66
PERCEPTIONS PERCEPTIONS You become what you You become what you thinketh” thinketh” If everyone perceived everything If everyone perceived everything the same way, things would be a the same way, things would be a lot simpler” lot simpler” -Moorhead & Griffin -Moorhead & Griffin

Ob perceptions.19134329

Embed Size (px)

Citation preview

Page 1: Ob perceptions.19134329

PERCEPTIONSPERCEPTIONS

““You become what you You become what you thinketh”thinketh”

““If everyone perceived everything If everyone perceived everything the same way, things would be a the same way, things would be a

lot simpler”lot simpler”-Moorhead & Griffin-Moorhead & Griffin

Page 2: Ob perceptions.19134329
Page 3: Ob perceptions.19134329

DEFINITIONSDEFINITIONS• STEPHEN ROBBINSSTEPHEN ROBBINS• “ “ Perception is a process by which Perception is a process by which

individual’s organise and interpret the individual’s organise and interpret the sensory impressions in order to give sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.”meaning to their environment.”

• FRED LUTHANSFRED LUTHANS• ““Perception is an important mediating Perception is an important mediating

cognitive process through which cognitive process through which persons make interpretations of the persons make interpretations of the stimulus or situation they are forced stimulus or situation they are forced with.”with.”

Page 4: Ob perceptions.19134329

DEFINITIONS…DEFINITIONS…

• UDAI PAREEK & OTHERSUDAI PAREEK & OTHERS

• ““Perception can be defined as the Perception can be defined as the process of receiving, selecting, process of receiving, selecting, organising, checking and reacting to organising, checking and reacting to sensory stimuli or data”.sensory stimuli or data”.

• In general, it can be defined as “ a In general, it can be defined as “ a process that involves seeing, receiving, process that involves seeing, receiving, selecting, organising, interpreting and selecting, organising, interpreting and giving meaning to the environment”.giving meaning to the environment”.

Page 5: Ob perceptions.19134329

MEANINGMEANING• Perceptions differ from person to person.Perceptions differ from person to person.

• Each individual perceives the same Each individual perceives the same situation differently.situation differently.

• Group perceptions can influence one’s Group perceptions can influence one’s perception.perception.

• Individuals organise and interpret things Individuals organise and interpret things based on their past experiences and the based on their past experiences and the important values they consider important values they consider important.important.

• Employees tend to behave and act on Employees tend to behave and act on certain things on the basis of their certain things on the basis of their perception.perception.

Page 6: Ob perceptions.19134329

NATURE OF PERCEPTIONNATURE OF PERCEPTION• 1)1) Perception is the process by which Perception is the process by which

an individual gives meaning to the an individual gives meaning to the environment.environment.

• 2)2) It is a cognitive and psychological It is a cognitive and psychological process. The manner in which a person process. The manner in which a person perceives the environment affects his perceives the environment affects his behaviour. There can be no behaviour behaviour. There can be no behaviour without perception and perception lies without perception and perception lies at the base of every human action.at the base of every human action.

• 3)3) People’s action, emotions, People’s action, emotions, thoughts and feelings are triggered by thoughts and feelings are triggered by their perceptions of their surroundings.their perceptions of their surroundings.

Page 7: Ob perceptions.19134329

• 4)4) Since perception refers to the Since perception refers to the acquisition of specific knowledge about acquisition of specific knowledge about objects or events at any particular objects or events at any particular moment, it occurs whenever stimuli moment, it occurs whenever stimuli activate the sense organs.activate the sense organs.

• 5)5) Though perception has been defined Though perception has been defined in a variety of ways, it basically refers to in a variety of ways, it basically refers to the manner in which a person experiences the manner in which a person experiences the world.the world.

• 6)6) Perception is an almost automatic Perception is an almost automatic process and works in much the same way process and works in much the same way within each individual, yet typically yields within each individual, yet typically yields different perceptions.different perceptions.

Page 8: Ob perceptions.19134329

• 7)7) A stimulus that is not perceived has A stimulus that is not perceived has no effect on behaviour.no effect on behaviour.

• 8)8) Perception is a process that Perception is a process that operates constantly between us and operates constantly between us and reality.reality.

• 9)9) Since perception is subjective Since perception is subjective process, different people may perceive process, different people may perceive the same environment differently. So the same environment differently. So perception is like beauty, that lies in the perception is like beauty, that lies in the eyes of the beholder.eyes of the beholder.

Page 9: Ob perceptions.19134329

• 10)Perception involves the creation of 10)Perception involves the creation of gestalts.gestalts.

• 11)Perception is a unique 11)Perception is a unique interpretation of the situation, not an interpretation of the situation, not an exact recording of the situation.exact recording of the situation.

• 12)Perception is more complex and 12)Perception is more complex and much broader than sensation.much broader than sensation.

Page 10: Ob perceptions.19134329

IMPORTANCE OF IMPORTANCE OF PERCEPTIONPERCEPTION

• Perception plays a very important role in Perception plays a very important role in shaping the personality of an individual.shaping the personality of an individual.

• Perception is central in interpreting the Perception is central in interpreting the world around us. world around us.

• Perception affects the outcome of our Perception affects the outcome of our behaviour because we act on the basis of behaviour because we act on the basis of what we see. what we see.

• Managers should be able to distinguish Managers should be able to distinguish between a perceived world and the between a perceived world and the reality. reality.

• An understanding of perception is An understanding of perception is important to understand and control the important to understand and control the human behaviour .human behaviour .

Page 11: Ob perceptions.19134329

• The importance of perception in The importance of perception in managerial behaviour are :managerial behaviour are :

• i)i) Attitude formationAttitude formation: Perceiving : Perceiving events and people is critical in events and people is critical in attitude formation. Perception creates attitude formation. Perception creates a basis for our attitudes, opinions, a basis for our attitudes, opinions, feelings, beliefs and values.feelings, beliefs and values.

• ii)ii) Relationship baseRelationship base : the manager’s : the manager’s relationship with others are based on relationship with others are based on perceptions of their basic natures and perceptions of their basic natures and motivations. Managers identify the motivations. Managers identify the perceptual structures and implicit perceptual structures and implicit personality of employees before personality of employees before making work relations.making work relations.

Page 12: Ob perceptions.19134329

• iii)iii) Effective communicationEffective communication :Any :Any message must be received and message must be received and interpreted before the communication interpreted before the communication attempt is complete. Communication attempt is complete. Communication remains ineffective if it does not remains ineffective if it does not accomplish what the source intends.accomplish what the source intends.

• iv)iv) Employment Employment interview interview :Interviewers make :Interviewers make perceptual judgments, draw perceptual judgments, draw impressions and arrive at conclusions impressions and arrive at conclusions about the applicants. Thus perception about the applicants. Thus perception is a major input in their decision.is a major input in their decision.

Page 13: Ob perceptions.19134329

• v)v) Performance evaluationPerformance evaluation :An :An employee’s performance appraisal is employee’s performance appraisal is very much dependent on the very much dependent on the perceptual outlook. The evaluator perceptual outlook. The evaluator forms a general impression of an forms a general impression of an employee’s work. Thus, the perception employee’s work. Thus, the perception process significantly influences the process significantly influences the appraisal outcome.appraisal outcome.

• vi)vi) Employee effortEmployee effort : In many : In many organisations, assessment of an organisations, assessment of an employee’s effort is a subjective employee’s effort is a subjective judgment which is susceptible to judgment which is susceptible to perceptual distortions and bias.perceptual distortions and bias.

Page 14: Ob perceptions.19134329

• vii)vii)Employees loyaltyEmployees loyalty :When evaluating :When evaluating an employee’s loyalty, a manager is an employee’s loyalty, a manager is involved with person’s perception. This involved with person’s perception. This is an important judgement that is an important judgement that managers make about employees.managers make about employees.

• viii)viii)Organisational goalsOrganisational goals :The :The interpretation and accomplishment of interpretation and accomplishment of organisational goals again depend on organisational goals again depend on the philosophies and ideologies of the philosophies and ideologies of those who are expected to pursue those who are expected to pursue them. them.

Page 15: Ob perceptions.19134329

• ix)ix) Workers’ rights Workers’ rights : The : The interpretation of workers’ rights and interpretation of workers’ rights and responsibilities is also dependent on responsibilities is also dependent on the ideological motives and beliefs of the ideological motives and beliefs of managers.managers.

• x)x) Employees unionsEmployees unions :Perception :Perception plays a vital role in creating a better plays a vital role in creating a better understanding of unions by understanding of unions by management and vice-versa.management and vice-versa.

Page 16: Ob perceptions.19134329

PERCEPTUAL PROCESSPERCEPTUAL PROCESS

• Perception is an intellectual process.Perception is an intellectual process.

• Perception is the basic cognitive or Perception is the basic cognitive or psychological process.psychological process.

• Perception is subjective process.Perception is subjective process.

• Perception consists of several sub-Perception consists of several sub-processes.processes.

Page 17: Ob perceptions.19134329

PERCEPTUAL PROCESS…PERCEPTUAL PROCESS…

Simplified process of perceptionSimplified process of perception

Perceptual inputs

Stimuli

Perceptual throughputs

Receiving->Selecting->Organising->Interpreting

Perceptual Outputs

Actions

Page 18: Ob perceptions.19134329

• Perceptual inputsPerceptual inputs – Objects, Events and – Objects, Events and people.people.All those things in the setting where All those things in the setting where events occur or contribute to the events occur or contribute to the occurrence of events can be termed as occurrence of events can be termed as Perceptual inputs.Perceptual inputs.

• Perceptual MechanismPerceptual Mechanism -involves three -involves three elements viz. selection of stimuli, elements viz. selection of stimuli, organisation of stimuli and interpretation organisation of stimuli and interpretation of stimuli.of stimuli.

• Perceptual outputsPerceptual outputs –Attitudes, Opinions, –Attitudes, Opinions, Feelings & Values.Feelings & Values.

• The result is the “ BEHAVIOUR”The result is the “ BEHAVIOUR”

Page 19: Ob perceptions.19134329

BASIC ELEMENTS IN THE BASIC ELEMENTS IN THE PERCEPTUAL STIMULIPERCEPTUAL STIMULI

ENVIRONMENTAL STIMULIObjects, events or people

PERCEPTUAL SELECTIONExternal Factors Internal FactorsSize, intensity, PersonalityContrast, Motion, LearningRepetition, Novelty MotivationFamiliarity Self concept, beliefs etc

INTERPRETATIONPerceptual defense, Stereotyping,Halo effect, Projection, Expectancy Effects, Internal versus External Causes, Caused for success and failures

OBSERVATION (SENSES)Taste, Hearing, Touch,

Smell, Sight

PERCEPTUAL ORGANISATIONPerceptual Grouping, ContinuityProximity, Closure, Similarity

RESPONSEConvert, Attitudes, Overt, Motivations, Feelings etc.

Page 20: Ob perceptions.19134329

FACTORS INFLUENCING FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTIONPERCEPTION

• Perception is influenced by a variety of Perception is influenced by a variety of individuals and situational factors. individuals and situational factors. Any perceptual event has three Any perceptual event has three components viz. – a perceiver, the components viz. – a perceiver, the person perceived and the situational person perceived and the situational context in which the perception is context in which the perception is occurring. Let’s explore each of these occurring. Let’s explore each of these under following headings :under following headings :

• 1.1. Attributes of the person perceivedAttributes of the person perceived• 2.2. Attributes of the perceiver and Attributes of the perceiver and • 3.3. Attributes of the situation.Attributes of the situation.

Page 21: Ob perceptions.19134329

ATTRIBUTES OF THE PERSON ATTRIBUTES OF THE PERSON PERCEIVEDPERCEIVED

• The first major influence on perception The first major influence on perception is of the target, that is the person is of the target, that is the person perceived. In particular, the following perceived. In particular, the following attributes of target can be identified:attributes of target can be identified:

• i)i) Physical appearancePhysical appearance• ii)ii) Verbal and non verbal Verbal and non verbal

communicationcommunication• iii)iii) StatusStatus• iv)iv) OccupationOccupation• v)v) Personal characteristicsPersonal characteristics

Page 22: Ob perceptions.19134329

ATTRIBUTES OF THE PERCEIVERATTRIBUTES OF THE PERCEIVER

• Several attributes unique to our Several attributes unique to our personalities can affect how we personalities can affect how we see others. These include the see others. These include the following :following :

• i)i) Self conceptSelf concept

• ii)ii) Cognitive structureCognitive structure

• iii)iii) Response salienceResponse salience

• iv)iv) Previous experiencesPrevious experiences

Page 23: Ob perceptions.19134329

ATTRIBUTES OF THE SITUATIONATTRIBUTES OF THE SITUATION

• Elements in the surrounding Elements in the surrounding environment also influence environment also influence perception process. Some of perception process. Some of these are as follows :these are as follows :

• i)i) Social context Social context

• ii)ii) Organisational roleOrganisational role

• iii)iii) Location of eventLocation of event

Page 24: Ob perceptions.19134329

INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTIONINTERPERSONAL PERCEPTION

• In order to function effectively in a In order to function effectively in a complex human society, we need to complex human society, we need to perceive the behaviour, current moods perceive the behaviour, current moods and traits of the persons around us. and traits of the persons around us. This is known as This is known as social perceptionsocial perception. It is . It is also called as also called as interpersonal perceptioninterpersonal perception. . It is concerned with how one individual It is concerned with how one individual perceives other individuals.perceives other individuals.

• Zalking and Castello has conducted Zalking and Castello has conducted research for better understanding of research for better understanding of interpersonal perception. interpersonal perception.

Page 25: Ob perceptions.19134329

INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTION….INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTION….

• The specific characteristics of the The specific characteristics of the perceiver, according to them are :perceiver, according to them are :

• 1.1. Knowing oneself makes it easier Knowing oneself makes it easier to see to see others accurately.others accurately.

• 2.2. One’s own characteristics affect One’s own characteristics affect the the characteristics one is likely to see characteristics one is likely to see in in others.others.

• 3.3. People who accept themselves People who accept themselves are more are more likely to be able to see likely to be able to see favourable favourable aspects of other people.aspects of other people.

• 4.4. Accuracy in perceiving others is Accuracy in perceiving others is not a not a single skill.single skill.

Page 26: Ob perceptions.19134329

INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTION….INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTION….

• Similarly the characteristics of the Similarly the characteristics of the person who is being perceived are:person who is being perceived are:

• 1.1. The status of the person The status of the person perceived will perceived will greatly influence greatly influence others’ perception of others’ perception of him.him.

• 2.2. The person being perceived is The person being perceived is usually usually placed into categories to placed into categories to simplify the simplify the viewer’s perceptual viewer’s perceptual activities. Two activities. Two common categories common categories are status and role.are status and role.

• 3.3. The visible traits of the person The visible traits of the person perceived will greatly influence the perceived will greatly influence the perception of him.perception of him.

Page 27: Ob perceptions.19134329

• The above characteristics suggest The above characteristics suggest that the organisational members that the organisational members must realise that their perceptions of must realise that their perceptions of others are greatly influenced by others are greatly influenced by characteristics of themselves and characteristics of themselves and characteristics of the other person. characteristics of the other person.

• Further is necessary to develop Further is necessary to develop perceptual skills of oneself and perceptual skills of oneself and others.others.

Page 28: Ob perceptions.19134329

DEVELOPING PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPING PERCEPTUAL SKILLSSKILLS• Following attempts can be made to Following attempts can be made to

enhance perceptual skills.enhance perceptual skills.

• 1.1. Perceiving oneself accurately: Perceiving oneself accurately: One should increase awareness One should increase awareness about self. For this, he should obtain about self. For this, he should obtain information on how others perceive information on how others perceive us from as many sources as possible. us from as many sources as possible. By knowing. Perceiving and By knowing. Perceiving and understanding ourselves accurately, understanding ourselves accurately, we should remove blind spots about we should remove blind spots about self.self.

Page 29: Ob perceptions.19134329

DEVELOPING PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPING PERCEPTUAL SKILLS….SKILLS….• 2.2. Being empathicBeing empathic : :

Empathy means being able to see Empathy means being able to see a situation as it is experienced by a situation as it is experienced by others. A manager should be others. A manager should be sensitive to the needs of others and sensitive to the needs of others and perceive situations from their point of perceive situations from their point of view as well.view as well.

• 3.3. Having positive attitudes Having positive attitudes : : A manger should see things A manger should see things from a positive angle, should be from a positive angle, should be aware of personal biases ad should aware of personal biases ad should try to get rid of any negative feeling try to get rid of any negative feeling he may have of others. This will help he may have of others. This will help to put things in proper perspective.to put things in proper perspective.

Page 30: Ob perceptions.19134329

DEVELOPING PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPING PERCEPTUAL SKILLS….SKILLS….

• 4.4. Enhancing self – conceptEnhancing self – concept : : Self-concept or a good self image is Self-concept or a good self image is a function of how successfully we a function of how successfully we accomplish the things we attempt to do. accomplish the things we attempt to do. When people perform roles where they When people perform roles where they exhibit their competence and get exhibit their competence and get success, they develop a basic sense of success, they develop a basic sense of self esteem and have positive self self esteem and have positive self regard.regard.

• 5.5. Communication more openlyCommunication more openly : : Managers should be able to Managers should be able to

effectively communicate to employees so effectively communicate to employees so that misconceptions can be dispelled.that misconceptions can be dispelled.

Page 31: Ob perceptions.19134329

DEVELOPING PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPING PERCEPTUAL SKILLS….SKILLS….

• 6.6. Avoiding common biases in Avoiding common biases in perceptions perceptions : : Managers should try Managers should try to considerably minimise their to considerably minimise their perceptual biases. They should perceptual biases. They should consciously raise their level of awareness consciously raise their level of awareness in their interactions with situations.in their interactions with situations.

• 7.7. Avoiding attributions Avoiding attributions : : Mangers should try to avoid making Mangers should try to avoid making inappropriate attributions and should inappropriate attributions and should obtain as accurate as assessment of the obtain as accurate as assessment of the situation as possible so that situation as possible so that dysfunctional consequences can be dysfunctional consequences can be avoided.avoided.

Page 32: Ob perceptions.19134329

LEARNINGLEARNING• “ “ You cannot teach a man You cannot teach a man

anything. You can only help him anything. You can only help him discover it within himself.”discover it within himself.”

- Galileo- Galileo

• “ “ You cannot give fish to a man You cannot give fish to a man everyday. But if you teach how to everyday. But if you teach how to fish, he will have fish everyday.”fish, he will have fish everyday.”

Page 33: Ob perceptions.19134329

MEANING / DEFINITIONSMEANING / DEFINITIONS• Learning is the single most important Learning is the single most important

concept in the study of human behaviour.concept in the study of human behaviour.

• It is involved in almost everything we do. It is involved in almost everything we do. Every aspect of human behaviour is Every aspect of human behaviour is responsive to learning experiences – responsive to learning experiences – knowledge, skills, attitudes, language, knowledge, skills, attitudes, language, value systems and personality traits.value systems and personality traits.

• So we see that everything can be learned So we see that everything can be learned through reasoning, thinking, information through reasoning, thinking, information processing ad perception.processing ad perception.

Page 34: Ob perceptions.19134329

MEANING / DEFINITIONS…MEANING / DEFINITIONS…

• ““Learning can be defined as relatively Learning can be defined as relatively permanent change in behaviour the permanent change in behaviour the potentiality that results from reinforced potentiality that results from reinforced practice or experience. - practice or experience. - Steers & Steers & Porter.Porter.

• ““Learning is any relatively permanent Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience. - result of experience. - Stephen Stephen Robbins.Robbins.

• In simple words, learning is a change in In simple words, learning is a change in behaviour acquired through experience.behaviour acquired through experience.

Page 35: Ob perceptions.19134329

MEANING / DEFINITIONS…MEANING / DEFINITIONS…

• Learning can be defined as a Learning can be defined as a “relatively permanent change in “relatively permanent change in behaviour or potential behaviour as a behaviour or potential behaviour as a result of direct or indirect experience”. result of direct or indirect experience”.

• There are two primary elements in this There are two primary elements in this definition that must both be present in definition that must both be present in order to identify the process of order to identify the process of learning. learning.

Page 36: Ob perceptions.19134329

MEANING / DEFINITIONS….MEANING / DEFINITIONS….

• First is the element that the change must First is the element that the change must be relatively permanent. This means that be relatively permanent. This means that after “learning” our behaviour must be after “learning” our behaviour must be different, either better or worse as different, either better or worse as compared to our behaviour prior to this compared to our behaviour prior to this experience of learning. experience of learning.

• The second aspect of the definition is The second aspect of the definition is that this change must occur due to some that this change must occur due to some kind of experience or practice. This kind of experience or practice. This learning is not caused by biological learning is not caused by biological maturation.maturation.

Page 37: Ob perceptions.19134329

CHARACTERISTICS OF CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNINGLEARNING

• 1)1) Learning is an inferred process that Learning is an inferred process that is is believed to influence behaviour.believed to influence behaviour.

• 2)2) Learning results in a relatively Learning results in a relatively permanent change in behaviour. permanent change in behaviour. Behaviour that is learnt, therefore, is Behaviour that is learnt, therefore, is

relatively constant over time.relatively constant over time.

• 3)3) Learning involves change, it may Learning involves change, it may be be good or bad.good or bad.

• 4)4) Learning comes from some form of Learning comes from some form of experience. Experience may be experience. Experience may be

acquired acquired directly through practice directly through practice or observation or observation or through reading. or through reading.

Page 38: Ob perceptions.19134329

CHARACTERISTICS OF CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING…LEARNING…• 5)5) Learning is source of change in Learning is source of change in

behaviour and performance.behaviour and performance.

• 6)6) Learning is continuous process. It Learning is continuous process. It has the ability to respond adequately has the ability to respond adequately to a situation that may or may not to a situation that may or may not have been encountered. It is not have been encountered. It is not restricted to the schooldays but it is a restricted to the schooldays but it is a lifelong process.lifelong process.

• 7)7) Learning is the outcome of various Learning is the outcome of various related factors. The important factors related factors. The important factors that determine learning are motive, that determine learning are motive, stimuli, response, reinforcement and stimuli, response, reinforcement and retention.retention.

Page 39: Ob perceptions.19134329

THEORIES OF LEARNINGTHEORIES OF LEARNING

• There are five general approaches to There are five general approaches to learning that are identified. learning that are identified.

• They are :–They are :–

• i)i) Classical Conditioning Theory,Classical Conditioning Theory,

• ii)ii) Instrumental or Operant Instrumental or Operant Conditioning Conditioning Theory,Theory,

• iii)iii) Cognitive Learning Theory,Cognitive Learning Theory,

• iv)iv) Selective Learning Theory andSelective Learning Theory and

• v)v) Social Learning theory. Social Learning theory.

Page 40: Ob perceptions.19134329

ii)) Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning TheoryTheory• Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist

owes credit for developing this owes credit for developing this theory. He conducted an experiment theory. He conducted an experiment on dogs and developed a stimulus- on dogs and developed a stimulus- response connection. This means that response connection. This means that certain responses can be predicted certain responses can be predicted which continuously result from which continuously result from certain induced stimuli. Classical certain induced stimuli. Classical conditioning introduces a simple conditioning introduces a simple cause-and-effect relationship cause-and-effect relationship between one stimulus and one between one stimulus and one response. response.

Page 41: Ob perceptions.19134329

• It also makes the response reflexive It also makes the response reflexive or involuntary after the stimulus-or involuntary after the stimulus-response relationship has been response relationship has been established. This leaves no ground for established. This leaves no ground for making choices, which differentiates making choices, which differentiates human beings from dogs. Under human beings from dogs. Under certain situations classical certain situations classical conditioning does explain human conditioning does explain human behaviour.behaviour.

Page 42: Ob perceptions.19134329

ii) ii) Instrumental or Operant Instrumental or Operant Conditioning Conditioning TheoryTheory

• Operant conditioning is concerned Operant conditioning is concerned with learning that occurs as a with learning that occurs as a consequence of behaviour. It focuses consequence of behaviour. It focuses on the effects of reinforcements or on the effects of reinforcements or rewards on desired behaviours. This rewards on desired behaviours. This learning is based on the simple fact learning is based on the simple fact that “the actions we perform often that “the actions we perform often result in some consequences”. result in some consequences”.

Page 43: Ob perceptions.19134329

• This theory was developed by This theory was developed by Watson, a contemporary of Pavlov. Watson, a contemporary of Pavlov. He argued that behaviour was largely He argued that behaviour was largely influenced by the rewards one influenced by the rewards one received as result of actions. In other received as result of actions. In other words, we now know that people words, we now know that people change their behaviour by repeating change their behaviour by repeating acts that are rewarded and not acts that are rewarded and not repeating acts that the environment repeating acts that the environment fails to reward.fails to reward.

Page 44: Ob perceptions.19134329

iii)iii) Cognitive Learning TheoryCognitive Learning Theory

• Learning is considered as the outcome Learning is considered as the outcome of deliberate thinking about the of deliberate thinking about the problem or situation both intuitively problem or situation both intuitively and based upon known facts and and based upon known facts and responding in an objective and goal responding in an objective and goal oriented manner. Cognition, in fact, is oriented manner. Cognition, in fact, is the act of knowing an item of the act of knowing an item of information and this knowledge affects information and this knowledge affects the behaviour of the person so that the behaviour of the person so that the information provides cognitive the information provides cognitive cues towards the expected goal.cues towards the expected goal.

Page 45: Ob perceptions.19134329

iv)iv) Selective Learning TheorySelective Learning Theory

• Selective learning theory is also Selective learning theory is also cognitively based but it is more cognitively based but it is more directly aimed at learning. In directly aimed at learning. In selective learning the person must selective learning the person must not only associate stimulus and not only associate stimulus and response and consequence response and consequence experiences but must also determine experiences but must also determine which things to connect in the mind. which things to connect in the mind. Under this approach, a person Under this approach, a person chooses from a wide variety of chooses from a wide variety of possible leaning mechanisms. possible leaning mechanisms.

Page 46: Ob perceptions.19134329

• It involves a complex interaction It involves a complex interaction among thinking, emotions, perception among thinking, emotions, perception and motivation. Thus, there are many and motivation. Thus, there are many cognitions that come into play in cognitions that come into play in selective learning. This theory is also selective learning. This theory is also named as named as “insightful learning and “insightful learning and perceptual learning”.perceptual learning”. This is applied This is applied in relation to complicated learning in relation to complicated learning tasks. tasks.

Page 47: Ob perceptions.19134329

v)v) Social Learning theorySocial Learning theory

• It is recognized that learning does not take It is recognized that learning does not take place only because of environmental place only because of environmental stimuli (classical and operant conditioning) stimuli (classical and operant conditioning) or of individual determinism (cognitive or of individual determinism (cognitive approach) but is a blend of both views. It approach) but is a blend of both views. It also emphasizes that people acquire new also emphasizes that people acquire new behaviour by observing or imitating others behaviour by observing or imitating others in a social setting. In addition learning can in a social setting. In addition learning can also be gained by discipline and self-also be gained by discipline and self-control and an inner desire to acquire control and an inner desire to acquire knowledge or skills irrespective of the knowledge or skills irrespective of the external rewards or consequences. This external rewards or consequences. This process of self-control is also partially a process of self-control is also partially a reflection of societal and cultural reflection of societal and cultural influences on the development and growth influences on the development and growth of human beings.of human beings.

Page 48: Ob perceptions.19134329

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNINGPRINCIPLES OF LEARNING• There are many widely recognised There are many widely recognised

principles of learning that can assist the principles of learning that can assist the manager attempting to influence manager attempting to influence behaviour. Some of these are principles behaviour. Some of these are principles are :are :– i)i) Reinforcements Reinforcements – ii)ii) PunishmentsPunishments– iii)iii) Avoidance LearningAvoidance Learning– iv)iv) ExtinctionExtinction– v)v) Knowledge of resultsKnowledge of results– vi)vi) Schedules of Positive Schedules of Positive

ReinforcementReinforcement– vii)vii) Acquisition - Learning curvesAcquisition - Learning curves– viii)viii) Spontaneous RecoverySpontaneous Recovery

Page 49: Ob perceptions.19134329

ReinforcementsReinforcements• Reinforcement plays a significant role Reinforcement plays a significant role

in the learning theories. It is defined in the learning theories. It is defined as any event that alters the as any event that alters the probability of occurrence of a probability of occurrence of a response. It is anything that both response. It is anything that both increases the strength of responses increases the strength of responses and tends to induce repetitions of the and tends to induce repetitions of the behaviour that preceded the behaviour that preceded the reinforcement. It is the process by reinforcement. It is the process by which stimuli strengthen behaviour.which stimuli strengthen behaviour.

Page 50: Ob perceptions.19134329

PunishmentsPunishments• Punishment is defined presenting an Punishment is defined presenting an

uncomfortable consequence for a uncomfortable consequence for a particular behavioural response. It is particular behavioural response. It is used to decrease the frequency of used to decrease the frequency of undesired behaviour. The difference undesired behaviour. The difference between punishment and negative between punishment and negative reinforcement is that in the former reinforcement is that in the former case, a noxious consequence is case, a noxious consequence is applied to decrease the frequency of applied to decrease the frequency of undesired behaviour, whereas in the undesired behaviour, whereas in the latter, a noxious consequence is latter, a noxious consequence is withheld when a desired behaviour is withheld when a desired behaviour is exhibited.exhibited.

Page 51: Ob perceptions.19134329

Avoidance LearningAvoidance Learning

• Avoidance learning is the seeking to Avoidance learning is the seeking to avoid an unpleasant condition or avoid an unpleasant condition or outcome by following a desired outcome by following a desired behaviour. In other words, when behaviour. In other words, when behaviour can prevent an uncomfortable behaviour can prevent an uncomfortable stimulus it is called avoidance behaviour. stimulus it is called avoidance behaviour. For example, if an employee correctly For example, if an employee correctly performs a task so that the supervisor performs a task so that the supervisor may avoid harassing the employee. may avoid harassing the employee. Similarly, in order to avoid he discomfort Similarly, in order to avoid he discomfort the employee may achieve the group the employee may achieve the group sanctioned level of production.sanctioned level of production.

Page 52: Ob perceptions.19134329

ExtinctionExtinction• Extinction is non-reinforcement that Extinction is non-reinforcement that

leads to an ‘extinction’ of undesired leads to an ‘extinction’ of undesired behaviour. When the positive behaviour. When the positive reinforcement for a learned response is reinforcement for a learned response is withheld, the undesired behaviour withheld, the undesired behaviour decreases and will eventually disappear. decreases and will eventually disappear. Thus, the decline in response rate as a Thus, the decline in response rate as a result of a lack of positive reinforcement result of a lack of positive reinforcement is called extinction. is called extinction.

• For example, if an employee is For example, if an employee is consistently late, the supervisor may consistently late, the supervisor may withhold praise. Thus , the employee withhold praise. Thus , the employee may realise that being late is not leading may realise that being late is not leading to desired outcomes and may try to be to desired outcomes and may try to be punctual.punctual.

Page 53: Ob perceptions.19134329

Knowledge of resultsKnowledge of results

• Human behaviour is always a goal-directed Human behaviour is always a goal-directed behaviour. Knowing goals and their results behaviour. Knowing goals and their results leads to learning and behaviour modification. leads to learning and behaviour modification. Employees who have no idea o whether they Employees who have no idea o whether they are doing an acceptable job have little chance are doing an acceptable job have little chance to improve their performances. The knowledge to improve their performances. The knowledge of correct behaviour is reinforcing and of correct behaviour is reinforcing and strengthens the preceding behaviour.strengthens the preceding behaviour.

• Edwin Locke found in his research studies that Edwin Locke found in his research studies that feedback affects performance only to the feedback affects performance only to the extent to which employees set higher extent to which employees set higher performance goals in response to such performance goals in response to such feedback. Thus, goals can be achieved when feedback. Thus, goals can be achieved when employees are provided with accurate employees are provided with accurate feedback on performance.feedback on performance.

Page 54: Ob perceptions.19134329

Schedules of Positive Schedules of Positive ReinforcementReinforcement• There are number of ways in which There are number of ways in which

reinforcements can be scheduled. A reinforcements can be scheduled. A continuous schedule is one in which continuous schedule is one in which reinforcement occurs after every reinforcement occurs after every acceptable behaviour. But this is not acceptable behaviour. But this is not feasible.feasible.

• Bass and Vaughn have concluded that Bass and Vaughn have concluded that “learning is more permanent when “learning is more permanent when correct behaviour is rewarded only correct behaviour is rewarded only part of the time”.part of the time”.

• Fester and Skinner have presented Fester and Skinner have presented four types of reinforcements four types of reinforcements schedules for operant learning schedules for operant learning situations.situations.

Page 55: Ob perceptions.19134329

Acquisition - Learning Acquisition - Learning curvescurves

• These curves apply mainly to classical These curves apply mainly to classical conditioning. This principle shows conditioning. This principle shows that there is a gradually increasing that there is a gradually increasing strength of response for each strength of response for each repeated trial. Psychologist have repeated trial. Psychologist have shown the practical significance of shown the practical significance of these curves to the learning in the these curves to the learning in the following ways :following ways :

• a)a) The more unfamiliar the task to The more unfamiliar the task to be learned, the more likely it is that be learned, the more likely it is that progress will be slow at the start and progress will be slow at the start and will then increase.will then increase.

Page 56: Ob perceptions.19134329

• b)b) In most learning of complicated In most learning of complicated skills, there is at least one period, skills, there is at least one period, short or long. In which each new trial short or long. In which each new trial produces an improvement o equal produces an improvement o equal size.size.

• c)c) As we approach the ultimate As we approach the ultimate limit of learning, progress slows down limit of learning, progress slows down and it takes many trials to produce and it takes many trials to produce even a small amount of even a small amount of improvement..improvement..

Page 57: Ob perceptions.19134329

Spontaneous RecoverySpontaneous Recovery• Again this principle is related to classical Again this principle is related to classical

conditioning concept. This indicates that conditioning concept. This indicates that if people experience a sequence of non if people experience a sequence of non reinforced conditioned responses and reinforced conditioned responses and then take a rest, immediately thereafter then take a rest, immediately thereafter they will return to a more intense level they will return to a more intense level of conditioned response even though no of conditioned response even though no reinforcement has taken place. This reinforcement has taken place. This jump in response strength following rest jump in response strength following rest is known as the notion of spontaneous is known as the notion of spontaneous recovery. This principle explains that the recovery. This principle explains that the conditioned response does not conditioned response does not completely disappear during extinction, completely disappear during extinction, but remains suppressedbut remains suppressed..

Page 58: Ob perceptions.19134329

LEARNING PRINCIPLESLEARNING PRINCIPLES

• i) All human beings can learn.i) All human beings can learn.

• ii)ii) An individual must be motivated An individual must be motivated to to learn. learn.

• iii)iii) Learning is active but not passive. Learning is active but not passive.

• iv)iv) Learners acquire knowledge more Learners acquire knowledge more rapidly rapidly with guidance.with guidance.

• v)v) Time must be provided to practice Time must be provided to practice learning. learning.

• vi)vi) Learning methods should be Learning methods should be varied.varied.

• vii) Standards of performance should be vii) Standards of performance should be set for the learners. set for the learners.

Page 59: Ob perceptions.19134329

LEARNING PRINCIPLES…LEARNING PRINCIPLES…• viii) Different levels of learning exist.viii) Different levels of learning exist.• ix)ix) Learning is a cumulative process. Learning is a cumulative process.• x)x) Learning is closely related to Learning is closely related to

attention and concentration. attention and concentration.• xi) Trainees learn better when they xi) Trainees learn better when they

learn at their own place. learn at their own place.

• xii) Make the learning meaningful by xii) Make the learning meaningful by using familiar examples and using familiar examples and

summaries. summaries. • xiii) When the learner has made the xiii) When the learner has made the

correct responses to the correct responses to the learning learning process, he has process, he has learned.-G.S.Sudha.learned.-G.S.Sudha.

Page 60: Ob perceptions.19134329

DETERMINANTS OF DETERMINANTS OF LEARNINGLEARNING

• The important factors that determine The important factors that determine learning are:learning are:

• i)i) Motive or driveMotive or drive

• ii)ii) Stimuli :- a) Generalisation Stimuli :- a) Generalisation

• b) Discriminationb) Discrimination

• iii)iii) ResponsesResponses

• iv)iv) ReinforcementsReinforcements

• v)v) Retention.Retention.

Page 61: Ob perceptions.19134329

Motive or driveMotive or drive• Motives refer to certain goals that the Motives refer to certain goals that the

individual attempts to achieve. They individual attempts to achieve. They are primary energisers of behaviour. are primary energisers of behaviour. Motives prompt people to action. Motives prompt people to action. They are largely subjective and They are largely subjective and represent the mental feelings of represent the mental feelings of human beings. They are the ways o human beings. They are the ways o behaviour and main springs of action. behaviour and main springs of action. Motive arises continuously and Motive arises continuously and determines the general direction of determines the general direction of an individual’s behaviour.an individual’s behaviour.

Page 62: Ob perceptions.19134329

StimuliStimuli

• Stimuli exists in the environment in Stimuli exists in the environment in which a person lives. Stimuli increase which a person lives. Stimuli increase the probability of extracting a specific the probability of extracting a specific response from a person. Stimuli may response from a person. Stimuli may be two types :be two types :

• a)a) Generalisation Generalisation

• b) Discrimination.b) Discrimination.

Page 63: Ob perceptions.19134329

• GENERALISATION takes place when the GENERALISATION takes place when the similar stimulus repeats in the similar stimulus repeats in the environment. When two stimuli are environment. When two stimuli are exactly the same, they will have the exactly the same, they will have the probability to extract a specific probability to extract a specific response.response.

• DISCRIMINATION has wide applications DISCRIMINATION has wide applications in organisational behaviour in view of in organisational behaviour in view of individuals differences. In individuals differences. In discrimination, responses of the discrimination, responses of the individuals vary according to different individuals vary according to different stimuli.stimuli.

• For example. A supervisor may respond For example. A supervisor may respond to a high producing worker in a positive to a high producing worker in a positive manner, but in a different manner to manner, but in a different manner to one producing very less.one producing very less.

Page 64: Ob perceptions.19134329

ResponsesResponses

• The stimulus generates response. The The stimulus generates response. The response may be in the physical form response may be in the physical form or in terms of attitudes or perception. or in terms of attitudes or perception. However, the responses need to be However, the responses need to be operationally defined and preferably operationally defined and preferably physically observable. physically observable.

• The response of the individuals is The response of the individuals is termed as ‘ behaviour ‘. The response termed as ‘ behaviour ‘. The response may be either positive or negative.may be either positive or negative.

Page 65: Ob perceptions.19134329

ReinforcementsReinforcements• Reinforcement is a primary condition Reinforcement is a primary condition

of learning. Reinforcement is, of learning. Reinforcement is, anything that increases the strength anything that increases the strength of response and tends to induce of response and tends to induce repetitions of the behaviour that repetitions of the behaviour that precede the reinforcement. Without precede the reinforcement. Without reinforcement no quantifiable reinforcement no quantifiable alteration of behaviour will take alteration of behaviour will take place. Reinforcement helps in the place. Reinforcement helps in the repetition of any behaviour.repetition of any behaviour.

• For example. If an employee is For example. If an employee is rewarded for his hard work, he rewarded for his hard work, he repeats his behaviour, i.e. he works repeats his behaviour, i.e. he works harder to get the reward again.harder to get the reward again.

Page 66: Ob perceptions.19134329

RetentionRetention

• The learned behaviour should be The learned behaviour should be retrieved according to the needs. retrieved according to the needs. Retention means remembrance of Retention means remembrance of learned behaviour over time. learned behaviour over time.

• Learning which is forgotten over time Learning which is forgotten over time is called ‘extinction’. is called ‘extinction’.

• When response behaviour returns When response behaviour returns without any intervening without any intervening reinforcement, it is called reinforcement, it is called “spontaneous recovery”.“spontaneous recovery”.