheU.S.laborforcecomplementsincreasedattentiontoreducingmigrationpressuresinMexico.

Reluctance to Change:Many small farmers inMexicouseunproductivefarmingmethodsthatonlyallowthemtobarelysurviveeconomically.Sendingtheiryouthabroadtosupplementlowfarmearningsisnowpartoftheir“businessplan.”Newandmoreproductivemethodsareoftenviewedwithsuspicionsincethereisnohistoryofsuccessandfailurehasdireconsequenceswhenyouare livingon thepovertyline. Technical assistancemust be introduced by credibletrainers,oftenwithasmallpilotgroup.Attemptstoimposenewproductivetechniquesrapidlyandonamassscaleruntheriskofalienatingfarmersunaccustomedtoadoptingnewtechniques.

Local Partners:Findingalocalpartnerthatworksfromthe ground up and is truly democratic can be difficult inMexico.Developmentorganizationsmustbecautious thattheirlocalpartnersarenotco-optedbyoverridingpoliticalinterests.DuediligenceshouldprecedeanypartnershipwithMexicancivilsocietyorsmallproducerorganizations.

Technical Rather than Community Change: Technicalimprovements insmall farmers’productivityandcommer-cializationcancreateeconomicopportunityinruralMexico.But, asnotedabove, tobuild long-termviable livelihoods,developmentorganizationsmustfocusoncommunitytrans-formation,notjustthegenerationofincome.

RecommendationsProject Evaluation: Becausemost development projects

seekingtoreduceimmigrationpressuresarerelativelynew,theyoftenlackformalevaluation.Inordertogenerateevi-denceonwhatworksinreducingimmigrationpressures,theU.S. development community should fund long term-eval-uationsofnewandpre-existingprojects inLatinAmericainordertogenerateabankofpromisingpractices,projectmodels,andchallenges.

Pilot Projects:Developmentprojectstoreducemigrationpressures are rare. In addition to evaluating current proj-ects,bilateralandmultilateraldevelopmentagenciesshouldsupportpilotprojects inmajormigrant-sending regions inMexicoandCentralAmerica.Theseshouldbebasedoncur-rentbestpracticesinthefieldandcouldbeusedtogenerateadditionalevidenceonhowdevelopmentimpactsmigrationpressures.

Improve Mérida:AsthemainvehicleforU.S.foreignas-sistancetoMexico,theMéridaInitiativeisanidealprograminwhichtoexpandfundingfordevelopmenttoreducemi-gration.Economicdevelopmentiscurrentlyaminimalpartoftheprogram,buttheimportanceofjobcreationandeco-nomicdevelopment is crucialnot only to reducingmigra-tionpressuresbuttoprovidinglegalalternativesforyouth.ByincreasingtheamountoffundingforeconomicprogramswithintheMéridaInitiative,theUnitedStatescangeneratepositive impacts intermsofreducingbothmigrationpres-suresandthelureofillicitactivity.61

Dialogue on Migration and Development:Discussionsonthelinksbetweendevelopmentandmigrationaremostlyfo-cusedontheory,withtheexceptionofevaluationsandcasestudies of remittance projects. Many of the organizationsconductingdevelopmentprojectsaimedatreducingmigra-tionpressuresdonotsharelessonslearned.Asameanstogatheranddisseminatebestpractices,theU.S.developmentcommunityshouldbuildanetworkwhereprojectgrantors,designers, and implementers can gather to discuss—at theproject level—their experiences and ideas. This should bebasedonmeasurablefindingsinthefield.

Migration and Development ResourcesAgrowingnumberoforganizationsandagenciesareun-

dertaking development projects to reducemigration pres-sures.Alistofsomeoftheleadingorganizationsispresentedbelow.

Development OrganizationsCatholic Relief Services

Erica Dahl-Bredine, Country Representative,El Salvador, [email protected]

Chuck Barrett, Economic Development Consultant,CRS/Mexico, [email protected]

German Society for Technical Cooperation (GTZ)Migration and Development,www.gtz.de/en/themen/wirtschaft-beschaeftigung/15634.htm

Public and Private Funders Vista Hermosa Foundation

Suzanne Broetje, Executive Director,[email protected]

Inter-American FoundationJill Wheeler, Regional Director for Central Americaand Mexico, [email protected]

Howard Buffett FoundationHoward Buffett, President,www.fragilethehumancondition.com/index.php/hgb-foundation/


Ford Foundation

Office for Mexico and Central AmericaSusan Bird, Program Officer, [email protected]

Multilateral OrganizationsInternational Organization for Migration

Migration and Economic/Community Developmentwww.iom.int

Inter-American Development BankInvestment of Remittanceswww.iadb.org/en/projects/project,1303.html?id=TC0108017

Research and Advocacy OrganizationsWashington Office on Latin America

Vicki Gass, Senior Associate for Rights and Development,[email protected]

Bread for the World InstituteFor more information on Bread for the World Institute’s research on

development and migration, please contact Immigration Policy Analyst Andrew Wainer at [email protected] or (202) 688-1074.

Endnotes‡BreadfortheWorldusestheterm‘unauthorized’and‘illegal’inter-changablytorefertoimmigrantswithoutlegalauthorizationtobeintheUnitedStates.

1Passel,JeffreyandCohnD’Vera.September2010.“U.S.Unauthor-izedImmigrationFlowsAreDownSharplySinceMid-Decade.”PewHispanicCenter.http://pewhispanic.org/files/reports/126.pdf.2 CNN Politics. Accessed November 29, 2010. http://articles.cnn.com/2010-05-26/politics/poll.border.security_1_illegal-immigrants-mexican-border-cnn-poll?_s=PM:POLITICS.3Preston,Julia.May14,2009.“MexicanDataShowMigrationtoU.S.inDecline.”The New York Times.http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/15/us/15immig.html.4 Rosenblum, Marc. June 2010. “Testimony Before the NationalCommission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform.” http://www.migrationpolicy.org/pubs/RosenblumtestimonyDeficitCommission-June2010.pdf.5 Cornelius, Wayne. Interview with 60 Minutes broadcast January2020. http://ccis.ucsd.edu/2010/01/wayne-cornelius-featured-on-60-minutes/.6Gullette, Gregory S. Winter 2007. “Development Economics,DevelopingMigration:TargetedEconomicDevelopment InitiativesasDriversinInternationalMigration.”Human Organization. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3800/is_200712/ai_n21278783/pg_3/?tag=content;col1.MacEwan, Arthur. July 2005. “Liberalization, Migration, andDevelopment:TheMexico-U.S.Relationship.”RevistadeEconomía

Mundial.http://www.sem-wes.org/revista/arca/rem_14/rem14_2I.pdf.Castaneda,Jorge.2007.Ex Mex: From Migrants to Immigrants.TheNewPress.NewYork.Cornelius, Wayne, et. al. 2010. “Mexican Migration and the U.S.Economic Crisis.” Center for Comparative Immigration Studies.UniversityofCalifornia,SanDiego.7Cornelius,Wayne.et.al.2010.8Klugman, Joni. 2009. “HumanDevelopmentReport 2009—Over-comingBarriers:HumanMobilityandDevelopment.”UnitedNationsDevelopment Program. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2009_EN_Complete.pdf.9Burstein, John.April 2007. “U.S.MexicoAgriculturalTrade andRuralPovertyinMexico.”WoodrowWilsonInternationalCenterforScholars. http://wilsoncenter.org/topics/pubs/Mexico_Agriculture_rpt_English1.pdf.WorldBank.2007.World Bank Report 2008: Agriculture for Development.10Weintraub,SidneyandDuncanWood.August2010.“CooperativeMexican-U.S.AntinarcoticsEfforts.”Center forStrategicandInter-nationalStudies.http://csis.org/files/publication/100812_Weintraub_MexicanUSAntinarc_Web.pdf.Brands, Hal. May 2009. “Mexico’s Narco-Insurgency and U.S.Counterdrug Policy.” Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army WarCollege. http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/display.cfm?pubid=918.11Newland,Kathleen,andHiroyukiTanaka.October2010.“Mobiliz-ingDiasporaEntrepreneurshipforDevelopment.”MigrationPolicyInstitute. http://www.migrationpolicy.org/pubs/diasporas-entrepre-neurship.pdf.12Schwartz,Eric.November2010.“RespectingtheDignityandHu-manRightsofPeopleontheMove:InternationalMigrationPolicyforthe21stCentury.”U.S.DepartmentofState.http://www.state.gov/g/prm/rls/rmks/2010/150557.htm.13U.S.Embassy.January2010.“Mexico:PovertyataGlance.”http://www.usembassy-mexico.gov/pdf/2010_Poverty_Fact_Sheet.pdf.14GovernmentAccountabilityOffice. July2010.“MeridaInitiative:TheU.S.Has ProvidedCounternarcotics andAnti-Crime SupportButNeedsBetterPerformanceMeasures.”http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PCAAC111.pdf.15Veillette,Connie,et.al.December2007.16Seelke,Clare,et.al.June2010.“Mexico-U.S.Relations:IssuesforCongress.CongressionalResearchService.http://fpc.state.gov/docu-ments/organization/145101.pdf.17 Jiménez, Maria. October 2009. “Humanitarian Crisis: MigrantDeaths at theU.S.-MexicoBorder.”http://ccis.ucsd.edu/wp-content/uploads/2009/10/Humanitarian-Crisis-Report-web-version.pdf.18Seelke,Clare,et.al.June2010.19Forexample,theInter-AmericanFoundation(IAF)whichsupportsgrassrootsdevelopment inLatinAmerica,allocated$1.8million toMexicoinfiscalyear2009andhasallocated$56milliontoMexicosince1972.SomeIAFfundinghasbeendirectedtowardjobcreationand poverty reduction programs. Durbin, Paula. “Inter-AmericanFoundation:2009inReview.”Inter-AmericanFoundation.20Uphaus,Charles.June2008.“EndingHunger:TheRoleofAgricul-ture.”BreadfortheWorldInstitute.www.bread.org/institute/papers/briefing-paper-3.pdf.


21 For one example see: Inter-American Development Bank.“TC0108017: Investment of Remittances.” http://www.iadb.org/en/projects/project,1303.html?id=TC0108017.Hall,Joan.2010.“TenYearsofInnovationinRemittances:LessonsLearnedandModelsfortheFuture.”http://idbdocs.iadb.org/wsdocs/getdocument.aspx?docnum=3516352022USAID. January 2010. “USAIDMexico Country Profile.” www.usaid.gov/locations/latin_america_caribbean/country/mexico/Mexi-co_Country_Profile.pdf.23ComisiónEconómicaparaAméricaLatinayelCaribe(CEPAL).2009.“PanoramaSocialdeAméricaLatina2009.”http://is.gd/iand5.World BankCountry Brief,Mexico. http://web.worldbank.org/WB-SITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/LACEXT/MEXICOEXTN/0,,contentMDK:22252113~pagePK:1497618~piPK:217854~theSitePK:338397,00.html#economy.24Burstein,John.April2007.25Zepeda,Eduardo.December2009.“RethinkingTradePolicy forDevelopment:LessonsFromMexicoUnderNAFTA.CarnegieEn-dowment for International Peace. http://carnegieendowment.org/files/nafta_trade_development.pdf.26Ibid.27Uphaus,Charles.June2008.28WorldBank.2007.29Pingali,Prabhu.2010.AgricultureRenaissance:“MakingAgricul-tureforDevelopment”Workinthe21stCentury.HandbookofAgri-culturalEconomics.Vol.4.Chapter74.Pgs.3867-3889.30Ibid.31WorldBank.2007.32 Edwards, Sebastian. July 2009. “Forty Years of Latin America’sEconomicDevelopment:FromtheAllianceforProgresstotheWash-ingtonConsensus.”NationalBureauofEconomicResearch.http://finanzaspublicas.web.officelive.com/Documents/40%20Years%20of%20LatAmEcDevel%20-%20SEdwards%20-%20NBERw15190%20-%202009%2007.pdf.33Fernandez-KellyandDouglasMassey.2007.“BordersforWhom?TheRoleofNAFTAinMexico-U.S.Migration.”TheAnnalsoftheAmericanAcademyofPoliticalandSocialScience.http://ann.sage-pub.com/cgi/content/abstract/610/1/98.WorldBank.2005.“AStudyofRuralPovertyinMexico.”http://sitere-sources.worldbank.org/INTMEXICO/Resources/A_Study_of_Ru-ral_Poverty_in_Mexico.pdf.Durand,Jorge.2009.“ProcessesofMigrationinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(1950-2008).UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme.HumanDevelopmentPaper24.http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/glob-al/hdr2009/papers/HDRP_2009_24.pdfQuintana,Victor,et.al.2003.“ContribucióndelasDiversasFormasdeAcciónPromovidasporelFrenteDemocraticoCampesinodeChi-huahua.” www.grupochorlavi.org/accioncolectiva/documentos/fdce-quipomx.pdf.34Fernandez-KellyandDouglasMassey.2007.Fox,JonathanandLibbyHaight.2010.“SubsidiosparalaDesigual-dad.”WodrowWilsonInternationalCenterforScholars.www.wilson-center.org/topics/pubs/Subsidios%20Para%20La%20Desigualdad.pdf.35WorldBank.2007Fox,JonathanandLibbyHaight.2010.36Fox,JonathanandLibbyHaight.2010.

37WorldBank.“AStudyofRuralPovertyinMexico.”August2005.http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMEXICO/Resources/A_Study_of_Rural_Poverty_in_Mexico.pdf.38Fox,JonathanandLibbyHaight.2010.Perez,Mamerto,et.al.2008.“ThePromiseandthePerilsofAgricul-turalTradeLiberalization:LessonsfromLatinAmerica.”http://ase.tufts.edu/gdae/Pubs/rp/AgricWGReportJuly08.pdf.39PhoneinterviewwithChuckBarrett,economicdevelopmentcon-sultantforCatholicReliefServices,Mexico.July2010.40MillenniumChallengeCorporation.October2008.“ScorecardforEl Salvador, Fiscal Year 2009 (English).” www.cgdev.org/userfiles/El%20Salvador.pdf.41 El SalvadorCompact Implementation StatusReport.April-June2010.MillenniumChallengeCorporation.www.mcc.gov/documents/reports/qsr-imp-elsalvador.pdf.42 Broetje Orchards website. www.broetjeorchards.com/index.cfm?pageId=B88D4922-1288-DAA5-01DEE63A59EEC24A43PhoneinterviewwithSuzanneBroetje,VistaHermosaFoundationExecutiveDirector.July2010.44PhoneinterviewwithChuckBarrett,economicdevelopmentcon-sultantforCatholicReliefServices,Mexico.July2010.45Ibid.46Pingali,Prabhu.2010.47WorldBank.2007.48PartnersoftheAmericas.2008.“FarmertoFarmerProgram:Guy-anaOrganicPineappleProject.”/www.partners.net/Images/partners/What_We_Do/FTF/Success_Stories/Guyana%20Pineapple%20Proj-ect.pdf.49Quintana,Victor,et.al.2003.50Fox,JonathanandLibbyHaight.2010.51InpersoninterviewwithPedroTorres,FDCDirector.August201052WorldBank.200753 In person interview with Jesus Emiliano, FDCAdvisor. August2010.54PhoneinterviewwithDanielDelgado,FDCmember.August2010.55 Inperson interviewwithArturoCaraveo,FDCmember.August2010.56PhoneinterviewwithFDCmemberIsidroMolinar.August2010.57WorldBank.200758InpersoninterviewwithAntonioGarcia.August2010.59 Mendola,Mariapia.May 2006. “RuralOut-Migration and Eco-nomicDevelopment atOrigin:What doWeKnow?”University ofSussex.www.sussex.ac.uk/migration/documents/mwp40.pdf.60Letouze,Emmanuel,et.al.2009.“RevisitingtheMigration-Devel-opmentNexus:AGravityModelApproach.”UnitedNationsDevel-opment Program. http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2009/papers/HDRP_2009_44.pdf.Klugman,Joni.2009.61Brands,Hal.May2009.

The Mérida Initiative1Seelke,Clare.August2009.“MéridaInitiativeforMexicoandCen-tral America: Funding and Policy Issues.” Congressional ResearchService.www.wilsoncenter.org/news/docs/CRS%20M%C3%A9rida%20Initiative%20for%20Mexico%20and%20Central%20America%20Fund-


ing%20Policy%20Issues.pdf.2Greenberg,Peter.Nov.12,2010.“AnExclusiveLookInsideMex-ico’s DrugWar.” CBSNews. www.cbsnews.com/stories/2010/11/12/eveningnews/main7049424.shtml.Brands,Hal.May2009.“Mexico’sNarco-InsurgencyandU.S.Coun-terdrugPolicy.”StrategicStudiesInstitute,U.S.ArmyWarCollege.www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/display.cfm?pubid=918.3Seelke,Clare,August2009.4Brands,Hal.May2009.5GovernmentAccountabilityOffice.July2010.“MéridaInitiative.”http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d10837.pdf.6Brands,Hal.May2009.7Ibid.

The North American Free Trade Agreement1CanadianDepartmentofForeignAffairsandInternationalTrade.Accessed November 17, 2010. www.international.gc.ca/history-his-toire/world-monde/1984-1993.aspx?lang=eng.2Villarreal,M.AngelesandMarisabelCid.November2008.“NAF-TA and the Mexican Economy.” Congressional Research Service.www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL34733.pdf.3Fernandez-KellyandDouglasMassey.2007. “Borders forWhom?TheRoleofNAFTAinMexico-U.S.Migration.”TheAnnalsoftheAmericanAcademyofPoliticalandSocialScience.http://ann.sage-pub.com/cgi/content/abstract/610/1/98.4Villarreal,M.AngelesandMarisabelCid.November2008.5Fernandez-KellyandDouglasMassey.2007;Spieldoch,Alexandra.2009.

Migration and Development Organizations1 GTZ. Accessed November 18, 2010. www.gtz.de/en/themen/wirtschaft-beschaeftigung/15645.htm.2 GTZ. Accessed November 18, 2010. www.gtz.de/en/themen/wirtschaft-beschaeftigung/28697.htm.3InternationalOrganizationforMigration.AccessedNovember18,2010.www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/about-iom/lang/en.Kaye,Jeffrey.2010.“MovingMillions:HowCoyoteCapitalismFuelsGlobalImmigration.”JohnWiley&Sons:NewJersey.4InternationalOrganizationforMigration.AccessedNovember18,2010. “Migration and Community/Economic Development.” www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/activities/by-theme/migration-development/mi-gration-development-economic-community/cache/offonce/.5Durbin,Paula.2006.“GrassrootsDevelopment:TransnationalDe-velopment.”Inter-AmericanFoundation.6Inter-AmericanDevelopmentBank.AccessedNovember18,2010.“Transfers for Development.” www.iadb.org/en/topics/remittances/remittances/transfers-for-development,1551.html.7Inter-AmericanDevelopmentBank.AccessedNovember18,2010.www.iadb.org/en/projects/project,1303.html?id=TC0108017.8Hall,Joan.January2010.”TenYearsofInnovationinRemittances:LessonsLearnedandModelsfortheFuture.”Inter-AmericanDevel-opmentBank.

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