OFF-HIGHWAY MOTORCYCLE AND ATV TRAILSby Marc Dobner and the Motorcycle Industry Council. Second Edition edited by Eric Lundquist. First Edition published as:A GUIDE TO OFF-ROAD MOTORCYCLE

OFF-HIGHWAY MOTORCYCLE AND ATV TRAILS:

Guidelines For Design, Construction,Maintenance And User Satisfaction

Second EditionBy Joe Wernex

Additional contributions by Michael Dolfay, Master Performer, Trail Recreation, Wenatchee National Forest, Cam Lockwood, OHV Recreation Coordinator, Angelis National Forest, Dick Duford, Deschutes National

Forest, The Recreation Staff of the Talledaga National Forest, Jim Williams, Director of OHV Planning, MotorcycleIndustry Council, and Eric Lundquist, Legislative Affairs Specialist, American Motorcyclist Association.

Photographs by Roy Janson, Joe Wernex, Jim Cooper, Dick Duford and the Motorcycle Industry Council. Illustrationsby Marc Dobner and the Motorcycle Industry Council. Second Edition edited by Eric Lundquist.

First Edition published as: A GUIDE TO OFF-ROAD MOTORCYCLE TRAIL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION by JoeWernex, American Motorcyclist Association (1984).

This publication is intended to assist in the design, construction and management of off-highway motorcycle (OHM)and all-terrain vehicle (ATV) recreation trails. The American Motorcyclist Association and the contributing authors assumeno responsibility for the application of this information.

Publication was made possible partly through a generous grant from the Motorcycle Industry Council and theSpecialty Vehicle Institute of America.

Copyright 1994, American Motorcyclist Association, All rights reserved. Printed in U.S.A. No part of this publicationmay be reproduced or transmitted in any form without the written permission of the publisher.

Published by the American Motorcyclist Association

13515 Yarmouth DrivePickerington, Ohio 43147

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

CHAPTER ONE: INVENTORY THE UNIT . . . . . . . . . . 3

CHAPTER TWO: PLANNING THE SYSTEM . . . . . . . . 5 Rating Trail Difficulty and Exposure

Ride To Learn and the Loop ConceptControl PointsTrailhead and Support Facility DesignTrail CapacityPlotting The TrailDrain DipsThe Flexible Water BarGrade Additional Considerations Keep it Rustic Review

CHAPTER THREE: LOCATING THE TRAIL ON THEGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 The Detailed Reconnaissance

Improve the Initial ProjectionFlag the Grade Line

CHAPTER FOUR: CONSTRUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Setting Up Construction; Types of Crews and Tools

ClearingExcavation Inside and Outside CornersSpecial Trail Design and Reinforcement Techniques

Crossing Talus RubbleCollector Ditches Puncheon Turnpike

CorduroyPaved Stream Crossings Shallow Stream Fords New and Alternative TechnologyCattleguardsA Final Inspection Signing

CHAPTER FIVE: SWITCHBACKS AND CLIMBINGTURNS ......................................................................... 38

Developing SwitchbacksDesign MinimumsArmoring Switchbacks

Climbing Turns

CHAPTER SIX: MONITORING AND ONGOINGMANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Monitoring ScaleMaster PerformersThe Double StandardTrails, Roads and Timber Harvests

CHAPTER SEVEN: VOLUNTEERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

CHAPTER EIGHT: NOISE MANAGEMENT AND SOUNDTESTING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

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After twenty-six years of involvement with trailbikerecreation I welcome the opportunity once again to workwith the American Motorcyclist Association in thedevelopment of this second edition.

It has indeed been rewarding to observe thedetermined effort put forth in many agencies and inmany states to provide for and manage trailbikerecreation. One of the great bright spots in the countryhas been the excellent program administered by theIdaho Department of Parks and Recreation. At the sametime it has been disappointing to find that someprejudiced few have discriminated against those whoenjoy motorized trail recreation.

Something that has not changed is that nothinggovernment agencies can do goes further towardmanaging trailbike use than developing adequatemileage of high quality trails.

Firsthand experience has made it abundantly clearthat no amount of restriction or enforcement can beginto provide the environmental protection achievedthrough provision of adequate facilities and ridereducation. When quality trails are built, riders use them.When riders use properly constructed trails,environmental impacts can be designed for, monitoredand controlled. The single most important key isadequate mileage of high quality, competently designedtrail.

Let me restate that trailbike and ATV enthusiastsrequire considerable mileage for a quality outing. It iswise to plan multiple trail systems, each with adequatemileage to provide several full days of riding withouthaving to retrace part of the previous day’s route. Thelack of adequate trail mileage for OHV recreation is oneof the most serious problems facing public landsmanagers.

Disturbing though it is, one sometimes has themisfortune to learn of instances where trailbikerecreationists have been the victims of mismanagementor bias. While it is not my intention to address fully theprejudice at times directed at motorized enthusiasts, it isnecessary to touch on the all too frequent strategy ofclosing trails rather than managing them equitably andcompetently. To be sure, there are times when temporaryclosure of a trail to ALL types of recreation travel is areasonable option to consider.

However, in the case of trailbikes or all terrainvehicles, unwarranted trail closure has caused a self-fulfilling prophecy of trail damage that leads to traildamage. It goes something like this: First minor damageis found on a few trails. The damage is the result of foot,

horse and trailbike use on improperly designed or poorlymaintained trails. Trails are then closed to “preventresource damage.” Interestingly, the trails are closedonly to trailbikes and ATVs or in some cases trailbikes,ATVs and horses.

After the closure there are fewer trails available tosupport a growing population of motorized recreationists,and overuse begins to take its toll. Managers againclose more trails and the self-fulfilling prophecy hascome full circle. The burden has once again fallen onone or two groups of outdoor recreationists. There is nosubstitute for adequate mileage of well maintained,competently designed trails, at least not for theconscientious land manager.

The text that follows was written to aid planners inthe development of trailbike trails in a mountainousforest environment. However, others have indicated thatthe techniques described have broad application and areuseful in developing trails in many environments and forATV recreation as well.

My goal was to provide a tool that would help publiclands managers meet their responsibility to provide highquality outdoor recreation opportunities for trailbikeenthusiasts ... on an equitable basis with other trailusers.

The state of the art in motorized trail planningshould be in constant flux. Constantly test new ideas.Implement the best ones. Planners should first acquirean understanding of the recreation and its participantsthen develop an analytic approach to developing andmanaging trails and facilities. With notable exceptionsthis has happened all too seldom. There needs to be aprogram to provide the training planners need tocompetently locate, design, construct and managemotorized trails. There is need for serious research tosolve problems such as “dusting out” and treadstabilization. The moral and ethical questionssurrounding the problems of bias and even bigotryagainst motorized recreation need to be openlyaddressed and impartially resolved.

Unfortunately, training beyond the introductory stageis generally not available; sound professional researchdoes not appear to be on the horizon and questions ofmoral and ethical conduct in dealing with the rights ofmotorized recreationists is carefully avoided. These arethe hard questions and difficult issues. It is my hope thatsome of those who read this handbook will rise to thesechallenges.

J. J. Wernex November, 1993

2

INTRODUCTION TO THE SECOND EDITION


Before a logical trail system plan can be developed,the planner must know what is happening on the landbase and predict with reasonable accuracy what is goingto happen in the future. The inventory is a collection ofinformation about the land base that will assist in makingdecisions about trail development and management. Itshould be of a general nature, with investigation done toobtain site-specific requirements. Most information will bemore useful if it is plotted on a map of suitable scale toencompass the entire unit, usually 1/2 inch = 1 mile (orlarger).

The following will help the planner determine what isneeded for a workable inventory.

Much useful information can be found on existingmaps. Start with the transportation system. Most existingroads and trails should already be on your map; if not,locate them on the ground and get them mapped. You areencouraged to become proficient in the use of aerialphotographs. When viewed in stereopairs, they are veryuseful for finding existing trails, roads and other features.In areas that already support trailbike and ATV use, ridersare an excellent source of information. Take the time toestablish contact with those who use the area andrequest their help. It would be foolish not to involve ridersin the planning process.

Roads should be classified according to their“standard.” At the very least this will require informationabout gradient, width, alignment, surface, location, typeand volume of traffic, and other factors that may affectsuitability for use by recreation traffic. Roads provide theaccess to trailheads and campgrounds.

Get out on the ground and conduct a thorough surveyof trail conditions. Trails should be classified by trail type.Take notes as to which trails would be best for motorcyclesand those that will accommodate ATVs. It may beconvenient to break the various trails into segments tomake it easier to catalog information. A trailbike with aresetable odometer is excellent for measuring andsegmenting trails. Unimproved trails will seldom behomogeneous throughout their length; that is, a single trailwill often have segments in two or more of the three trailcategories (Easiest, More Difficult, Most Difficult ).TAKE CLEAR DESCRIPTIVE NOTES .

It will be worthwhile to give names and numbers totrails to aid in their identification. Develop a logicalnumbering system that allows for expansion. Names areimportant to riders and will aid in communication.Numbers are easier to use on an inventory or map.

During the condition survey, look for problems thatneed to be corrected. This includes tread erosion,excessive grade, unstable soil, poor drainage andimproper location.

Soil conditions are extremely important, plannersmust study the relationship between soil type, grade andtrail use. Determine the ability of the various soils towithstand trail use. Soil maps may be helpful, but shouldbe supplemented with firsthand knowledge of eachspecific site.

Micro sites in some types of soil call for use of special

tread protection techniques to enable them to withstandtrail traffic. (Special tread protection techniques will becovered in another section.) The trail condition surveyshould uncover areas requiring the use of specialtechniques. Determine their extent and estimate the cost.

3

CHAPTER ONEINVENTORY THE UNIT

The survey stake marks a road location that willsignificantly degrade the quality of this trail.


Identify sensitive areas that require specialconsideration or avoidance. Examples include areas thatcontain resorts, summer homes, archaeological sites andendangered plants and animals. One must locate suchproblem areas and determine how they will be managedbefore the trail system plan is developed. An acousticimpact prediction method has been developed by the U.S.Forest Service that is very useful in predicting andmanaging the acoustic impact of trailbikes and ATVs (seeChapter 8). The use of this technique should beconsidered for identifying noise-sensitive sites.

Trail planning must be integrated with other landmanagement activities. It is essential to obtain informationabout these activities and relate it to the inventory map.For example, plot the locations of future roads, timbersales, mining activities, leases, reforestation, and the like.Failure to exercise integrated planning can result indisastrous waste. A $50,000 trail can easily be destroyedby the construction of five miles of road.

Camping is an integral part of motorized recreation.Include both existing and potential campsites in the inventory.

Finally, the single most important aspect of theinventory is to identify and locate features thatenhance the trail experience . There are endless factorsthat make up a high-quality trail experience. It varies byindividual rider, but if one were to pick a single mostimportant item it would probably be variety. Typical of thefeatures the knowledgeable trail planner looks for are:waterfalls, lakes, streams, cliffs, changing timber andvegetation type, meadows, vistas, talus slopes, hotsprings and even large rocks.

In areas where large elevation differentials result insnowmelt extending over a significant time, determinehow snowmelt will affect trail use. Look for places wherelarge snow drifts can block trails until late in the season

and avoid them. Examine and learn to understand therelationship between aspect, elevation and snowmelt.Snow takes longer to melt off of north and east facingslopes and higher elevations.

Last, try to figure out what you may have forgotten.Before the trail system plan is started, the planner mustsee what is being dealt with. To a large extent, developingan inventory is preliminary reconnaissance.

A Note on Global Positioning System Technology

A number of federal public lands agencies are usingthe Global Positioning System (GPS), developed by themilitary, to accurately map the locations of roads andtrails. Hardware and software are available to local

management units to directly plot road and trail locationsfor input to the Geographical Information System (GIS)being developed nationally.

GPS uses a series of 22 satellites positioned 22,000miles above the earth. A portable antenna is used tolocate the point on earth relative to four of the satellites.Currently employed systems are accurate to plus orminus 15 feet. The operator, with the antenna attached tohis or her helmet rides the road or trail and collects pointposition data at one second intervals. This point data istranslated into a line. The line data is transferred to theGIS and becomes an accurate map.

4

Look for features that will enhance the trailridingexperience. Mapping and inventory work using GPS systems is currently

being performed by both agency personnel as well as volunteers.Note the GPS antenna mounted on the rider’s helmet.


Once the inventory is complete the next step is toassemble the trail system plan. The plan is a blueprint forthe facilities to be constructed. It will directly affect thequality of the recreation experience, and the ease (ordifficulty) of management.

Successful planning for trailbike and ATV recreationrequires firsthand knowledge. Therefore, we begin ourdiscussion with some fundamental characteristics ofmotorized recreation trails and riders.

Trailbike and ATV enthusiasts are extremely diverse inthe skills they possess and their preferences for type andlength of trail. Individuals seldom ride alone, nor shouldthey for safety's sake. In many, if not most, areas of thecountry they normally camp together in groups of three tofive families. This fact presents the planner with the needto develop trails of various lengths and difficulty for riderswith distinctly different levels of skill.

To help the planner understand the characteristics ofthe different kinds of trails needed to adequately provide

for the recreation, a system has been developed to ratetrails according to their relative difficulty and theappropriate level of skill. The rating system has been usedto provide information on maps and signs.

The system suggested in the first edition of this bookrated trails as Easiest, More Difficult and Most Difficult .This did not always produce consistent ratings.

The dissimilarity in ratings appears to have beencaused by trails being rated by individuals with limitedknowledge of mountain trail riding and occasionally byexpert level riders who failed to carefully and analyticallyapply the system or failed to give due consideration to allclasses of riders. Accordingly, we have modified thesystem and added explanations and suggestions for itsuse.

This is a two-part system where trails are rated firstaccording to their degree of difficulty, i.e. the level of skillnecessary to safely ride and enjoy the experience and

5

CHAPTER TWOPLANNING THE TRAIL SYSTEM

Left, Most Difficult Trails should be expected tooccasionally tax the skills of experienced riders.Above, an example of the type of rough surface riderswill occasionally find on Most Difficult Trails.


second by a numeric rating to express the magnitude andfrequency of risk or exposure inherent in use of the trail.

TRAIL DIFFICULTY RATINGtEASIEST trails are intended to be suitable for novice

riders and those who don't have the skill or desire toride more difficult trails. Easiest trails are often usedas mainline or "trunk" trails that provide the principalaccess to a large trail system (to be classed aseasiest, a trail must present a low level of exposure tothe rider, i.e. 1 or 2).

tMORE DIFFICULT trails are intended for a majority ofthe enthusiast population. They require well-developed skills and trails that will at times provechallenging to the average rider.

tMOST DIFFICULT trails are intended for expert ridersand dedicated enthusiasts. At times these trails willtax the skill of the dedicated enthusiast (This is theonly class of trail where one would expect toencounter an exposure level greater than 4).

TRAIL EXPOSURE RATINGThe EXPOSURE RATING provides an indication of

the degree of risk posed to the rider by a trail or trailsegment.

Exposure is rated on a scale of 1 through 5 with 1indicating the least degree of exposure and 5 the

greatest. Rating for exposure is an exercise in carefullyand objectively analyzing the risk posed to the rider. Therater must ask, "What is the probable consequence if arider should fall or lose control?" The rider who falls on atrail located on moderate side slopes is in little danger,however to fall on a narrow trail located on bare, rocky120 percent side slopes may place one at significant risk.

Care must be taken to factor in the difficulty ratingbecause as the trail becomes more difficult to ride, it isharder to maintain control. The exposure rating takes intoaccount both frequency and magnitude of conditions thatincrease or decrease risk.

ELEMENTS OF DIFFICULTY AND EXPOSUREThe frequency, magnitude and interrelationship of

eight elements are evaluated to rate a trail for difficultyand exposure. The system relies on the experience,objectivity and judgment of the rater. Inexperienced orcareless individuals are unlikely to produce consistent,reliable results. However, experienced, objective mountaintrail riders can arrive at ratings that are consistent andmeaningful to other trailbike or ATV enthusiasts.tALIGNMENT is the configuration of the trail in the

horizontal plane. It consists of the curves, twists,corners and tangents the trail user must negotiate.The smaller the radius of the turns and the morefrequent the curves, the more difficult the trail is toride. Lest the wrong impression be given, it must be

6

ASPECT

Grade

Minimum Clearing Width

(Wooded)

Clearing Height

Tread Width

Tread Surface

EASIEST

Max. Sustained Pitch 8%Max. Pitch 15%

Downhill side 2 feetUphill side 3 feetLevel each side 1.5 feet

Downhill side 2 feetUphill side 3 feetLevel each side 2 feet

9 feet

Minimum18 inches*Maximum 30 inches

Relatively smooth throughout,no rocks or roots protrudingmore than 3 inches. Avoid sandand loose materials.

MORE DIFFICULT

12%30%

1.5 feet3 feet1.5 feet each side

1.5 feet3 feet2 feet each side

8 feet

18 inches24 inches

Sections of relatively rough.Some loose sand, etc.

MOST DIFFICULT

15%50% (rare)

1.5 feet2.5 feet1.5 feet each side

1.5 feet2.5 feet1.5 feet each side

8 feet

12 inches24 inches

Relatively rough with shortsections very rough. Longstretches of loose rock andsand, etc., desirable onoccasion.

* Increase Tread width 6 to 20 inches on switchbacks or where side slopes exceed 50%. This chart is specific to trail bike trails. Trailsfor ATV use will have to be widened accordingly as indicated in this book. In any event, ATV trails will generally not include the slopesseen in the Most Difficult section.Notice that the trail becomes less structured and more primitive as we progress from Easiest to Most Difficult.


noted here that twists and turns are VERYDESIRABLE features of trailbike and ATV trails.Twists and turns do little to increase the difficulty orexposure until found in combination with steepgrades, steep sideslopes, rough tread, etc.

tGRADE is the slope of the trail in the direction oftravel, usually measured in percent. Moderate gradeor slope has little effect on difficulty or exposure,however, steep grades can have a major effect. In theexperience of the writer, the effect of grades under15% is minor. Grades over 30% often make a majorcontribution to difficulty and exposure. Grade must beevaluated in its association with the other sevenelements.

tCLEARING is the corridor from which vegetation orother obstacles are removed. Clearing becomes afactor when obstacles protrude into the travelway.Hidden rocks and stumps that can catch footpegs areeasily identified hazards. Overgrown brush thatobscures sight distance should be considered. Logslying across the trail may make riding difficult orimpossible. Although usually minor, there is someincrease in risk in negotiating downed logs. Clearingis usually not a major factor in the degree ofexposure, but may be so in the degree of difficulty.Downed logs across trails on steep side slopes maypose significant risk.

t TREAD WIDTH is the width of the traveled portion ofthe trail. On a hillside trail, it is that portion of the trailbetween the toe of the cut and the top of the fill. Fortrailbikes, a wider tread -- up to about three (3) feet --provides for easier travel. Wider trails also afford therider more opportunity to select a smoother, easierpath of travel. The preferred width for trailbike trails is18 to 24 inches with 6 to 12 inches of widening onsharp turns (switchbacks and climbing turns are aspecial case to be discussed later). Tread width doesnot become a major factor in the degree of difficultyand exposure until it is found in combination withother elements in their upper range.

t TREAD SURFACE is the physical condition of thetread. Smooth trails that provide good traction are theeasiest to ride and present the least exposure. Rocks,roots, logs, mud or anything that provides a rough orslippery surface increases the difficulty and exposure.

tOBSTACLES are physical objects that impair travel.Logs, slides, large rocks, ledges and deep or swiftwater are some obstacles that increase difficulty andexposure.

tSIDESLOPE is the slope of the ground perpendicularto the direction of the trail. Sideslopes vary from flat tonear vertical. As the sideslope becomes steeper, theperception of difficulty increases. Steepness of

sideslopes has a MAJOR effect on the degree ofexposure. To understand this, contrast falling on a trailof 0% percent sideslope with falling on a trail wherethe sideslope is near vertical.

t ISOLATION is the relative distance or time from helpor human contact. Isolation does not affect the degreeof difficulty, however greater isolation does increasethe degree of exposure. For a great many trailridingenthusiasts, isolation is an EXTREMELYDESIRABLE component of a quality trail ride.

The magnitude of the eight factors and the waythey are combined are what determine the classification

of a particular trail. For example:tA trail with gentle curves, wide, smooth tread

(24 to 30 inches), 10 percent grade, side slopes of 10to 35 percent, 10 miles from trailhead at farthestpoint, and no significant obstacles would be ratedEASIEST and given an exposure rating of 1.

tA trail with frequent sharp curves, medium-wide tread(12 to 24 inches), partially rough surface, 30 milesfrom trailhead, grades up to 30 percent, side slopesup to 60 percent, and several moderate switchbackswould be rated MORE DIFFICULT and given anexposure rating of 2 or 3.

tA trail having sharp switchbacks on steep grades,constructed on steep side slopes of up to 100percent, rough, loose tread surface with one or more10-inch plus ledges would be ranked MOSTDIFFICULT with an exposure rating of 4.

7

Snow drifts that remain until late in the season limit trailuse. This trail should have been developed in analternate location.


It is the COMBINATION of elements that produce theultimate difficulty and exposure rating. Classification reliesheavily on experience, careful observation and analysis toproduce consistent ratings. Although this is not a precisesystem of rating, the goal of trail managers nationallyshould be to ultimately achieve a high level of uniformity.

Raters should be expert riders or have a very clearunderstanding of how riders perceive trail difficulty. Anovice rider would tend to consider an Easiest trail asdifficult and a More Difficult trail as impossible. This, ofcourse, would render the classification system useless.Similarly, planners seem to rate trails as more difficultthan they really are.

RIDE TO LEARNThere is no absolute rating scale for motorized

recreation trails. However, to become a competentmotorized trail planner, one must first become acompetent rider. The best trail systems are planned bythose who enjoy riding and have a "feel" for therecreation. The aspiring trailbike or ATV trail plannershould ride a variety of trails. When trail systems fail tomeet their objectives, the problem can often be tracedback to the planner's failure to understand the trails, thesport and the participants.

In my experience, the best way to learn about thesport is to ride trails with active enthusiasts. Observe,listen and ask questions. Spend some time at theircampfires and listen to riders of all skill levels -- theirneeds differ.

Time spent on the trail with OHV enthusiasts will yieldvaluable observations. First, most riders travel longerdistances as they become more experienced. Theyventure farther from camp and tend to spend part of theirday on trails that tax their skills. Novice riders usuallyprefer relatively short lengths of easy trail. Experienced

riders prefer trails of increasing difficulty and may rideover 100 miles in a single day.

Trail length and scenery are universal criterion bywhich riders measure the desirability of an area. Severalyears ago an informal study in the State of Washingtonfound that the average off-highway motorcycle rider likesto ride 50-60 miles of trail per day. To the extent thisinformation is applicable to other regions of the countryone should attempt to provide 60 or more miles of trail ineach trail system. It is much more desirable to developtrail systems in excess of 200 miles each. Realize thatexpert riders may want to travel over 100 miles per day. Tosatisfy the desire of a diverse rider population, distributethe trails in a 60 mile system as follows:tEasiest, 10-15 miles;tMore Difficult, 30-50 miles; and tMost Difficult, 10-15 miles.

A majority of trail mileage should be of the MoreDifficult type since this class is used by most riders.

Don't develop too much Easiest trail. This will result inunmet needs for a majority of the user population. It mayalso erode rider confidence in your ability to plan andmanage.

ATV enthusiasts generally prefer to travel on widerand smoother trails. That doesn't mean that some won'tuse them on extremely steep, tight and rough trails.Unfortunately, when ATVs are used on narrow, tight,sidehill trails, serious damage can result. Because of theiradditional width the downhill wheel of an ATV rides on theedge of the fill and the uphill wheel rides on the cut slope.This causes the fill slope to slough off and causes part ofthe cut slope to slide into the trail tread. The result is adamaged trail prism.

As indicated earlier, the guidelines for motorcyclesand ATVs are essentially the same except for tread width,clearing width, grades and -- most importantly -- the needto develop climbing turns, not switchbacks. It is difficult forATV riders to use a conventionally constructed motorcycletrail. When planning, look for opportunities to usesections of old skid or access roads that have beenretired from the transportation system. Such sectionsprovide an opportunity for ATV riders when integrated intoa planned system. However, remain cognizant that oldaccess roads and skid trails are not what the motorcycletrail rider is looking for.

The Loop Concept is the cornerstone of motorizedtrail planning. With some notable exceptions, trailsystems should always be designed to form multipleloops. Trails should not change class in the middle of aloop. A More Difficult trail may branch off an Easiest trailto form part of a larger loop, but the Easiest trail mustform a complete loop of its own. Treat More Difficult andMost Difficult trails in the same manner. Never lead the

8

This well-designed stream crossing with its rock bedand sloped approaches reduces impacts while allowingfor easy travel.


rider into a situation where he or she must either turnback or continue on a route that may be beyond his or herability.

There are exceptions to the singular use of loops.These include access routes to campgrounds and certaindestination points such as mountain lakes or aspectacular waterfall.

CONTROL POINTSMany planners use control points as a tool to help

assemble the trail system plan and locate trails on theground. In a broad sense a control point is anything thataffects the location of the trail. In this context controlpoints are things that tend to dictate the location of thetrail. These might include terrain unsuitable for trail

construction such as cliffs, solid rock, unstable soil,property boundaries defining land not owned by theplanning agency, highly desirable land features such ashot springs, scenic vistas, waterfalls and areas to beavoided such as noise sensitive sites. A good inventorywill specify the location of many control points. Whileassembling the trail system plan, the planner must makefrequent trips to the field to make refinements anddiscover site-specific controls that could alter traillocations or make them unfeasible.

Another kind of control point that needs to be takeninto account is provided by aspect, elevation and climate.North and east facing slopes and higher elevations retainsnowpack longer and soils may tend to stay more damp.Likewise, snow melts off south and west facing slopesearlier in the year and the soil dries sooner. The plannercan, and should, use this knowledge to good advantage.

In an area that tends to be dry and where snow meltsoff early it may be beneficial to locate most trails on northslopes or at high elevations. This will help alleviate dustytrail conditions.

If the area normally has a heavy snowpack thatremains until late in the year, or excess soil moisture is aproblem, then one may opt to locate most trails on southand west facing slopes or at lower elevations. Identify andavoid locations where snowdrifts tend to remain until latein the year.

Good stream crossing locations will often act ascontrol points. Streams must be forded, channeledthrough a culvert or bridged. The location chosen willaffect construction costs, maintenance costs and theriding experience itself. Sites for fords require a rocky bed,stable stream banks and must not be too deep. The useof culverts on trails is limited by the size of pipe that canbe conveniently transported to the site. Bridge locationsmust provide stable footing for abutments, adequateclearance for high water that will permit free passage ofdrift logs and adequate turning radius for traffic to enterand exit.

Most trailbike and ATV riders like to feel they have"been somewhere and covered some territory" in a day ofriding. They generally prefer not to go over the same spottwice in one ride. To help convey the impression of havingbeen somewhere it is advantageous to locate trailjunctions some distance apart.

TRAILHEAD AND SUPPORT FACILITY DESIGNTrailbikes and ATVs are normally hauled to the riding

area and locations are needed to park and unload.Overnight camping goes hand-in-hand with mountain trailriding. It makes sense to plan for this activity inconjunction with trail development.

Studies conducted around the country have yielded a

9

The top figure depicts an undisturbed, narrow (18"-24")motorcycle trail. If ATV use is permitted on this trail, thewheels, being too wide for the trail tread, ride on the cutbank or on top of the fill. After considerable use, thenarrow trail is broken down and severely damaged.


number of interesting discoveries about motorizedrecreation enthusiasts and their camping preferences.Some of these findings have important managementimplications:tRiders like to travel some distance (i.e., several

miles) off of paved roads before stopping to camp.tMany prefer to camp at sites with little or no

development. At one popular riding areaapproximately 85 percent of riders pass up adeveloped campground in favor of undeveloped sitesfarther up the road.

tRiders who do use developed sites desire fire rings,clean rest rooms, picnic tables and potable water.Items such as power hookups and showers are oftenrejected as unnecessary.

tRiders do not object to having areas designated forparking or fire building.Other items to consider in developing campsites with

a trailbike or ATV orientation:tDon't overdevelop or overstructure.tDo provide for group use.tDo provide a short (i.e., 1/2 mile) loop trail next to the

camping area for youngsters.

tAlways provide access to the trail system with asingle trail from the campground.

tDon't make the access trail part of a loop.tDiscourage hillclimbing and bootleg trails by site

selection, education, barriers and enforcement.tDisperse trail use by strategically locating campsites

and trailheads.tCommunicate with riders through signs at

campground entrances and trailheads. For example,place a notice at the trailhead of the vehicle widthscapable of using the trail in the agency's prescribedmanner.With the knowledge of trail riders' needs well in mind,

and a thorough inventory in hand, the trail system planshould develop quite smoothly.

To begin, select campsite and trailhead locations.Establish these sites near terrain that lends itself to thedevelopment of Easiest trails. Use the information in theinventory to select the sites.

TRAIL CAPACITYThe concept of Trail Capacity may be used to express

the physical ability of a trail to withstand use or the rate at

10


which a trail incurs wear that eventually results in theneed for maintenance or replacement. For the purposesof this document, we will refer to this as the "physicalcapacity" of the trail. With careful observation, or betteryet, actual measurement of relevant variables such asrainfall, soil type, season of use, grade and number ofusers it is possible to predict maintenance cycles andtread replacement needs.

"Trail Capacity" may also be used as an expression ofthe maximum number of recreationists that may use agiven length of trail (usually one mile) in a given period oftime (usually one day) and still meet user expectations fora particular type of wild land trail experience. We will referto this as "user capacity." User capacity does not easilylend itself to quantification across a broad area of thecountry. User expectations vary greatly by geographicarea and population densities. In the west, mountain trailriders seeking a primitive wildland experience maybecome utterly disgusted to encounter more than half adozen other trail users in a full day of riding (usually 50 to120 miles). At another place and time, these same ridersmay attend a social event such as a "poker run" anddelight in sharing the trail with 200 others. User capacityis a value that is determined exclusively by trail users. Itis not something that can be assigned by a planner oragency. Here again, knowledge of the OHV community iscritical to competent planning.

Trail capacity as measured by the physical capacity ofthe trail and user capacity bear heavily on the design,location, size and number of trailheads and campgroundsproviding access. During the planning phase or during thereconstruction of a trail system the planner must carefullyanalyze the needs and desires of those expected to usethe area. At the same time, due consideration must begiven to the type of outdoor recreation experience theagency can successfully provide.

If the desire of the users is to experience a motorizedprimitive experience, the rule of thumb is to designtrailhead/campsite facilities equivalent to four users permile of trail.

Understand that it is virtually impossible to achieve aprimitive trail experience on a system that actually hasfour users on each mile of trail. The "rule of thumb" isused only to obtain the number of camping/trailheadspaces to be provided.

For example, if the planned trail system has thepotential for 30 miles of trail and the experience levelplanned is primitive then the total size of all the trailheadsconnecting the trail system should not exceed 60 haulvehicles (users will generally average two trail bikes orATVs per haul vehicle). There will generally be familymembers or others accompanying the riders who will notuse the trail. All of the riders present will also not

generally all be out on the trail at the same time. The ruleof thumb value accounts for these individuals. To keep theuse experience primitive, camping/trailhead facilitiesshould be small, numerous and widely dispersed.

On the other hand, if the trail will be used fororganized events, there must be a suitable staging areathat will accommodate a large number of recreationistsand provide good access to the trail system. The plannerneeds to take into account the need to provideaccommodations for the increased use. Give carefulconsideration to the physical capacity of the trail systemand particularly to "trunk trails" that access the rest of thesystem. The writer's experience has been that some trailscan withstand very heavy use if properly designed,constructed and maintained, provided that organizedevents are knowledgeably managed and limited to thetime of year when the trails are least susceptible to wear.

Consult local clubs with event experience todetermine how many riders could be expected to attendorganized events. It is unlikely that any trail system wouldbe designed only with large, organized events as the sole

use. If possible, provide small, dispersed trailhead andcamping facilities as if the special event staging area didnot exist.

For a typical trail, the rule of thumb is to design thesystem for 6 to 8 machines per mile of trail. This wouldalso include the camping spots available. For example, forthe 30-mile system with one 25-unit campground (two trailmachines per unit), the total trailhead capacity should notexceed an additional 65 vehicles. Also take the dispersedcamping units available to the trail system whendetermining trail system capacity.

PLOTTING THE TRAILThe tools needed to project trail routes are:

t 7 1/2-minute U.S.G.S. contour maps or other large-scale contour map.

tEngineer's scale.tSmall set of dividers.t Inventory.tAerial photos in stereopairs.tStereoscope.

11

The slope of a trail or "grade" can be determined bycalculating the rise or decrease in elevation over ameasured horizontal distance.

8=

8perc

entgra

de


Percent grade is an expression of the slope of a line.(Vertical distance x 100) divided by Horizontal Distance =Grade.

For example, if a trail climbs at the rate of 8 feetvertically in 40 feet of horizontal distance the grade is (8times 100) divided by 40 = 20 percent.

Percent grade can also be thought of as the rise infeet per 100 feet of horizontal distance.

This handbook will always express the slope of a trailas a percent.

Contour maps have both a horizontal scale (i.e., 1inch = 2000 feet) and a vertical contour interval (i.e., 40feet). The horizontal scale and contour interval willnormally be stated on the map. The statement 1 inch =2000 feet means that 1 inch on the map equals 2000 feeton the ground. The contour interval of 40 feet means that

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each successive contour line represents a change inelevation of 40 feet. Each time the proposed trail routecrosses from one contour line to another the elevationchange is 40 feet.

If we wish to use a 7-percent grade we know from thedefinition of grade that the trail gains 7 feet of elevation forevery 100 feet of horizontal distance. The contour intervalis 40 feet; therefore, if we divide the contour interval bythe grade (40/7) we obtain the distance in hundreds ofhorizontal feet between contour intervals. In this case 40/7= 5.714. Multiply by 100 to get feet by simply moving thedecimal point two places to the right. 5.714 x 100 = 571.4horizontal feet between 40 foot contour intervals. Using anengineer's scale we set off 571 feet (0.286 inches) on thedividers. Use the dividers to project a 7-percent grade onthe contour map by measuring a distance of 0.286 inches(571 feet) between successive contour intervals. In thismanner any grade desired can be projected on thecontour map.

DRAIN DIPSBy their nature, recreation trails -- be they trailbike,

horse or hiker -- intercept a certain amount of surfacewater from snowmelt and rainfall. As runoff flows down atrail grade, it increases in volume and velocity. Ifuninterrupted it eventually develops sufficient energy todisplace soil particles. Other things being equal, erosionwill increase as the volume of water increases and thegrade gets steeper. The trail manager must control thiswater in a manner that will prevent surface wash andtread erosion.

The best way, and in some cases the only way, todivert runoff from a trail is by using a simple structureknown as a DRAIN DIP. This is a reverse in the grade ofa trail that forces water to flow off of the trail surface. It iseffective, inexpensive and easy to construct. In mostcases drain dips must be designed into a trail before it isconstructed, otherwise the portion of the trail leading intothe bottom of the dip will be too steep. The absence ofdrain dips in an existing trail often indicates improperdesign. However, in very arid areas quite the opposite canbe true as it may be desirable to direct water onto the trailto optimize bearing strength in the tread area.

Construction and maintenance crews often rely tooheavily on small waterbars for erosion control. Thesegenerally fail after a season or so of use. These waterbarsare sometimes a necessary afterthought to existing trails,while drain dips are much more effective but mustgenerally be built into new trails when they areconstructed.

The spacing or frequency of drain dips will depend onthe prevailing grade, amount of runoff and the ability ofthe trail tread to resist displacement. Spacing has to be

determined by the trail locator on the ground throughexperience and observation of other trails -- preferably inthe same vicinity.

If spacing is too short it may have an unfavorableimpact on the recreation experience because of thebouncing "roller coaster" effect. If too long, tread loss mayoccur. The locator should design trails with grades that willnot require drain dips closer than 200 feet apart,preferably farther. Soil scientists and hydrologists may beable to help determine appropriate spacing.

Note that if significant elevation must be lost betweencontrol points, the inclusion of drain dips will increase thelength of the trail. This is because the grade is reversedfor 15 to 20 feet each time a dip is installed. Trailridersview increasing the length of a trail as a benefit.

To design a drain dip, the trail locator simply reversesthe prevailing grade of the trail for 15 to 20 feet. Forexample if the trail is running downhill at a 10 percentgrade, the locator would run uphill for 15 to 20 feet at a 10percent grade, then resume the prevailing downhill gradeof 10 percent. In addition, drain dips should be outslopedslightly (about 10 percent) to ensure that water runs offthe trail.

To obtain satisfactory results, stake each dip on theground prior to construction. Stakes will act as a guide toconstruction so grade angle and distances will beconsistent. Four stakes are required to adequately defineeach dip. Finished grade is at the point where each stakeenters the ground. The astute trail locator will attempt toplace drain dips where they avoid trees, large rocks andother features that increase construction costs.

DO:tDesign drain dips when the trail is located.tSpace drain dips to accommodate soil type,

precipitation and trail gradient.tMake certain that the grade is reversed, not just

slackened.tMake the reverse at least 15 feet long.

DO NOT:tAttempt to develop drain dips on an existing trail with

a steep grade.tAttempt to use a zero grade instead of reversing.

Considering the benefits they provide, drain dips areone of the most effective trail structures a manager canemploy.

THE FLEXIBLE WATER BARIn some cases where drain dips were improperly

designed or where existing trail is converted to a moremanaged style of motorized use, another successful

13


strategy has been employed. Employees of severalforests have developed a continuous belting water barthat has worked very well.

This "flexible water bar" is built using new or usedconveyor belting. Belting with minimum dimensions of 3/8"thick and 8 1/2" wide is sandwiched between two treated2 x 6 boards which are then nailed together. Continuousbelting should protrude above the trail bed no more than3 1/2" and no less than 2 1/2". The length is determinedby the trail tread width and it is recommended that aminimum of 12" be set into the cut bank and extend pastthe outer edge of the trail.

It is important that the structure be installed with askew of 45 to 60 degrees to the centerline of the trailtread. This will ensure that it will be self-cleaning. A largestone should also be placed on the inside edge of thestructure to discourage users from going around thedevice.

In colder climates, use belting with little or noreinforcing fibers. In test situations, fibers have wickedwater into the belting where it freezes and splits it apart.

GRADEGrade was defined earlier as the slope of a line, in

this case the trail. Trail grade is critical both to usersatisfaction and the stability of the trail tread. The first

limitation on grade is provided by the type of trail. Wehave specified a maximum sustained grade of 12 percentand a maximum pitch of 30 percent on More Difficulttrails.

The second and more important grade limitation isimposed by site, soil conditions and precipitation. InChapter 1, we talked about the relationship between soiltype, grade and trail use. That information is put to use inselecting the maximum grade that may be used in eachlocation. Before projecting grades on the contour map,determine the point at which rapid tread degradationbegins to occur. Maximum grade should be established at1 to 3 percent under the slope at which rapid tread

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An All-Terrain Vehicle crosses a flexible water bar. Notehow the belting allows passage with no changes interrain to the rider.


degradation begins. It is not necessary or even desirableto use maximum grades all the time, but it is critical toknow what they are.

Building trails that are too steep for the site will resultin expensive maintenance costs and may force themanager to relocate the trail entirely. Excessive grade is afrequent cause of trail failure. Similarly, the planner mustseek out sites which will provide sustainable grades thatapproach the maximum allowed by the trail class. Anoccasional steep grade adds greatly to the ridingexperience. Fail to do this and rider dissatisfaction islikely. The key is to find the sites that will tolerate steepgrades and include them in the plan. However, steepgrades should not go directly up the slope.

Totally flat grades should be avoided. Always use atleast a 2-percent grade to provide drainage. Roll thegrade as necessary.

Avoid sensitive sites and locations where othermanagement activities could disrupt trail use. BECERTAIN TO ROUTE THE TRAIL TO TAKE ADVANTAGEOF THE AMENITIES THAT MAKE THE RIDE

ENJOYABLE, THINGS SUCH AS WATERFALLS,SCENIC VISTAS, LAKES AND THE LIKE. THIS ISCRITICAL -- WITHOUT THEM THE TRAIL WILL FAIL TOPROVIDE A QUALITY EXPERIENCE.

Many areas will already have existing trails. Theplanner must thoroughly study trail conditions as part ofthe inventory process. If properly designed and in goodcondition, incorporate existing trails into the trail system.However, if existing trails are poorly designed, improperlylocated or in very bad condition the planner must do acareful analysis and make the best possible choices.

Existing trails that are too steep and are erodingbadly are prime candidates for abandonment andrelocation. Trails in wet soil are another case that may callfor relocation. Ask yourself if the trail problem can besolved or if it would be cheaper in the long run to

15

Ruts will develop if trails are run directly up the contouror slope instead of quartering across.

Abandoned trails can be easily and effectively closedby filling with logs and brush.

Improper location: Trails should not be located inmeadows.


relocate. For example: Would it cost less to repair theproblem and maintain a given trail for 20 years or would itbe cheaper to relocate the trail and maintain for 20 years?

ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONSAnalyze predicted construction and maintenance

costs. Normally the choice is for the least expensive routeto construct and maintain. However, if a more costly routewill provide a scenic vista, access to a mountain lake orother desirable features, then the higher cost will bejustified and often mandatory from the viewpoint of theuser. Study the relationship between construction costsand maintenance costs.

Construction is normally a one-time cost, butmaintenance costs will continue for the life of the trail.Situations are frequently encountered where additionalconstruction expense will result in reduced maintenancecosts over the long term.

Economics are only one consideration. If the existing

trail provides access to outstanding scenery or provides aparticularly valuable riding experience, then cost may notbe the overriding consideration. Examine and try tounderstand the values riders place on particular trails.

Don't be lulled into developing a low-quality trail planmerely to utilize existing trails. Rather, integrate existingtrails into loops and develop a quality trail system thatserves rider needs.

Strive to minimize the number of road crossings andmaximize the distance between them. Never, under anycircumstances, allow a trail to cross a road after a long,straight section. Always "dog leg" the trail just before thecrossing to slow riders down.

The optimum slopes on which to locate trails is in therange of 20 to 70 percent. Below 20 percent there is therisk of inadequate drainage, above 70 percentconstruction costs accelerate rapidly.

Plot the Easiest trail loops first, then proceed on tothe More Difficult and Most Difficult trails. Go to the fieldand conduct enough reconnaissance to be certain thatthe trail plan is feasible to locate and construct on theground. Structure the system to be compatible with otheractivities, and modify other activities so they do notdisrupt the trail system.

Mountain meadows present a special case for the trailplanner. Their beauty and variety make them verydesirable to view and enjoy. However, because of theirfragile nature they must be treated with extra care. Locate

the trail close enough to the meadow that it may beviewed and enjoyed but not so close as to go through themeadow. A trail 50 feet or so into the trees will permit

16

Above, improper location is the principal cause of trailproblems. Trail bike volunteers quickly eliminated thissituation with 150 feet of relocated trail. Below,problems solved: the relocated trail on stable ground.

Shelters such as the one pictured above maintain therustic appearance of the trail while providing anexcellent facility for a rest site or camping area.


enjoyment without damage. If extra protection is desired abarrier of logs may be placed between the meadow andthe trail.

Plot trail routes until a complete trail system has beendeveloped. The next step is to locate the trails on theground.

KEEP IT RUSTICMotorcyclists and ATVers love the backwoods -- that

much is plain to see. But the reasons why are as complexand varied as those who ride. Three of the most commonreasons given for trailriding are enjoying nature, escaping

the structured existence of urban living and the physicalchallenge of it all.

Riders like trails with an "unimproved" appearance,even though the trail was carefully planned anddeveloped. The rider should never have to see the hiddenculverts or carefully located collector ditches.

This rustic/natural/primitive theme applies as much toother signs, bridges and manmade structures as it doesto scenic vistas and the terrain under wheel. It's not

important that riders know why a trail was constructed ina certain way, only that the trail is rustic and interesting.

Part of the fun of trail riding is the primitive nature ofthe sport. After putting in a 40-hour work week, trail ridingenthusiasts are ready for a change of pace. Rather thanthe four-lane interstate, stop lights, lane changes andtraffic jams that urbanites live with most of the time,motorcyclists want to see bridges made of hand-splitwood, not expensive sawn lumber, they want trails withsome of the obstacles left in so they can have thesatisfaction of negotiating them. They want trails with lotsof challenges or surprises (appropriate for each ability)including steep hills, tight turns and water crossings.Riders do not want a backwoods version of WilshireBoulevard.

A bridge constructed for motorcyclists, for example,would ideally be constructed of all native materials,including the log stringers underneath, split logs for thedeck and log wheel guards along both sides.

Not only are native materials more attractive to theenthusiast, they may be more economical and convenientto use than commercial lumber. The trees can be felledright at the site, then trimmed or split to construct the finalproduct. Not only does this save the manager from havingto purchase expensive lumber, but it also saves theadditional inconvenience of transporting it to the site.

Having a rustic appearing motorcycle trail does notmean it is an unmaintained trail. Proper constructiontechniques and regular maintenance are critical topreserving attractive riding areas.

REVIEWThe following features exist on some of the best OHV

trail systems in the world. Review your system to seehow it stacks up.t Locate campsites as far from main roads as possible,

from a few to 20 miles. Most OHV recreationistsprefer to camp where they may enjoy the experienceof being separated from the rigid structures ofmodern civilization.

tWhile you may have a developed campground, keepmost of them undeveloped. This is what riders prefer.

tAccess the system from numerous, small, widelyseparated campgrounds/trailheads. Too muchconcentration on access trails from a single largecampground or trailhead can detract from a qualitywildland experience.

tMake two thirds of the trail "more difficult." This is thelevel preferred by most riders.

tUse loops to provide a variety of experiences to theriders. Do not allow a loop trail to suddenly jump from"easiest" to "more difficult." Always allow theopportunity to continue on a trail of the same class.

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Proper location of this trail maintains the rusticappearance of the surrounding area.


t Incorporate destinations such as mountain passes,peaks, vistas, abandoned mines, lakes, waterfalls andhot springs. These are critical to a high qualityexperience. Make the recreation experience inviting tothose who use their time to explore, photograph, fishand take a dip. Do not chop up trails with roads. Therider should be able to get out on a trail experiencewithout being overly reminded of civilization.

t The value of a road, any road, to the trail rider'srecreation experience is very close to zero. If at allpossible, the recreationist should be able to completea loop without resorting to the use of a road.

tUse a single "easiest" trail to access trails from acampsite. Never use a campsite as part of a loop.

tAccommodate the inexperienced, the young and theless rigorous rider by placing most "easiest" trailsnear the campsites.

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Trail location is a continuation of the planning processthat started with the inventory. The care used will bearheavily on the success or failure of the trail system.Location provides the final opportunity to discover andcorrect planning errors before funds are expended on thecostly process of construction. An improperly located trailmay result in high construction costs, high maintenancecosts, user dissatisfaction, unnecessary environmentalimpacts or all four.

If the trail system plan was carefully developed withthe benefit of adequate on-the-ground reconnaissance,the location process will proceed smoothly. If not, locationmay involve a great deal of additional work such ascorrecting unnecessary errors and reflagging grade lines.

Although trail location can be enjoyable andrewarding, it involves hard, time-consuming work. Itrequires the patience to reject, when necessary, hours (oreven days) of hard work, and try again.

Trail location requires, at a minimum, the followingequipment:tA "work map." This should be a 7 1/2-minute

U.S.G.S. Contour map with a projection of theproposed trail routes and location of campgroundsand trailheads, major control points, proposedgrades, trail type and other useful information suchas property boundaries, proposed road locations,timber harvest and the like.

tA clinometer or abney to measure slope andestablish a grade line.

tSurveyors tape to mark the grade line and felt tippen.

tAn altimeter to measure elevation.tAerial photos if available and pocket stereoscope.tA good pair of boots.tNotebook and pencil.

Although not essential, the preferred order of traillocation is to start with the Easiest trails.

THE DETAILED RECONNAISSANCEFirst, refine the reconnaissance that was done in

developing the trail system plan. Begin at a major controlpoint, a trailhead for example, and walk through theapproximate route of the access trail and trail loop. Projecta rough line with the clinometer and walk it through. Flagpoints of concern with surveyor's tape.

Use the altimeter to establish the proposed locationon ridges and in draws. For example, determine from thecontour map (work map) the elevation at which a

proposed trail route is expected to cross a draw. Thenusing the altimeter you can find that location on theground simply by moving up or down the draw until thedesired elevation is found. The same technique can beused on ridges that can be identified on the map and onthe ground. Flag these points with surveyor's tape, and

write some type of identification with a felt tip marker.Locating the proposed route on the aerial photos canhelp.

Keep in mind the class of trail being located. Forexample, do not locate an Easiest trail on a sitesubjecting riders to a high degree of exposure. Alwaysthink in terms of user satisfaction, construction costs,maintenance costs and environmental impacts. Carry apocket notebook and make generous notes on conditionsobserved along the proposed route. Record items such aselevations of control points; construction conditions,including difficulty of excavation and grubbing; conditionsthat require blasting; stream crossings that requireculverts, fords or bridges; and wet soil or other conditionsthat require special construction techniques. Record thelocation and elevation of potential sites for switchbacks.

When unacceptable conditions are found along theproposed route, modify the plan by changing part of theroute. Find and make notes on feasible alternatives. Forexample, one may have to relocate to avoid an area thatwould require extensive blasting through solid rock.Continue the reconnaissance until a trail loop iscompleted. When the detailed reconnaissance is done,

19

CHAPTER THREELOCATING THE TRAIL ON THE GROUND

This rugged steep terrain is unsuitable for Easiest trails.


you should have a good picture in mind of how the trailwill develop and where it goes.

IMPROVE THE INITIAL PROJECTION Next, improve the initial projection made in the trail

system plan. Walk over the area at least two or three

times and look for ways to improve the initial projection.Most important is to look for ways to make the trail

more enjoyable to the trailbike or ATV recreationist. Canyou find a waterfall or an interesting rock formation thatwould enhance the recreation experience? Can the trailbe rerouted to vista points not included in the originalprojection? Never forget that the sole reason for the trail'sexistence is to provide recreational enjoyment.

Improving the trail experience will usually justifyincreasing expenditures. At the same time, look diligentlyfor ways to locate the trail that will reduce construction ormaintenance costs without compromising the quality ofthe trail experience.

During both location and construction, endeavor to fitthe trail to the ground so that it lies easy on the land andprovides a high quality riding experience. Alignmentshould be curvilinear. Avoid long, straight tangents, eitherhorizontal or vertical. The trail should traverse acrossslopes rather than shoot directly up or down.

FLAG THE GRADE LINEOnce the planner is satisfied with the proposed route

and adjustments have been made to the plan, it is time tobegin flagging a grade line. Obtain grades from theadjusted trail system plan. Flagging is usually done by atwo-person crew. Commencing at a major control point,such as a trailhead, a strip of surveyors tape is tied, at

eye level, to a tree or bush. One person then proceedsahead while the other remains with the clinometer at thestarting point. The person (instrument technician) at thestarting point uses the clinometer (or abney) to set theflag technician on grade.

If the crew people are of the same height, it iscustomary to sight from eye level to eye level. Forexample, if a 10 percent grade is being run, theinstrument technician would direct the flag technician togo ahead along line and to move up or downhill untilexactly on grade at eye level. When on grade, the flagtechnician ties a strip of surveyors tape at eye level andproceeds ahead on line. Meanwhile, the instrumenttechnician moves up to the point just set. The procedureis repeated to establish a continuous grade line.Sometimes trail locators work alone and simply shootback at the previous flag.

Locate drain dips when the grade is run. Obtain draindip spacing from the trail system plan. Identify drain dipsby using surveyors ribbon of a different color from that onthe rest of the grade line. Properly developed drain dipsare the most effective drainage structure we have.

In practice, the grade line will often intersect obstaclessuch as large trees and rocks. Avoid these to escape highconstruction costs. To avoid such obstacles, pitch or rollthe grade so the trail will be above or below. In manyinstances, grade can be rolled both to avoid the obstacle

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Rock outcroppings often require blasting to build a trail.

The trail planner should identify points of interest like thiscliff and vista. Higher construction costs are justified inorder to provide a satisfying trail experience.


and to create a drain dip. Use pitches in grade to get backon line after avoiding an obstacle.

It is often advantageous to build "slack" into the gradeline to make it easier to avoid obstacles. On a climbingtrail, the grade is increased 2 or 3 percent for 200 feet,then returned to the prevailing value. This will place the

line 4 to 6 feet higher than it needs to be to intersect thenext control point. Since the line is higher than it needs tobe, it can easily be rolled under an obstacle and still behigh enough to intersect with the next control point.

Even with the best planning and reconnaissance, traillocation is a trial-and-error process. At times, the grade

line will miss major control points. When this happens, goback and find a workable route.

21

This water-saturated trail tread indicates improperlocation, improper design or both. This trail should havehad an interceptor ditch located 10 feet uphill (Seeinterceptor ditches).

This properly constructed collector ditch interceptsground water before it can saturate the trail tread.


When the trail grade falls above the control point, thesituation can easily be remedied by starting at the controlpoint and running back to the trail line on a positive grade.

On the other hand, when the trail grade falls belowthe control point, the cure can be more difficult. Eithermeasure the difference in elevation (with the altimeter)between the control and the point where the trail gradefalls and estimate or measure the distance to the previouscontrol point, then using the formula given earliercalculate what grade would be needed. Or start at thecontrol point and run back at a grade steeper than thatinitially used until the trail grade is intersected.Alternatively, extend the trail and switchback twice toreach the control without steepening the grade.

As the flag line progresses from control point tocontrol point, it is essential to identify conditions that will

cause problems during construction or later when the trailis in use. Find solutions to these problems during locationfor implementation during construction. Wet or damp soilis a frequent cause of trail problems. A number oftechniques included later in the book will help deal withthis situation. Usually the best way to handle theseproblems is to reroute and avoid them.

Sometimes avoidance is not practical, and sometimesa problem area can be handled in such a manner that itwill add to the trail-riding experience. For example, thetechnique described for handling certain talus slopesadds interesting variety to any trail ride.

Location continues from control to control until thetrail loop is complete. The planner may wish to make afinal walk-through to add flags for better control ofconstruction or construction stakes.

22

This well-designed trail lays easily on the terrain andcreates virtually no adverse impact. There is adequatesideslope to provide drainage away from the trail surface.


Construction is the final stage of trail development.Much has been written about the process and proceduresof recreational trail construction, most of which is directlyapplicable to the building of off-highway motorcycle andATV trails.

I again impress upon the reader the importance ofbuilding and maintaining trails that are primitive and rusticin appearance. Don't destroy the potential for a fine trailby overbuilding. Both before and during construction theremust be sufficient guidance to the builder to ensure thatthe completed facility will closely resemble the trail theplanner had in mind.

The degree of control exercised over the constructionprocess varies with the type of crew and the complexity ofthe job. Experienced crews require less guidance thanthose who are new. Difficult terrain and special designsrequire explicit directions and close supervision. For thewider trails used by ATVs, it may be more cost effective touse mechanized trail building equipment.

SETTING UP CONSTRUCTIONJust before construction the planner should walk the

flagline and add enough additional flags to definesufficiently where to build the trail. Use survey stakes in

critical locations. Wherever using special tread protectiondevices, precisely define the location with survey stakes.

The construction crew must know exactly how muchleeway they have to deviate from the flagged location.Review the trail specifications with the crew chief. Makecertain they are clearly understood.

One convenient way to stake the location in criticalareas is to place survey stakes on grade at the point

where the cut should begin.Since stakes control alignment as well as grade,

space them closely enough to provide a smooth, flowingtrail. In some cases this may require stakes as close as 4to 6 feet apart.

Fund availability often dictates that trail constructionbe carried out over a time, perhaps as long as three tofive years or more. Since it is necessary to get trails intooperation quickly, planning includes making careful andlogical choices on the order in which trails will beconstructed. The presence of an existing trail system willmake the task easier, since development would tend toexpand recreation opportunities rather than provide forneeds previously unmet.

However, where there is existing use, constructionmust not disrupt trail use. For example, when relocatingan existing trail, complete and open for use the new orrelocated trail before closing and putting to bed the oldone.

Knowledge of the recreation becomes important oreven critical when selecting the order of development.Where there is existing use, spend time on the groundwith trail riders to study use patterns and preferences. It isalways desirable to tie trail systems together to formcomplete loops very early in the development process.Give a high priority to the relocation or repair of existingtrails in poor condition. Heed one caveat: Don't expend allof your time and resources repairing existing trail to theexclusion of new construction. Riders are always eager tosee the development of new routes and additionalmileage. Failure to provide them may lead todissatisfaction.

If all (or most) of the trails are new development orthere is little existing use in the area, the order ofdevelopment can be more flexible. A logical way tocontinue is first to develop one complete loop of Easiesttrail, then develop loops of More Difficult until 60 or somiles of trail are in operation. Then complete the systemin whatever order is most convenient and economical.Everyone can use the Easiest trail, and a majority ofriders use More Difficult trail. A 60-mile system shouldprovide enough trails for casual riding while the system isbeing completed.

Trailheads and camping facilities must fit into thepicture as well. Normally, give trails your top priority. Manyriders prefer camping facilities with minimal development.The planner would do well to sound out local and regional

23

CHAPTER FOURCONSTRUCTION


preferences for the type of facilities.In many regions of the country, climatic influences will

have a significant impact on the time, if not the order, ofconstruction. Heavy snowpack at high elevations usuallylimits the construction season. Give thought to the mosteffective deployment of crews. By starting out in thespring at low elevation, moving up to high elevation for thesummer then back down in the fall, it is often possible tostretch the construction season and offer seasonal trailcrews a longer period of employment. Length ofemployment can be a factor in obtaining and keepingqualified personnel.The Agency Crew

The personnel used to construct the trail may be anagency or department crew, contractors or volunteers.Each type of crew has its advantages and disadvantages.Agency crews probably offer the greatest degree offlexibility. There is no need to make complicated andsometimes costly contract changes when coming acrossunexpected conditions in the field. Simply tell the crewwhat to do to allow for the condition. In emergencysituations the crew may be used as a readily availablesource of labor for forest fire fighting, for example. A well-trained crew with competent supervision can build high-quality trails with a minimum of ground control (flaggingstakes, etc.). They can take care of most contingencieswith no disruption in the work. On the other hand, theagency must hire, fire, train, supervise and account for anentire crew. Equipment and transportation, and oftenhousing, must be provided.The Contractor Crew

Building by contract enables the agency to obtain thenecessary equipment and personnel on a project-by-project basis. Personnel, equipment, supervision,transportation and the like are the responsibility of thecontractor. The contracting manager must allocate time towrite detailed and carefully thought-out contracts and spellall work out in detail in clear language understood by bothparties. When unexpected conditions are encountered,change orders must be negotiated and agreed to. It willusually be desirable to have more control on the ground toavoid misunderstanding. The agency may not have theflexibility to use the crew for other operations. The qualityof work done and the cooperation varies with individualcontractors. It is more difficult and expensive to dischargean unsatisfactory contractor than to discipline anunsatisfactory crew. Experienced personnel shouldperform contract preparation and administration.Volunteers

Volunteers can be an effective way to constructcertain trails, but they are not "free" labor. Volunteertrailbike and ATV enthusiasts offer the land manager anopportunity to accomplish a great deal of work in a short

time. If the manager and planner do their parts effectively,volunteers will be highly motivated to complete specifictasks in a short time. The planner must make certain thattasks are of interest and will be of tangible benefit to thevolunteers. Train volunteer leaders and provide competentagency supervision. Clearly define tasks beforehand andhave the work laid out and ready to go. Work can beaccomplished at very substantial cost and time savings,but do not use volunteers to the point that they become

bored or disinterested. The amount of time volunteers willwish to spend can be expected to vary widely from groupto group and project to project. The volunteers make thatdecision, NOT the agency. Many managers find that it ismost efficient to use volunteers for no more than a half-day of vigorous labor at a time.

Each of the three different types of personneldescribed here can be an effective trail construction workforce. I recommend that the planner have experienceconstructing trail with agency personnel before attemptingto contract volunteers.

BY HAND OR MACHINEAnother choice to make is whether to use mechanized

equipment or hand construction. The writer prefers to build

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The Morrison Trail Blazer and other similar machinesare effective trail building tools.


Easiest trail with a mechanized trail machine, and to buildMore Difficult and Most Difficult trails by hand construction.For the most part, trail machines do not build motorcycletrails narrow or tight enough to be classed as MoreDifficult or Most Difficult. Where they can be used, trailmachines are capable of rapidly constructing high-qualitytrail with a minimum of personnel.

Equipment such as rock drills and chainsaws can andshould be used on all trails. Try using trailbikes or ATVs totransport crew and materials to the work site. Usingtrailbikes or ATVs offers an additional benefit in that trailproblems are often discovered while the crew is still onthe work site!

CLEARINGCLEARING is one of the first construction activities to

take place in forested terrain. Design criteria specify thatless clearing will be done as trails become progressivelymore primitive; i.e., advancing from Easiest to MoreDifficult to Most Difficult. It is important to be familiar withthe operation of trailbikes.

For instance, trailbikes are leaned over to the sidewhen they are turned, and therefore it is important to

provide adequate clearing on the inside of the curve. It isdesirable from a maintenance point of view to maintaintraffic in the center or closer to the "cut" (uphill) side ofthe trail. Leaving as many trees as possible close to thetrail on the downhill side will help provide centering.Similarly, a thorough job of clearing on the uphill side willaid in centering traffic. If the trail is poorly cleared on the

25

Hand construction is used on More Difficult and MostDifficult trails.

Trees located on the downhill side help to center trafficon the trail.

Logs when properly removed, as shown above, presentno danger to the trail rider. The example belowdemonstrates how improperly "bucked" logs can createa hazard.


uphill side, traffic will tend to ride on the outer edge or fillportion of the treadway. This is the weakest portion of thetrail and damage to the fill may result. On all classes oftrail it is critical to remove completely all stumps from thevicinity of the treadway. Short stumps can cause seriousfoot injuries. It is better to leave the entire tree than toleave a stump next to the treadway.

When removing large logs, the cut should start 6inches or more from the edge of the tread and slope awayat a 30-degree angle. On the uphill side the cut shouldstart at the top of the cut slope.

EXCAVATIONEXCAVATION , particularly on steep slopes, is the

most time-consuming operation in trail construction. Tosome degree the amount of excavation will vary with trailwidth, soil strength and side slope. An Easiest trail, forexample, is normally wider and given the same locationrequires more excavation than a Most Difficult trail. Onsteep sideslopes it will often be necessary to develop a"full bench" trail, whereas on moderate side slopes part ofthe trail can be on fill. Local experience will be necessaryto determine which slopes, trail widths and soil typesrequire full bench construction. Take care to dispose ofwaste excavation so the trail is not excessively wide.

When excavating the trail, develop a backslope that iscompatible with the ability of the soil to stand withoutraveling or sliding. For most soils a 1 to 1 backslope isacceptable. Solid or semisolid rock will stand at a steeperslope, while weaker soils may require a slope as low as 2to 1.

Except on outside corners it is not a good practice toleave a berm on the outer edge of the trail. Berms trapwater on the tread and may saturate the trail and promoteerosion. Remove berms when giving the trail a finaldressing at the completion of construction.

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"Full Bench" construction is often required on steep slopesor weak soils. Note how this trail has slipped downhill.

When backslopes are too steep, material will sloughonto the trail.

waste evacuation

Note the large amount ofmaterial that must beevacuated!

original ground line

Local experience will be necessary to determine which slopes areappropriate for cut trails, trail widths and to identify soil types.


INSIDE CORNERS AND OUTSIDE CORNERSWhen a rider negotiates a corner the trailbike is

leaned over and centrifugal force is exerted on the tread.If the force is exerted on the cut side of the trail (insidecorner) all is well and good. The cut side is the moststable part of the trail prism. If, however, the force isexerted on the fill side (outside corner) there is atendency for excessive wear unless something is done toreduce the impact. Widen the trail on outside corners by 4to 10 inches for motorcycles and 12 to 24 inches forATVs. Take care to ensure that the tread does not slopeoutward through the curve.

SPECIAL TRAIL DESIGN AND REINFORCEMENTTECHNIQUES

CROSSING TALUS RUBBLEAt one time or other, many trail planners will

encounter talus rubble. At first glance, rubble fields appearto be impossible sites for trail development. Selection ofan alternate route may seem to be the only workablesolution. Fortunately, relocation is not always necessary. Ifthe rubble is stable, it can usually be traversed with a trailentirely suitable for trailbike travel.

Stability implies that the talus is not actively movingdownhill under the force of gravity or by the weight of asnowpack and that it will not become active if a trail isconstructed. If the material is composed primarily of largerstones (4 inches diameter or larger), shows no visibleindication of recent movement and is situated on amoderate sideslope (under 25 percent), then it is probablya suitable site for trail development. In borderline cases,it's worthwhile to consult a geologist.

Location Upon ascertaining stability, the next step isto select the best location for the trail and mark it withsurveyors tape. Stay on stable ground, try to keep thegrade under 15 percent, avoid large rocks that cannot bemoved by hand and cross the talus with the most directroute feasible. Constructing trail through talus is hard,expensive work, so before you start, go back and take asecond look at your location. Is it the best alternative?

Construction Begin construction by removing the

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This short section of trail through talus adds variety tothe trailriding experience.


larger rock from a linear path 3 to 3 1/2 feet wide formotorcycles and 4 to 6 feet wide for ATVs. Place thismaterial on the downhill side of the trail where it won'troll back into the travelway. In some cases it may bedesirable to use explosives to reduce large rocks toworkable size. This involves placing charges so thematerial is broken up but not lost. The use of explosivesrequires the services of properly trained and licensedpersonnel.

After removing or breaking up the larger rock, usesmaller stones to fill the voids and create a level trail bed.This will often require importing material from outside ofthe travelway. The more voids that are filled, the betterbecause this will help to reduce the loss of surfacing.

The last step in construction is to haul and place a 6-to 8-inch lift of cushion material for the final surface.Surface material should consist of common earth with agood mixture of clay and small stones. Moving surfacematerial is both time-consuming and expensive. Take timeto locate the source that will provide the shortest hauldistance. If the trail is to be designated Most Difficult, thesurfacing may not be necessary.

A secondary benefit of the talus trail is that it providesvariety to the riding experience. This is extremelyimportant to the trailbike enthusiast.

COLLECTOR DITCHES Trails that remain wet throughout the use season

often develop ruts that require extra maintenance andrepair. Such trails also present environmental problemsand unnecessary rider hazards. The best solution is toavoid wet areas during trail location, but at times it isimpossible to do so. Furthermore, the situation is oftenfound on very old trails. Trail managers need a solution tothis problem that is effective, inexpensive and permanent.

One technique that has been particularly successful ineliminating rutting and drainage problems is the collectorditch. This type of drainage structure is applicable insituations where ground slope is sufficient to providedrainage, usually 5 percent or more. The structure has fourparts: (1) shallow channel(s) upslope from the trail tointercept ground water or surface flow; (2) lead-in ditch; (3)recessed culvert inlet; and (4) corrugated metal or PVCculvert pipe. The collector ditch functions to preventsaturation of the trail prism by intercepting seepage as itflows downslope, then routing it under the trail through aculvert before the water can saturate the trail tread.

Location The initial step in development of acollector ditch is on-the-ground planning. First, determinethe extent of trail saturation, then lay out interceptorchannels that are long enough to collect existing water.Use an abney or clinometer to locate channels on gradesof 2 percent or more. Slope them to a lead-in channel.

For rider safety, ditch effectiveness and aestheticconsiderations, interceptor channels must be uphill fromand no closer than 5 feet to the trail. Ditches parallel anddirectly next to the trail are a rider hazard and maysaturate the trail prism through capillary action. Adjacentditches are also undesirable because of their visibility.

Construction Next, locate the lead-in ditch,recessed catch basin and culvert. For best results choosea location that is easy to dig and provides a good

drainage at the culvert outlet. As an added safety feature,widen each side of the trail directly next to the culvert andcatch basin by 6 inches for motorcycles and about 12inches for ATVs.

Culverts must be of sufficient diameter toaccommodate the flow of water (12 inches is the minimum).Determine the culvert length while you are in the field.Culverts must have at least one foot of cover over the top.

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Collector ditches prevent water seepage in trailareas by intercepting supply. Surface the trail withnative rock, or if a suitable material is not available,use crushed rock. Surface depth will vary 2 to 6inches (loose measure) depending on conditions.


Mark the location with survey stakes to provide direction forconstruction crews.

In wet areas, it is often desirable to surface the trailwith native rock or crushed stone. Construction may bedone by hand, with high explosives or, if the ground issufficiently stable, by machine. Dig out the catchbasinsand culvert lays.

Finally, construct a rock headwall with stones 8 inchesin diameter or larger. Place the surfacing (if needed) andthe job is complete.

USING PUNCHEON TO CROSS WET SOILIn most parts of the country OHV trails will

occasionally have to cross wet or swampy ground. Whenthis occurs use an artificial tread to protect the underlyingsoil.

Several options are available with varying degrees ofcost and effectiveness. The planner's task is to select theleast expensive treatment that will effectively do the job.

Because of the high flotation character of ATV tiresand the low pressure exerted on the ground, any of thefollowing armoring techniques for trailbikes will besufficient for ATVs.

Collector ditches are often sufficient, but at othertimes turnpike, corduroy or rock ballast will be the bestchoice. In the worst cases, however, a puncheon trail maybe the only feasible way to utilize a particular location.When correctly located and skillfully constructed, hand-split puncheon is an aesthetically pleasing trail structurethat effectively protects the underlying soil.

Puncheon is similar to a bridge in appearance. Itconsists of:

(1) sill logs that rest on the ground;(2) log stringers that rest on the sills;(3) decking spiked to the stringers; and (4) wheel guards spiked to the decking.Before the planner decides to use puncheon,

several criteria need to be considered and met:t The finished grade must be nearly flat, or in any case

not in excess of 4 percent.tGround sideslopes must be moderate, preferably not

over 15-20 percent. The surface of the puncheonmust be level.

t The location must be such that the alignment isnearly straight. Curves, if any, must be very gentle.Deflection angles should not exceed 5 degrees.

t The use of puncheon must be economically feasible.Make certain that some other treatment won't workbetter.

tDo not use puncheon as a way to avoid the hard workof reconnaissance and design. If there is a betterroute, find it. Puncheon is best utilized to cross shortstretches of wet, unstable soil that does not havesufficient bearing capacity to support turnpike or anarmored tread. It should not be used for distancesgreater than 300 feet in any one section. Longerdistances usually indicate insufficient time spent ontrail location, create unnecessary expense andbecome unpleasant to ride.If puncheon is determined to be the best choice,

proceed with layout and construction.Layout Select a location that meets the criteria for

grade, sideslope and alignment. Favor the most stablelocation feasible. Select a shorter route over a longer one.Stake the centerline on the ground. If the constructioncrew is not experienced at building puncheon, the plannershould measure out and mark the location of the sills.Some sites may require extra sills to provide sufficientload-bearing surface to support the structure and traffic. Ifso, stake the location of the added sills on the ground.

Locate the construction material to be used and make

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Puncheon is an effective method for elevating trailsurfaces in locations where it is necessary for the trailto cross wet soils.


certain it is available in sufficient quantity. Determine themethod of transporting materials and estimate the man-hours and equipment needed to do the job.

Construction tCut, peel and place sills and stringers. Dig out under

sills or notch sills and stringers as necessary to level.Use dimensions as shown in the diagrams. Whenleveling is complete, spike the stringers to the sills.Stringers should be conifer with minimum taper.

tSplit the decking from straight grained wood such ascedar, Western larch, Douglas fir, etc. Since wooddoes not always split evenly, trim the decking to fit.After cutting it to length with a chainsaw, use a sledgehammer, steel wedges and a froe to split the decking.Make certain that edges of the decking are square. Aless desirable alternative is to rip the decking with achainsaw. Use roughcut lumber only as a LASTRESORT.

t Fit the decking to the stringer and spike in place. Trimas necessary to obtain a snug fit. Make sure there isfull contact between the decking and the stringers. Itmay be convenient to cut a block of wood one and a

half inches wide to space the decking evenly.tCut, peel and spike the wheel guards in place.tConstruct the approaches at each end and the job is

complete.Aesthetics To provide a primitive appearance

compatible with the back country trailriding experience,use native materials and hand split decking.

USING TURNPIKE FOR DAMP TRAILSTurnpike is a time-tested technique used to establish

stable trail tread across damp soil. Turnpike is a simpletrail tread elevated 4 to 8 inches above natural ground.Like all tread protection devices, do not use turnpike as asubstitute for proper trail location. However, it is aneffective and aesthetically pleasing way to prevent treadrutting on damp soil.ProceduretDetermine the location and stake centerline. Favor

sites with the least groundwater, and least slope. Layout tangents and smooth gentle curves.

tClear the vegetation for 2 feet on both sides ofcenterline.

tCut straight poles with a minimum diameter of 4

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Turnpike is an effective trail reinforcement technique fortrail surfaces that cross damp soils.


inches and remove the bark. (Select poles withminimum taper. A rot-resistant species with amaximum diameter of 8 inches is suggested).

tPlace poles end to end on the ground, 18 to 20inches on both sides of centerline (36 to 48 inches forATVs). Drive stakes on the outside of the poles tohold them in place.

t Fill the space between the poles with soil and rock.Place larger rock on the bottom. Make certain that thefill contains a high proportion of rock aggregate.Otherwise rutting may continue.

tCrown the fill to provide drainage.tAfter use has compacted the fill for a year, add new

material to rebuild the crown. Thereafter maintenanceshould be minimal.In some cases, it is necessary to develop collector

ditches to drain the soil of water traveling down the slope.Collector ditches intercept water as it flows downslopeand before it reaches the trail tread. In this event, useculverts to route water under the turnpike.

Geotextile fabric may be placed directly on top ofnatural ground if additional bearing strength is required.Geotextile fabric is a fibrous material that can usually beobtained from road construction companies.

If the soil is too wet for turnpike, it will be necessaryto use another treatment such as puncheon.

USING CORDUROY Corduroy comes from the days of horse logging when

skid trails were built on soft terrain by laying polesperpendicular to the direction of travel. With a fewmodifications, this technique has been adapted to trailbiketrails for use in crossing wet soil. The refined version oftrail corduroy consists of split planking nailed to buriedstringers. Although not often recommended, the techniquecan at times be a useful tool for the trailbike trail planner.

The advantages of corduroy are its ease ofconstruction and its use of less material of lower qualitythan puncheon. The disadvantage is that the decay rate islikely to be high because of its continuous contact withwet ground.

Corduroy, puncheon and even turnpike are usedunder similar conditions, but the trail planner mustconsider available materials, urgency for repairs and timeand money necessary before choosing the appropriatetread armor. If the planner wishes to

suspend the planks free of the ground, then it isnecessary to construct puncheon instead of corduroy.Since corduroy doesn't support a suspended load, it canbe constructed of lighter material. Corduroy also tends toprovide poor traction for tires, which make grade,alignment, location and leveling critical. If these things areignored, safety problems may result.

Location Corduroy is suitable only for locationswhere ground slope is minimal. The cross section (slopeperpendicular to the direction of travel) should not exceed15 percent and the grade of the corduroy should notexceed 2 to 3 percent. Alignment must be straight due tothe slipperiness of corduroy in turns.

Accomplish layout by staking two parallel straightlines 24 to 30 inches apart for motorcycles, 36 to 48inches apart for ATVs. Continue the lines for the length ofcorduroy and serve as the centerline of the stringers.

Design Construct corduroy of small poles and split(not sawn) planking. Split planking provides greatertraction under wet conditions than sawn lumber and ismore aesthetically acceptable. Stringer poles should be 4to 8 inches in diameter, while split planking should be 2 to4 inches thick and 42 inches long for motorcycles, 72inches long for ATVs.

Place the poles or stringers in parallel trenches dugaccording to the stake lines mentioned above (24 to 30inches apart for motorcycles, 36 to 48 inches apart forATVs). Depth of the trenches should match the diameterof the poles used for stringers. The combination ofstringer diameter and trench depth must allow theplanking to rest on the ground. Wheel guards at the edgeof the corduroy are not required because the structure isat ground level.

ConstructiontStart by clearing all material on either side of the

centerline, 30 inches for motorcycle trails, 48 inchesfor ATVs.

t Level the ground 60 inches wide for trailbikes, 80inches for ATV trails.

tCut stringers and remove the bark. Try to select poleswith minimum taper.

t Lay the stringers out on the ground adjacent to thestaked centerline. Allow stringers to overlap 24 to 30inches at each joint.

tDig trenches for the stringers and match the diameter

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Corduroy is also an effective technique for reinforcing trail treads which cross wet soils. It is similar to the reinforcementtechnique puncheon, although corduroy is easier to construct and less costly.


with the depth.tPlace the stringers in the trenches and level.tSplit the planking and nail to the stringers. Lay

planking tightly together with no gap. Always makecertain the rough side of the planking faces up forbetter traction.

tAt joints, nail the planking to both stringers. Select rot-resistant species for stringers and planking.MAKE CERTAIN THE PLANKING IS LEVEL AND

RESTS FIRMLY ON THE GROUND. There should be nosuspended load at any point. Make certain that nails andstringers are sized to provide sufficient retention soplanking will not loosen with traffic.

Corduroy is a quick, inexpensive way to stabilize wettrailbike trails and can last for several years. Consider itsuse for your trails.

PAVED STREAM CROSSINGSCAUTION: The paving idea presented here is not

recommended for mountain streams. If you cannotride across the natural stream bed of a mountainstream, you most likely need a bridge. This techniquemay be appropriate for non-mountainous areas.

Streams may be crossed by "paving" the stream bedwith rocks fitted together to make a stable surface fortrailbikes. Take care to note whether the stream banks willneed reinforcement to prevent erosion.

If the banks are too steep to provide good entry and

exit, or if the soil surrounding the stream is swampy, theplanner may want to consider using a bridge to cross thewaterway. Similar to puncheon construction, bridgematerial preferably should be a rustic design.

SHALLOW STREAM FORDSCAUTION: The fording idea presented here is not

recommended for mountain streams. If you cannotride across the natural stream bed of a mountainstream, you most likely need a bridge. This techniquemay be appropriate for non-mountainous areas.

Another alternative for stream crossings is the ford. Inthis situation, widen the approach, 36 inches for trailbikesand 72 inches for ATV use, and be as level as possible.

Build a small rock dam to create a shallow reservoirat the crossing point. On streams with a constant flow,place large stones (at least 16 inches in diameter) aminimum of 8 inches into the stream bed.

Fit smaller rocks between the large stones to form asolid wall. The top of the dam should be nearly even withthe finished trail tread, serving as a shallow spillway.

Fill the stream bed in the reservoir itself with smallstones and gravel.

On creeks with intermittent flows, the stones for thedam may be smaller in diameter (12 inches or larger),again planted about 8 inches into the stream bed. In thiscase, a log also may be used to form the dam. The logshould be at least 8 inches in diameter and have its barkremoved.

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Flat stones work as effective materials for creatingpaved stream crossings.


AN ALTERNATIVE STREAM FORD: PRE-MIXCONCRETE

Caution: This idea is not recommended for highvelocity mountain streams.

On some properties, the use of stones and rocks forstream crossing is not plausible. The Talledega RangerDistrict of the National Forests in Alabama hassuccessfully experimented with the placement of pre-mixed concrete to stabilize a crossing where frequent fastwater foiled previous attempts to use culvert.

Construction In this solution, forest staff placedburlap bags of premixed concrete in five rows, with 16bags per row. The bags were then laid side by side andend to end along the existing bed of the stream. The bagswere then soaked in place.

No attempt was made to tie the bags together or tothe stream bed. A light bond was formed by concreteseeping naturally out of each bag and mixing with theburlap and each other. By only having a light bond to tieeach bag together, if one section of bags were to washout in the future, the crossing could be repaired withminimal cost and effort.

The district reported several advantages from thiscrossing. It is readily adapted to different widths andlengths. No special equipment, tools or constructionknowledge are required. Stream flow is left unobstructed.A firm base and a rough finish are provided for traction.

Finally, it was accomplished with minimal cost.

NEW AND ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGYAlthough the subject of trail tread hardening draws

much interest, very little research has been done usinghardening techniques. Soil-cement apparently has beenthe most commonly tried technique of tread hardening.Those who have tried soil-cement express mixed results,although most report little success.

Pre-cast concrete blocks have been used onseveral National Forests for tread hardening. Otherssuggested the use of an asphalt polymer that has beenused around picnic tables and on trails in the State ofCalifornia. An article in the "Engineering Field Notes(October 1975; Volume 7, Number 10)" detailed the use offiberglass trail tread liners installed through boggyareas on the Sierra National Forest. Follow up of thatinstallation showed that the liners were unsuccessful andhave been replaced. The October 1986 issue ofWilderNews (a publication of the Moose Creek RangerDistrict on the Nez Perce National Forest) reported on amethod of constructing foot and stock trail through wetareas. It consisted of excavating a three foot wide, onefoot deep trench, lining it with geofabric and backfillingwith sand and gravel.

A geotechnical/engineering product search turned uptwo additional potential methods of trail tread hardening.One is a plastic product marketed under the name of

33


Geoweb , a four or eight-inch thick plastic honeycomb gridconfinement system. This was tried on the WenatcheeNational Forest on a grade in excess of 20%. It wasunsuccessful and removed after the second season ofuse. The other potential trail tread "hardener" is a wovenmat made out of one to two inch strips of old tires. In1991, a test section was installed on the Newport RangerDistrict on the Colville National Forest.

Using a grant funded by the Washington StateInteragency Committee For Outdoor Recreation, theWenatchee National Forest completed an evaluation in1991 of four tread hardening techniques or products:tSoil-Cement : Treatment of a trail tread consisted of

mixing a calculated amount of Portland cement withnative soils. This is not recommended for use on atrail with any kind of grade as the surface becamevery slippery with dust and vegetation litter such astree needles.

tConcrete blocks : A pre-cast concrete blockmarketed under the name "Grass Grid PavingBlock" made by Smithwick Block Company andWestern Block Company of Portland, Oregon. Theseblocks are 17.25 inches wide X 23 inches long X 3.5inches high with 4 X 4 inch holes. The blocks weighabout 60 pounds each and have a minimumcompressive strength of 4000 psi. This technique isrecommended .

tGeoweb : This is a grid confinement system made outof high density polyethylene. The manufacturer,Presto Products, Inc. of Appleton, Wisconsin, donatedmaterials for use in this project. It comes either 4 or 8inches thick and in sections 8 feet wide by 20 feetlong (expanded). Collapsed, the sections are 11 feet5 inches long by 4 or 8 inches thick. A 4-inch thicksection weighs 57 pounds. This product is notrecommended where there is a grade .

tECO-50 (asphalt polymer ): This is a polymerizedasphalt product sold by Evergreen Chemical Productsof Oakland, California for use as a soil solidifier ontrails. It is applied to a trail scarified to the depth oftreatment desired. This product did not work in theevaluation.

tAn additional product being tested is ThreeDirectional Interlocking Cellular Concrete Mat :These cellular concrete block are three directionalinterlocking components within a 16" equilateraltriangular module and 4" high. They are marketedunder the name TRI-LOCK and made by AmericanExcelsior Company Arlington, Texas.Wenatchee National Forest tried several other

treatments. These have been installed but not formallyevaluated and documented as they did not have anyinitial favorable results :

tGalvanized wire fencing : This is a bad idea andshould not be used . The wire fencing had atendency to stretch and the surface would getwashboardy. Eventually the wire broke and gottangled in the spokes and caused flat tires.

tCold mix asphalt : Cold mix asphalt was used on atrail with grade in excess of 20%. The surface becamevery slippery from the dust and vegetation litter.Because the surface was too slippery for hiking or forstock and motorcycle use it was determined unsafe.The test section was relocated to reduce the gradeand required the construction of a switchback.

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CATTLEGUARDSMany of the properties used for wheeled recreation

also have to accommodate other types of multiple uses.One of these uses is to graze cattle. The Fort RockDistrict of Deschutes National Forest has developed a trailcattleguard to accommodate recreational use whileensuring the integrity of grazing allotment fence lines. Thiswas designed to be easily transportable and to beassembled on site. All materials are available at locallumber yards and machine shops. IMPORTANT: Alllumber should be treated with water-bornepreservatives meeting AWPB LP 22. Retention shallbe 0.40 minimum.Location

Locate the crossing so that the trail will cross at 90degrees for safety. Where possible, locate the cattleguardin timbered or rocky areas to discourage access by full-

sized vehicles.Construction This cattleguard is designed to be

constructed using either regular staff or volunteers.t First, set stakes to establish four corners and the

grade.tHave part of the crew excavate to accommodate the

base at grade while others nail the box base together.tPut the base in the hole. Compact the dirt under the

base. The base must have firm, even bearing allaround.

tAttach joist hangers (if used) before putting the basein the hole.

tSquare up and level the base.t Lay angle iron on the base. Put one rail on each end

and loosely attach with bolts.tPut on all other rails and put bolts through holes.

Align the deck with the base, then tighten the bolts.

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Install lag bolts.tConstruct the wings.tBackfill the ends and smooth the approaches.t Finally, install barbed wire from the bottom crosspiece

to the posts.

A FINAL INSPECTION IF THE ENTIRE TRAILWhen construction is nearly complete, someone with

expert knowledge of trailbike recreation and trailconstruction and management should make a finalinspection. This individual should walk the trail on foot andride the trail on a trailbike. Note and solve any problemsbefore the construction crew leaves the site.

For about one year following completion ofconstruction, monitor the trail for problems that need to becorrected. Problems may include soft spots that needadditional fill, large rocks that protrude into the tread andwet spots that develop ruts. On most trails the back slopewill tend to ravel for a period of time before it stabilizes. Iftoo much material ravels onto the tread it will need to beremoved. The trail manager should make plans (andbudget accordingly) to accomplish this task while plansare made for construction.

Trails -- motorized and non-motorized alike -- aredynamic structures that continue to change throughouttheir useful life and well beyond. Planning andconstruction are accomplished in a short span of time.

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This high quality finished trail provides enjoyablerecreation with low maintenance costs.

A well-designed trail system will include a mix ofEasiest (top), More Difficult (center) and Most Difficult(bottom) trails. This mix of trail difficulties providesrecreation opportunities for riders of varying ability.


However, maintenance is an activity that continuesthroughout the life of the facility. If properly planned andconstructed, maintenance will be minimized. It will neverbe eliminated. Competent, well-planned maintenance andmanagement are the final key to successful trails!

SIGNAGETrail signage is an important element of all trail

systems, necessary to provide users with informationrelating to trail identification, difficulty and regulations.

Trail signing should always include identification andinformation signs at trailheads, at trail intersections and ontrails. In addition, signing can include interpretiveinformation, distances to trail intersections, public facilities,access points, destinations and educational informationencouraging responsible trail use. Signing can be veryimportant for delineating private property boundaries.Accomplish all trail signing according to state or federalregulations when constructing trails on public lands.

Trail signing materials will vary according to state andfederal requirements; however, all signs should besuitable for the climate conditions for the area, located to

avoid creating a hazard for riders while remaining visibleto OHV operators.

Trail signs should be rustic and unobtrusive. Avoidbright colors and synthetic materials where possible.

Proper trail signing can improve the recreationalexperience of OHV users by providing the necessaryinformation to ensure that riders are aware of arearegulations and trail conditions. A good signing plan helpsriders comply with local regulations and makes lawenforcement easier.

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Adequate signing is an important part of the trailsystem. Signing helps to notify riders of trail direction,distances, difficulty and other important informationrelating to the riding experience.


Switchbacks and climbing turns are trail structuresthat require special consideration. They are widely used inall types of recreation trails. The importance of theirdesign and the mitigation of damage when improperlydesigned requires highlighting in their own chapter.

Briefly, a switchback is a sharp turn of about 180degrees. It is used to reverse direction or lessen the gradeof trails on steep slopes. A climbing turn is similar, but theradius is larger. Use switchbacks only on motorized trailsserving trailbikes. Climbing turns may be used ontrailbike trails. However, when developing trails for use byall-terrain vehicles, use only climbing turns.

The manager should become familiar with both typesof turns. The techniques for locating and constructingeach are similar and are explained below.

DEVELOPING SWITCHBACKSIn mountainous terrain it is often necessary to use

switchbacks to develop a viable trail route through areasof difficult construction, or to gain elevation in confinedlocations. Besides being a tool necessary for traildevelopment, properl y constructed switchbacks providean interesting and enjoyable riding experience.

Be aware that incorrectly built switchbacks are difficult(or dangerous) to ride and expensive to maintain.Location, design and construction of switchbacks andclimbing turns are difficult skills to master. This is onearea where one may encounter incompetent work in traildevelopment. To develop sound, workable structuresrequires careful design and a knowledge of both trails andtrailbike riding.

Locate and design structures long before constructionbegins. Correcting a poor design will often requirerelocating and rebuilding a portion of the trail. Economicsdemand it be done right the first time.

Locationt The best location is a flat bench 8 to 20 feet wide;

next best is terrain with the least slope. Steep groundis the most difficult and costly site to buildswitchbacks due to the heavy excavation required andthe difficulty in obtaining an adequate radius andmoderate grade. Be very careful in selectingswitchback/climbing turn locations. It is preferable topick locations where the trail will "switch" (turn) to theleft when going downhill. Since virtually all trailbikeshave their rear-wheel brake pedal on the right side, aswitchback to the left allows the rider to put their left

foot on the ground for balance while keeping the rightfoot on the brake pedal.

tStudy and analyze the location, visualize thecompleted trail, then design the entrance and exitlayout for riders coming from both directions.

t Lay out the curve in a smooth, even radius.

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CHAPTER FIVESWITCHBACKS AND CLIMBING TURNS

Design Easiest Most Difficult

Radius (not less than) 6 1/2 to 4 feet

Grade (not more than) 10% to 25%

Tread Width 48 to 48 inches


SWITCHBACK DESIGN MINIMUMSSwitchback design is dictated by trail difficulty,

steepness of prevailing ground, slope and width of benchand soil type.t The physical layout of the switchback must consider

rider skill level. Minimum dimensions varyconsiderably between Easiest and Most Difficult.

t The grade of the switchback should always becompatible with the type of soil on which it is built. Attimes it is necessary to use tread armor, however,from the point of view of recreationists, armor is notdesirable on a switchback. If possible, avoid it. Insome places, tread armor has been used as a crutchin place of competent design, a mistake that shouldbe avoided.

tUse a barrier to prevent trail traffic from cross-cutting.The log barrier in the diagram is an inexpensivesolution.

tUSE THE LOWEST GRADE FEASIBLE FROM 5 TO10 FEET BEFORE THE TURN BEGINS TO 10 FEETBEYOND THE TURN. Many potentially good qualityswitchbacks have been ruined by using grades thatare unnecessarily steep. The steeper the grade of aswitchback the more difficult it is to ride and the moreexpensive it is to maintain. IT IS ABSOLUTELYCRITICAL THAT THE GRADE OF THE TRAILTHROUGH THE SWITCHBACK BE KEPT AS LOWAS POSSIBLE .

tA key technique that can greatly improve the qualityof almost any switchback is to use a "through cut."Locate the through cut from just beyond the midpointof the curve to 5 feet beyond the UPHILL end of theturn (see diagram). The "through cut" performs twocritical functions: it reduces the grade of the trailthrough the switch and it makes the trail through theswitchback much easier and safer to ride.

Constructiont Thoroughly stake the location on the ground. It is

suggested that a stake be placed every 4 feet oncenterline. The stake should indicate cut or fill atcenterline. The stake controls both grade andalignment.

t It is particularly important to obtain a smooth, evengrade and a stable tread. If large rocks areencountered during excavation they should beremoved. Place them in a shallow trench at the baseof the fill to add stability and width to the trail.

t Where possible use native materials for trail treadand protection from cross-cutting.

ARMORING SWITCHBACKSAt times trail managers may be faced with the

problem of switchbacks that develop deep ruts. When thiscondition occurs, relocate the trail or implement apermanent repair that will prevent further trail surfacedegradation.

This book presents several methods for protectingtrail tread. Unfortunately, none are entirely suitable for useon switchbacks. We, in fact, caution against using many ofthe tread protection devices unless trail alignment is verygentle and straight. Fortunately, a technique invented by atrailbike club in Washington has had some success in

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Two views of a switchback using a "through cut." Thecross section above shows the unexcavated area,resulting in the through cut. Widen the lower portionwith additional fill. Use rocks to help retain the fill.Below, the arrows point out where the trail should bewidened with additional fill.


repairing and armoring rutted switchbacks. Althoughsuccessful on switchbacks with a gentle grade, manybelieve that the technique has been overused or seriouslyabused.

WARNING: If this technique is attempted on steepswitchbacks, a situation creating serious and unnecessaryharm to trail riders and possible equestrians may becreated.

The procedure, like many good ideas, is relativelysimple if used with discretion and limited to switchbacksof moderate grade. The maximum grade suitable to thistype of tread armor varies with the site and turn radius. In

the writer's experience use should be limited to amaximum grade of 20%. The result is a switchbackarmored with concrete building blocks, grass block orinterlocking paving stones (referred to as "armor") that isessentially impervious to rutting.

Before deciding to install armor, take time tomake a thorough evaluation of the switchback and the trailleading to it. If the trail or switchback is improperly locatedor designed, then that problem ought to be corrected first.If the trail is new or if the switchback has beenreconstructed, then accumulate several months oftrailbike traffic before proceeding further.

40

Occasionally, it is necessary to locate a switchback onunstable soils. To prevent soil loss, concrete blocks canbe installed on the switchback. Be sure that properconstruction techniques are followed.

This properly developed climbing turn is located on agentle slope and maintains an effective barrier toprevent cross-cutting of the trail.


Normally a properly designed switchback does notrequire the use of armor. By accumulating some use, youmay find that additional expense is unnecessary.

If, after making any needed changes in the trail,armor is still needed, then the next step is to excavate atrench 2 inches deeper than the height of the blocks youwill use. The width of the trench should be just slightlygreater than the tread -- usually 3 to 4 feet, wider for ATVtrails. The bottom of the trench should be firm, smooth,even, and it should slope toward the inside of the curve,at about a half inch to 1 foot to give a "banked" effect.CAUTION: Do not allow the trench or blocks to slopeoutward, as this situation can create a conditionhazardous to riders.

Place armor open side up in the trench in a patternsimilar to that shown in the drawings. The top of theblocks (which form the running surface) should slopetoward the inside of the curve at a half inch to 1 foot -- thesame as the bottom of the trench. Fill all voids, includingholes in blocks with damp soil and compact. The soil usedto fill voids should contain enough clay to act as a good"binder." It may be necessary to import material to mixwith the resident soil.

As a follow up, monitor the installation, watch forloose blocks and for a sharp rut at the edge of the blocks.Determine if additional width is needed.

The most difficult part of the operation is transportingconcrete blocks or other armor from the trailhead to thework site. One method that has worked well is to enlist

the volunteer help of an active trailbike or ATV club. Insome areas mechanical toters have been used. Someagencies use ATV-towed trailers on appropriate ATV trails.

As with all tread protection devices, armor is not theanswer to trails located improperly. It does, however, offerat least a partial solution on certain switchbacks. Thistechnique has also been used on approaches to creekfords.

CLIMBING TURNSAs stated earlier, climbing turns should be used on

ATV trails. Only the most skilled ATV rider cansuccessfully negotiate sharp switchbacks and in doing sothey may cause tread damage. The same rules of thumbshould be followed for climbing turns as for switchbacks.Tread width and grade should be consistent throughoutthe turn. The construction techniques also apply.Remember to include some sort of barrier to discourageshortcuts.

For ATVs, tread width approaches should be 60inches and the point of the turn should have an 8 foot to10 foot radius with the tread width expanded to 72 inches.Allow the inside of the turn radius to be almost flat toaccommodate the lower difficulty ratings. Have a berm orbank 24 inches high and insloped 30 to 45 degrees. Itmay be desirable to place rolling dips before and after theturn to eliminate water run off collecting in the turn. Allfacilities require mechanical compacting to take the extraweight and the spinning or skidding of ATV tires.

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Having a successful OHV plan requires that amonitoring and evaluation program be developed.Monitoring and evaluation each have a distinctly differentpurpose and scope. In general, monitoring is designed togather the data necessary for evaluation. Duringevaluation, data provided through monitoring is analyzedand interpreted. This process will provide periodicsummary data necessary to determine if yourimplementation is meeting the objectives of the OHV plan.

The manager should be prepared to ask a variety ofquestions: Are existing trails providing the variety ofopportunities intended in the OHV plan? Is trail useoccurring without impairment of other resource values?Are trails with mixed users (e.g. horse/OHV, mountainbike/OHV) meeting the expectations for all intendedusers? Is trail mileage adequate to provide quality OHVrecreation? Does the OHV plan unfairly discriminateagainst OHV recreationists? If so, does the OHV planneed to be rewritten or just revised?

The manager should be able to know rather quickly ifthe trail system is on a threshold of viability. Are the milesof OHV trail constructed and maintained within 25% of theannual amount estimated in the OHV plan and within 10%for the decade? Are tread features stable? Do commentsfrom the public indicate a decreasing trend in conflictamong trail users?

Then there are the tough questions that are so hardto ask and so easy to ignore: Is it necessary to restrictnon-motorized use to protect the quality of the motorizedtrail experience? Is logging or other management activitydestroying or compromising the quality of the trailexperience? What needs to be done to mitigate theimpact of other activities on motorized recreation? Is therebias or prejudice against motorized recreation within theagency? Are motorized users unintentionally subjected tobias or prejudice?

Some of the information needed for monitoring andevaluation will already be available in the manager'soffice. These include reviews of project accomplishmentreports, trail condition surveys and letters and othercorrespondence. The manager will have to go out anddevelop others such as field contacts and customerinterviews. For public lands, annual open houses and

regular contact with organized clubs and groups with aninterest in the area's management are also good tools.

THE LOCKWOOD INDICATOR SCALEA report card, dubbed the Lockwood OHV Indicator

Scale, by Cam Lockwood, OHV Program Coordinator forthe Angeles National Forest, is a tool that may help youidentify areas of deficiency in your OHV program.

The test is simple, for every item listed, there is amaximum total of either 5 or 10 points. Initially you maywish to rate yourself. Strive to be honest and objective,consider each item from the perspective of the motorizedrecreationist. Some may not be applicable to your area.For instance, the Angeles also manages for dune buggyand four-wheel-drive recreation. However, for the mostpart, the items listed are critical to providing a qualityrecreation experience.INFORMATION:

t Quality trail maps (handouts), 0-5 points ___ t Signing (trail, trailhead), 0-5 points ........___ t Brochures (visitor information, public affairs),

0-5 points ...............................................___ t Visitor centers, 0-5 points ......................___

RESOURCES:t Adequate trail riding opportunities (one and

two days), 0-10 points ............................___ t Varied terrain and levels of difficulty (for each

type of vehicle), 0-5 points ....................___ t Quality riding experience, 0-5 points ......___

FACILITIES:t Trail mileage minimums (OHM:75/150, ATV:

45/100, dune buggy: 70/150, 4x4: 15/50), 0-5points .................................................... ___

t Trailhead facilities (surfaced parking, infokiosk, rock hopping, practice loops), 0-5points ....................................................___

t Staging area facilities (tot lots, mud bogs, hillclimbs), 0-5 points ..................................___

t Campgrounds/visitor centers designed toaccommodate OHVs, 0-5 points ............___

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CHAPTER SIXMONITORING AND ONGOING MANAGEMENT


INVOLVEMENT:t Local/regional groups (users and nonusers),

0-5 points .............................................. ___t Master performer use (interagency OHV

experts), 0-5 points ................................___ t Volunteer patrol program (information), 0-5

points ......................................................___ t Law enforcement, 0-5 points ..................___

EVALUATION:t Yearly meeting to discuss program (good or

bad), 0-5 points ......................................___ t Get the word out (newsletter info chain), 0-5

points ....................................................___ t Keep core groups involved and informed, 0-

10 points ................................................___ TOTAL ................................................................___

Scoring : 90-100 = A, Great!, 80-89 = B, GettingBetter, 70-79 = C, Adequate, 60-69 = D, Bound to Fail,Below 60 = F, Not Making It.

If you have a "C" or worse, your performance may besubstandard and you need to be concerned. Fortunatelythere are people in the field who want to and can help.

Ask Your Users! The way to obtain an objectiveevaluation of your performance is to ask OHV enthusiastswho use the area to fill out the scale and give you theirhonest opinion. Be prepared for them to score a bitdifferently than you would. It may well be that anevaluation by OHV users is the only one that ismeaningful. As a follow up, spend some time with theOHV enthusiasts who frequent your area.

Go riding with them and share their campfires in aninformal (i.e. off duty) capacity. Listen to what makes theirday and what turns them off. Bring up the subject of whatmakes a really great riding area, listen to their responsesand ask them why.

MASTER PERFORMERS Region 6 of the Forest Service has developed a

Travel-Way Master Performers program. The programallows Forests to tap skilled and experienced individualsin the areas of planning, design, development,contracting, and maintenance for recreation travel-ways.

Travel-Way Master Performers represent the Forest,and may spend about 10% to 15% of their time as aconsultant to other Forests or organizations. They areresponsible for identifying training opportunities,technology transfer, technical approval, and review ofconceptual design of travel-ways, including safety,intended use, and cost.

THE DOUBLE STANDARDMany OHV enthusiasts pursue other forms of trail

based recreation. It is not all that unusual in the West toencounter a pickup truck with trailbike in the back pullinga trailer with saddle horses; others ride mountain bikes oreven hike. This diversity of trail based pursuits bringsOHV enthusiasts into contact with the management ofnon-motorized trails.

In the process, many members of the OHVcommunity have discovered that some agencies applystandards to motorized trails that are not just different, butinequitable, hypocritical or downright dishonest. It issometimes found that little concern is displayed forseverely damaged trails in designated wilderness whenthe same trail would be closed if it were in an area opento motorized use.

The photograph shows a severely rutted trail, (the rutis close to 3 feet in depth) in a designated wildernessarea, a trail that causes no apparent concern to themanaging agency. Twenty miles away the same agency,citing "resource damage," has closed trails to motorizeduse with less than one tenth of the "damage." The readeris left to ponder whether an agency that behaves in thismanner deserves or can expect to receive the esteem ofOHV recreationists ... or anyone else.

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Resource damage can occur on any kind of trail. This isa non-motorized trail.


TRAILS, ROADS AND TIMBER HARVESTAnyone familiar with OHV recreation should be aware

that unlike hiker and horse trails, OHV trails seldom haveeffective protection from damage or obliteration bymanagement activities and other land uses.

An article in the April 1989 issue of Blue RibbonMagazine entitled "Multiple Use Trail Crisis" addresses thesubject of management-induced trail damage.

The article begins with a graphic description of a trailouting ruined by the destruction of a favorite trail. It goeson to say: "Unfortunately, trail disruption and destructionhave reached epidemic proportions in many NationalForests throughout the West." The article questions thewisdom of management decisions that result in damageto multiple use trails. "Is all of this trail destructionnecessary?" The irony of it all is that trail destruction is soutterly unnecessary if forest supervisors would requireharvest planners to make a reasonable effort to protectthis precious resource.

There are a wide range of options available that makeit entirely feasible to both provide the timber needed forour western economy and to ensure adequate protectionof the trail systems that lace our national forests.

The article also suggests ways in which trail systemsmight be protected. "Harvest plans can avoid trailsaltogether. Green belts of wind firm timber can be left onboth sides of the trail. Transportation systems can beconfigured to enhance harvest system design thatprotects trails. Timber purchasers can be prohibited from

yarding or skidding across trails. Landings can be locatedto enhance that type of protection or trails can berelocated into standing timber before logging and roadbuilding begins."

The cost of constructing a mile of new forest trail canvary from several hundred dollars to over $30,000. Thesense of personal loss experienced by individual OHVrecreationists when a favorite trail is damaged ordestroyed by poorly planned management activitiesvirtually guarantees that the agency responsible will sufferloss of respect and loss of public confidence in theirability to do the job.

Management plans should be developed that ensuretrail recreation and other activities are carefully integratedto protect the investment in trails and avoid eroding thequality of the trail experience. It must be pointed out thatwith the growing pressures of an increasingly urbansociety, the social value of a wildland trail experience isexponentially increasing.

Allowing other land use or management activities todamage or destroy the few trails available to themotorized recreation community can scarcely beconsidered competent management.

For those interested in the value placed on wildlandtrails by the trailbike community, the Blue Ribbon Coalitionhas published the "Blue Ribbon Coalition AcceptabilityIndex For Timber Harvest Activities That May ImpactTrailbike Trails." The index rates the acceptability ofvarious timber harvest activities on trailbike trails.

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In times of constantly decreasing budgets forrecreational programs, the need to identify alternativesources of assistance becomes quite real. Volunteershave been shown to be an excellent source of labor fortrail construction, maintenance and management. This isespecially true in national forests, where volunteers,through programs such as "Adopt-A-Trail," provide asignificant amount of assistance in maintaining foresttrails.

All volunteer assistance should be regulated by forestmanagers and should be documented in volunteercontract agreements similar to those utilized by the U.S.Forest Service.

Additionally, several federal land managementagencies offer Challenge Cost-Share Agreements. Thesecalculate a value for the time, labor, materials, equipmentand dollars donated by organized volunteers. Extraagency funds are then made available on a matchingbasis (although there is a match, it is not necessarily on a1-1 basis) to further develop the recreational opportunity.

Volunteers in an Adopt-A-Trail program can beexpected to provide labor, tools and equipment that wouldbe required to perform basic maintenance on forest trails.Such work might include removal of logs blocking trails,limbs encroaching on trails, rocks from trail tread andmaintenance and replacement of simple trail structures.

All work must be monitored to ensure compliancewith state or federal standards for those trails. Volunteers

or clubs involved in Adopt-A-Trail programs shouldperform at least one scheduled work day per season.Volunteers or clubs should provide forest managers with acomplete list of all persons to be involved in work prior tostart of work day.

Volunteers or clubs should provide necessarysupervision and leadership for groups when work isbeing performed. Agency managers should provide trailmaintenance standards, technical advice, guidance andinspection as may be necessary for the proper conduct ofproject work. Managers should furnish special projectequipment or special tools as may be required for trailconstruction, maintenance or relocation. Managersshould always provide appropriate signing indicating thatthe trail is maintained by volunteers through the Adopt-A-Trail program.

Volunteers should not expect reimbursement forincidental expenses, except when provided for underpreviously established agreements. Volunteers should be

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CHAPTER SEVENVOLUNTEERS

Organized volunteer groups can play an important rolein maintaining trails and other related facilities. Here,volunteers help to construct a trail staging area andcampsite.


informed that most incidental expenses, such as travelassociated with volunteer work, are tax deductible.

It is understood that any improvements constructedunder Adopt-A-Trail programs remain the property of themanaging agency and management of the "adopted"trail, including necessary seasonal closures, will remainthe responsibility of the managing agency.

No special use privileges will be granted to volunteers

or club members in return for volunteer assistance. Inappreciation for volunteer assistance, land managers

should be encouraged to provide some form of recognition(pin, patch, certificate) to volunteers and clubs.

Volunteer programs have a value that extends beyondthe actual construction or maintenance activities becausesuch programs also serve to promote goodwill and todevelop a communication network between OHVoperators and trail managers.

It is important not to burn out volunteers throughundesirable tasks, overuse or over supervision. Theknowledgeable manager will use volunteer programs asan opportunity to learn more about the recreation.Sometimes agency standards are inappropriate orcompletely improper. The wise manager asks questions,listens and learns to be flexible. Volunteers are a valuableresource - don't waste them!

Some guidelines for the effective and efficient use ofvolunteer labor are:t Limit their involvement to 2-4 hours of work a day.tPick projects that will show tangible results when

through.tMake sure all the agency supervisors are ready to put

the volunteers to work immediately upon arrival. Havetools readily available.

t Find out if you have people with particular talents andgive them some responsibility.

tRecognize volunteers for their time and efforts. Lookinto agency award programs and programs run byother government offices.Volunteer efforts should be recognized through other

methods. Use press releases to local newspapers andother media. If your agency publishes a newsletter, submita picture and article for publication. Media exposure will getyour agency positive publicity, encourage other prospectivevolunteers and give your current volunteers a lift.

Sample volunteer agreements, cost-shareagreements and press releases can be obtained bycontacting the AMA.

46

It is important that volunteers be organized andsupervised by trained personnel.

Here, volunteers maintain a section of trail by clearingrocks and other material from the trail tread.


An important consideration in OHV trail design is thepotential impact of sound on other recreationists andnearby homes. Excessive noise is the most commonlyidentified complaint relating to motorized recreation. If atrail or use area is established without assessing thesound impacts, it could have a short life span. Talking toother user groups and local community organizations cansave much guesswork and trouble down the line.

NATURAL CONDITIONS The OHV planner can do many things to mitigate

known or potential problems related to sound.Capitalizing on existing natural conditions will oftenaccomplish the task.

Terrain Natural topography can have a great deal todo with how sound propagates in a particular area. Anoisy source in a hollow isn't as serious as one in theopen. Where ever possible, locate trails on the back sideof ridge lines, facing away from nearby homes or othernoise sensitive areas. Dry washes provide excellentcorridors for OHV trails because the stream banks serveas effective sound barriers.

Vegetation A hard, horizontal surface such aspavement does little to attenuate sound levels, even overlong distances. Covering that distance with thick grass orshrubbery, however, can have a limited effect. A hedge ornarrow stand of trees does little to reduce sound levels.

Atmospheric Conditions While there is some soundattenuation from air absorption, it depends greatly ontemperature, humidity, and the frequency of the sounditself. It is significant mainly with high frequency noises,and only over considerable distances. The deep sound ofa four-stroke engine may not be as offensive as its higherpitched two-stroke counterpart, but the four-stroke will beheard over a greater distance.

Temperature Temperature's effect on sound, whileonly slight, is noticeable mainly at night. A normaltemperature gradient, where temperature decreases withheight above the ground, tends to cause sound waves tobend upward (away from the listener). This results in alower sound level perceived by the listener. This situationchanges when there is a temperature inversion(temperature increases with height). Such inversions often

occur on clear nights. In this case, sound waves are bentdownward toward the ground, and the increasedattenuation doesn't occur. Depending on the situation, thismay be a good reason to prohibit night time riding nearnoise sensitive areas.

Distance Without a doubt, the best way to attenuatesound is through distance. The greater the space betweennoise sources and receptors, the fewer problems arelikely to arise. In general, sound levels decrease by about6 decibels (dB(A)) for each doubling of distance. Thiswould apply to sound measurements of a single vehicle ora group of machines in a concentrated area. For example,an 88 dB(A) noise source at 50 feet would be 82 dB(A) at100 feet, 76 dB(A) at 200 feet, and so on.

ADDITIONAL MEASURESAfter employing the natural conditions in an area,

additional measures may be taken if necessary:Walls & Berms Solid vertical surfaces, such as walls

or earth berms can make good sound barriers. Thesemay be particularly useful between a sound source andnoise sensitive areas such as campgrounds. The barriermust be substantially higher than, and close to, the soundsource to be effective. A 6-8 foot high berm would helpattenuate (reduce) noise from most OHV sources.

Ingress & Egress Beginning and ending trailsproperly can avoid potential problems with otherrecreationists. For example, how OHVs are able to enterand leave a campground can play a key role in thesuccess or failure of a multiple use campground. Locatethe main trunk access to the trail system away from asmany campsites as possible. Consider erecting earthberms on either side as noise attenuators. Post signsthroughout the campground limiting speeds for allvehicles to 5 mph, and enforce it. Make it clear to all thattheir machines are required to have quiet mufflers andspark arresters. Fifty OHVs can ride virtually unnoticed inthe back country, but one noisy machine in a campgroundwill be a nuisance to everyone.

Some trails access small towns for fuel and otherservices. Where using neighborhood streets for ingress oregress, post speed limit signs and messages toencourage courteous behavior. A sign that simply reads

47

CHAPTER EIGHTNOISE MANAGEMENT AND

SOUND TESTING


"Please ride slowly and quietly, people live here," will paybig dividends! In short, concentrate your noise controlefforts in areas where they'll do the most good.

MIXED USESOHV trails may be used by many other user groups.

OHV users are generally easy to get along with and arehappy to share trails. In areas of high use, however, it's agood idea to tell all users what to expect before they begin.If hikers know beforehand that they can expect to meetmotorized users on a trail, their tolerance for the sound ofan engine will generally be increased. Similarly, it helpsequestrians to know if they might encounter vehicles. If anequestrian is riding an unusually noise-sensitive horse, hemay elect to ride in a different area, or at least be readyand able to react appropriately if an encounter occurs. Postsimple signs at all trail entrances with symbols of thevarious user types allowed on that trail.

SOUND TESTING PROCEDURESOff-highway motorcycle and ATV sound levels can be

measured using stationary testing procedure SAE J1287,also known as the "20-inch test." It's a simple method ofmeasuring exhaust sound emissions using readilyavailable sound level meters. Basically, a machine istested at one-half of its redline rpm, holding the meter 20inches from the exhaust outlet.

The Motorcycle Industry Council (MIC) has publisheda substantial amount of information on the measurementand control of sound impacts. MIC annually publishes apocket-sized manual illustrating how to perform the 20-

inch test. The booklet also contains data tables with testrpm's for at least a ten-year span of off-highwaymotorcycles and ATVs. The manual is designed for use byland managers, enforcement personnel, enthusiastorganizations, and event sponsors.

For general off-highway use, MIC recommends a 20-inch limit of 96 dB(A) as the maximum allowable level foroff-highway motorcycles and ATVs. Vehicles exceedingthis limit should be considered inappropriate for use onpublic lands.

Ninety-nine dB(A) is currently the accepted maximumfor OHVs on public lands managed by the federalgovernment. However, several states have establishedlower limits. Land managers should learn the existingsound laws in their state.

Many states have codified some form of "pass-by"sound test. Although useful for automobile noiseenforcement, these have little or no value for OHVenforcement work. In states without a 20-inch stationaryregulation for OHVs, MIC suggests that the 96 dB(A) limitbe used, even if only for educational purposes.

If you plan to implement a noise enforcement programbased on the 20-inch test, contact the MIC and ask for acopy of the Stationary Sound Test Manual for Off-HighwayMotorcycles and All-Terrain Vehicles. Single copies areavailable free to governmental agencies and OHV clubs.

EDUCATIONAL APPROACHES TO SOUNDCONTROL

Without a formal noise statute, there are many thingsthat the land manager can do to encourage awareness ofnoise impacts. From providing technical advice toconducting spot checks, riders can benefit from landmanagers who know a bit about sound.

Trailbikes and ATVs manufactured for general off-highway use come equipped with excellent mufflers andspark arresters. Short of a bad spill or owner modification,original equipment mufflers will perform adequately formany years.

Land managers will often encounter machines withmufflers using a repackable sound deadening material.These are original equipment mufflers on "motocross"motorcycles and on many after-market products. This typeof exhaust system needs to be repacked after periods ofuse to keep exhaust noise to a reasonable level.Repacking is also necessary to retain peak engineperformance.

Frequently, riders may not realize that their mufflersneed to be repacked, or even be aware that they canrepack them. Aside from being just plain noisy, a goodclue that a muffler needs repacking is evidence of oil orheavy carbon accumulating at the exhaust outlet. This isusually a sign that the packing material has become so

48


saturated that it can no longer provide the sound dampingneeded. Conventional fiberglass insulation makes anexcellent packing material and is readily available. Specialrepacking kits are also available from OHV dealers formany after-market mufflers.

OHV use areas with only a few entrance pointsprovide excellent opportunities for random spot-checking.The best place to inform visitors of sound regulations orinspect vehicles for compliance is when they "comethrough the gates." Here, you have their undividedattention and a chance to convey important information.

Sound testing at organized events (competitive andnon-competitive) is a great way to spread the word aboutnoise control. At an event like an enduro or harescrambles, it's not uncommon to have 300-400 ridersentered. Passing a simple sound check has become anaccepted prerequisite for being allowed to ride an event. Ifset up properly, several hundred riders can be screenedin a relatively short time.

The process is much easier if 2-3 people conduct thescreening. You'll need a good quality sound level meter, a

vibrating reed tachometer (VRT), surveyor's flagging, andsome wooden stakes. Set up the sound testing chuteaccording to the diagram.

Test one rider at a time, with one person modulatingthe throttle to the correct engine speed, while the otherperson takes the sound level reading. Setting the VRT toeach engine's exact test RPM would be too timeconsuming. Instead, pick an average test RPM and use itfor all the machines entered in the event. For example, theMotorcycle Industry Council suggests 3400 RPM as anappropriate average for a typical enduro event.

Remember, this is just a screening process. If youintend to cite for non-compliance, or bar a rider fromriding the event, use the model-specific test RPM from theMIC sound test manual.

After each rider has passed the sound check, affix asymbol, such as a non-transferable sticker, to their frontnumber plate. This will tell race officials and landmanagers that the person has passed the sound test. If arider doesn't pass the sound check, it's common practiceto give the rider a chance to comply. Simply repacking themuffler (about a 15-minute job) will often yield a passingsound level. If an entrant then shows up at the startingline without evidence of a sound check, he should bedenied the privilege of riding the event.

Many Forest Service and Bureau of LandManagement jurisdictions have been using this simplescreening method for years. Often, in their permitstipulations, the club or organization putting on the eventis required to provide sound testing. Most off-highwayevent sponsors are familiar with the procedure and arehappy to comply with this stipulation. If, however, theevent is held in an unusually noise-sensitive area, it isrecommended that the hosting agency perform the soundtesting.

In time, a land manager will develop an "ear" forvarying sound levels. Many OHV law enforcementpersonnel in the field have a "highly calibrated ear." Theyfrequently know what a sound level reading will be beforeimplementing the test!

When laying out a course for an event, take care toroute it away from noise sensitive areas. Neighborhoodsor areas normally not bothered by occasional recreationalriders may experience noticeable impacts during an eventwith a large number of riders. If this is impractical,consider placing a limit on the number of entrants.

In any case, if the event is in proximity to a noisesensitive area, place limits on event hours. Soundconsidered tolerable during daylight hours may well beconsidered "noise" in the early morning or at dusk.Because motorcycles and ATVs tend to radiate exhaustsound rearward, consider routing sections where hard

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acceleration occurs so that exhaust noise is aimed awayfrom noise sensitive areas.

SPARK ARRESTERSA spark arrester is a device which traps or pulverizes

(to a size below .023-inch diameter) exhaust particles asthey are expelled from an exhaust system. Most sparkarresters perform in the high 90 percent spark arrestingefficiency range.

All trailbikes and ATVs manufactured for use on publiclands come equipped with Forest Service qualified sparkarresters. These are the same machines that meet strictfederal noise regulations. "Racing Only" or motocrossmotorcycles are not so equipped at the factory, but maybe fitted with after-market equipment to meet regulations.

To be legal for use on public lands, a spark arrestermust be tested and approved by the Forest Service andlisted in the official USDA Forest Service Spark Arrester

Guide. If it's not in the Guide, it's not a spark arrester! Thevast majority of OHV spark arresters fall into three basiccategories: Krizman, Skyway and Supertrapp. All threeare patent names.

The Krizman and Skyway designs can be given acursory check by inserting a 3/8" wooden dowel in theend of the exhaust outlet. If the spark arrester is intact,the dowel should stop a short distance into the muffler. Ifthe dowel penetrates all the way through the muffler bodyand into the smaller diameter pipe immediately before it,the spark arrester is non-functional. A thin wire or coathanger is not recommended for this test, as these canoften be forced around the turbine fins used in theKrizman design or damage the screens in a Skyway type.

The Supertrapp design consists of a series of metaldiscs stacked on top of one another at the very end of theexhaust outlet. This design relies on the gap size betweenthe discs for its spark arresting capability. Whenassembled properly, the gaps between the discs are smallenough to prevent large carbon particles from exiting theexhaust system. To check this particular design, ensurethat the small indents in the discs are all aligned properly.If they aren't, the gap between the discs will be enlargedand the spark arresting capacity nullified. Also, be surethere isn't a hole in the endpiece.

All three of these designs are incorporated intomuffler/spark arrester combinations, or are available as"add-on" spark arrester only units. The add-ons clamponto the end of an existing non-spark arrested muffler,typically found on motocross-type machines.

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OHV NOISE & WILDLIFEOver the years there has been much speculation as

to the impacts of noise on wildlife. Studies of effects ofhuman intrusion on animals often find profound impacts.As a result, it is commonly assumed that the impacts ofOHV noise are equally as damaging. Research hasshown that, while noise is initially startling, animalsgenerally adapt very well under most circumstances. Longterm effects to animals, particularly big game animals, arenegligible. Much of the same research has shown thatanimals are more frightened by humans on foot than theyare by OHVs.

A study commissioned by the Federal HighwayAdministration and performed by the U.S. Forest Service(Ward, Cupal, et al, 1976) near Laramie, Wyoming, foundthat elk were likely to remain lying down and unconcernedwhen a trailbike rode by as close as 15 yards. Conversely,the elk took flight virtually every time a human walkedwithin 20-100 yards.

Another study commissioned by the CaliforniaDepartment of Parks & Recreation (Jones & StokesAssociates, Inc. 1991) found similar results. Nosignificant variation was found in the activity andforaging patterns of mule deer due to differing levels ofOHV use.

Research commissioned by the Maine Departmentof Parks & Recreation (Anderson & Mason, UnityCollege, 1991) found that ATV use in Mt. Blue StatePark had no significant effect on wildlife. Control areaswere set up to compare ATV and non-ATV disturbancesfor several animal groups, including deer and birds.

Historically, it appears that wildlife disturbancesattributed to OHV use have been overstated. Unusuallyhigh levels of OHV use, however, may have an effect oncertain sensitive species, especially during reproductivestages. Where this occurs, short term seasonal closuremay be a practical solution.

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ABNEY An instrument used to measure angles ofelevation.ADOPT-A-TRAIL A program begun by the U.S. ForestService in which trailriding clubs "adopt" motorcycle trails,providing volunteer work parties at periodic intervals.Though no special riding privileges are granted to theclub, the agency generally acknowledges that a trail hasbeen "adopted" by erecting signs saying the trail is part ofthe Adopt-A-Trail program.ALIGNMENT The configuration of the trail in a horizontalplane. That is to say, the bends, curves and tangents ofthe path. The more crooked the route the more effort andskill it takes to ride. A crooked, twisting trail is usuallypreferred.ALTIMETER An instrument for measuring altitude.ANEROID BAROMETER A barometer in which changesin atmospheric pressure are used to measure changes inaltitude.ASPECT The particular direction a site faces and theamount of solar radiation it is subjected to.ATV All-terrain vehicle. A small, three or four-wheeledvehicle equipped with low-pressure balloon tires andintended for off-highway use only.BACKSLOPE The angle of the back wall of a trailexcavated into a hillside.CENTERING Constructing a trail in a manner whichencourages traffic to use the center portion of the trail.CLEARING The corridor from which vegetation iscleared. Within limits, wider clearing provides for easiertravel.CLIMBING TURN A turn of less than 180 degreeslocated on an up or downhill portion of a trail. SeeSWITCHBACK.CLINOMETER An instrument used to measure angles ofelevation.COLLECTOR DITCH A drainage structure whichintercepts water flowing toward a trail and channels itunderneath the trail through a culvert.CONTROL POINT An object or obstacle a trail mustintersect with or avoid.DECKING The portion of a bridge, puncheon or corduroyupon which trail traffic will travel.DEFLECTION ANGLE The angle of deviation from astraight line.DRAIN DIP An erosion-control technique which reversesthe grade of a trail for a distance of 15-20 feet beforereturning to the prevailing grade. The abrupt change ingrade forces water to run off the trail surface, rather thangaining additional velocity and volume.

ENGINEER'S SCALE A triangular rule which showsinches divided into tenths, useful for mapping whenestimating mileage in tenths.EXPOSURE The relative hazard encountered on aparticular trail. Degree of exposure derives from themagnitude of one, or more frequently a combination ofalignment, grade, clearing, tread width, tread surface,sideslope, obstacles and isolation.FLAGLINE A series of strips of surveyor's tape indicatingthe intended course of a trail prior to construction.FROE A cleaving tool used for splitting decking.FULL BENCH A trail resting entirely on an excavation intoa steep sideslope; no fill is used to support the trail.GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM A data basecurrently under development both nationally and for localpublic lands offices. Eventually, the system is to containlocation data for trails, species habitat and other importantfeatures.GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM A system developedby the military, but now coming into widespread use bycivilian agencies, to map road and trail locations usingorbital satellites and portable equipment. Data gatheredcan be placed directly into GIS data base systems.GRADE The slope of the trail in the direction of travel.The steeper the grade the more difficult the trail is to ride.GRUBBING Digging out roots and stumps.INSLOPE Slopes toward the inside of the trail.ISOLATION The distance from help or human contact.LOOP CONCEPT The practice of designing trail systemsso that the routes form loops, giving trailriders the abilitynot to cover the same portions of trail in a day of riding.MECHANICAL TOTER A piece of mechanized trail-construction equipment used for hauling rocks and othermaterial.OBSTACLES Physical objects large enough tosignificantly impede travel. Logs, large rocks and rockledges are common obstacles.OHV or ORV Off-highway or off-road vehicle. A motorizedvehicle intended only for use off paved roads. Vehicles donot generally meet federal equipment and emissionsstandards, but do have to comply with special noisestandards. Term often used to include motorcycles, threeand four-wheeled all-terrain vehicles, four-wheel-drivesand dune buggies. The term OHV is preferred.OUTSLOPE Slopes toward the outside of the trail.PITCH An increase in the prevailing grade of a trail, usedto avoid an obstacle or to "catch up" with the intendedgrade.POSITIVE GRADE Trail runs uphill.

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GLOSSARY


PRISM The trail cross-section as a whole.PUNCHEON A trail tread reinforcement structureresembling a low bridge and constructed over wet orotherwise unstable soil.RAVELING Breaking up or crumbling and rollingdownslope.ROCK BALLAST Crushed rock fill material used to formthe trail bed.ROLL A decrease in the prevailing grade of a trail,allowing the trail to be routed under an obstacle or meet acontrol point.SIDESLOPE The slope of the ground at its extremeangle, usually perpendicular to the direction of travel. Asthe magnitude of the sideslope increases so does theperception of difficulty and exposure.SILL A horizontal member which rests on the ground andsupports stringers in puncheon.SLACK Increasing the prevailing grade of a climbing trailby several percent during layout. Permits planners toreturn to original grade to avoid obstacles.STEREOSCOPE An optical instrument which allows aviewer to combine the images of two aerial photographsto give a three-dimensional effect.STRINGER Poles or logs used to support decking inpuncheon, corduroy and bridges.SURVEY STAKE Stake used to indicate the intendedcourse of a trail.SWITCHBACK A sharp hillside turn, usually of about 180degrees, intended to lessen the grade of a trail travelingup or down a steep slope.TRAIL BED The portion of trail consisting of the trail treadand the soil underneath and around it.TRAILBIKE A motorcycle constructed primarily for off-highway use, though some may be used legally onhighways as well as on trails. The street-legal type isknown as a dual-sport motorcycle. Trailbikes can bedistinguished by their high-mounted fenders and exhaustsystem and tires with aggressive tread.TRAIL HEAD The beginning of a trail system, oftencontaining a campground and staging area.TRAIL TREAD The portion of a trail on which trailbikesactually travel. Generally the same as TREAD SURFACE.TRAVELWAY The trail as a whole, including the trail treadand the cleared areas on either side of the trail.TREAD SURFACE The physical condition of the traveledportion of the trail. A tread becomes more difficult to rideas it becomes loose, rough, slippery, etc.TREAD WIDTH The width of the "traveled" portion of thetrail. Wider tread provides for easier travel.TURNPIKE A tread-reinforcement technique used forcrossing damp soil. Consists of poles placed parallel toeach other with trail tread built up between them.U.S.G.S. CONTOUR MAP Maps published by the UnitedStates Geological Survey, indicating manmade and

natural features as well as elevation changes. Availablefrom many government offices, sporting goods stores ordirectly from the U.S.G.S. Branch of Distribution, 1200 S.Eads Street, Arlington, VA 22202.WATERBAR Low rock or log barriers that divert waterfrom the trail tread.WATERCOURSE A natural or manmade channel throughwhich water flows.WHEEL GUARD Small logs or poles placed along theedges of bridge or puncheon decking designed to helpkeep vehicles from running off the edge of the structure.

RESOURCESEQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

The following are the addresses for some suppliers ofequipment and materials useful in developing recreationaltrails. This is not an all-encompassing list. We encourageyou to develop your own sources of supply. If you find anespecially helpful source, please inform AMA so that wemight include them in future editions.

Trail Building MachinesKubota Tractor Corporation440 W. Artesia Blvd.Compton, CA 90220Roberts Equipment, Inc.P.O. Box 20463Portland, OR 97220Sutter Equipment Co.SWECO Products, Inc.80 Chamberlain Ave.Novato, CA 94947Takeuchi Mfg. LTDNortheast Atlanta Industrial Park4300-E. Bankers CircleAtlanta, GA 30360Trail Service Co.6356 Whaley DriveSan Jose, CA 95135

or15979 Cutler RoadPortland, MI 48875Wilwand'sBox 183Laytonville, CA 95454

Auxilary Machinery and EquipmentAircut2588 S. Railroad AvenueFresno, CA 93706Ariens655 W. Ryan StreetBrillion, WI 54110

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Berema, Inc.10 Fifth StreetNorwalk, CT 06856Chikusui Co., LTDFranksons, Inc., Dist.1004 S. Glendale AvenueGlendale, CA 91205Fuerst Brothers, Inc.P.O. Box 427Gibson City, IL 60936-0427

Interlocking Paving StonesMuller Supply Co.424 S. Main StreetLodi, CA 95240

Recreational Trail SignsCarsonite International1301 Hot Springs RoadCarson City, NV 89706J. L. Darling Corp.2212 Port of Tacoma RoadTacoma, WA 98421

BIBLIOGRAPHYAMA 's Trail Riding in America ; A Guide to RecreationalOff-Road Riding. American Motorcyclist Association,Pickerington, OH, 1982 (out of print).Bennett, Shaun . A Trail Rider's Guide to theEnvironment.American Motorcyclist Association, Pickerington, OH,1973 (out of print).Birchard, William Jr., and Proudman, Robert . TrailDesign, Construction, and Maintenance. The AppalachianTrail Conference, Harpers Ferry, WV, 1981.Chilman, K.C., Vogel, J.J., and Conley, J.L . Turkey BayOff-Road Vehicle Area at Land Between the Lakes:Monitoring Use and Impacts Since 1973, 1991.Chilman, K.C. and Zeaman, W.S . Off-Road Vehicle AreaUsers at Five Designated Riding Areas Near Lake Tahoe:Designing a Use Monitoring System., USDA ForestService, California Off-Highway Motor Vehicle RecreationCommission, 1992.Facts About Trail Riders . American MotorcyclistAssociation, Pickerington, OH 1983 (out of print).Hamilton, Nora . Tractor Techniques for OHV TrailbedPreservation on National Forest OHV Trails, MendocinoNational Forest monograph, 1991.Harrison, Robin T . Predicting Impacts of Noise onRecreationists, USDA Forest Service, 1980.Jones and Stokes and Associates, Inc . Rock CreekOff-Road Vehicle Deer Study, USDA Forest Service,Eldorado National Forest, California Department of Fish

and Game and California Department of Parks andRecreation, 1991.Gusey, Daryl L . Trail Hardening Test, Project #ORV-86-3P,Wenatchee National Forest, 1991.Makel, Bill . Trail Bikes and All-Terrain Vehicles in theNational Forest, A Management Approach, USDA ForestService, 1988.McEwen, Douglas . Turkey Bay Off-Road Vehicle Area atLand Between The Lakes: An Example of NewOpportunities for Managers and Riders. Southern IllinoisUniversity, Carbondale, IL, 1978.Motorcycle Statistical Annual , Motorcycle IndustryCouncil, published annually.Nash, A.E. Kier . Understanding and Planning for ORVRecreation. State of Washington, Olympia, WA, 1982.Off-Highway Motorcycle and ATV Stationary SoundTest Manual , Motorcycle Industry Council, regularlyrevised.Off-Road-Vehicle and Travel Management ActivityReview, USDA Forest Service, 1986.Planning for Trailbike Recreation . United StatesDepartment of Interior, Washington, DC, 1978.Planning for Trailbike Recreation, Part II . United StatesDepartment of Interior, Washington, DC, 1980.Rasor, Robert . Five State Approaches to TrailbikeRecreation Facilities and Their Management. AmericanMotorcyclist Association, Pickerington, OH, 1977.Reed, Patrick and Haas, Glenn . Off-Highway Vehicles inColorado (economic tourism impacts), Colorado StateUniversity, 1989.Symmes, Dan . Taylor Fork ATV Trail System, USDAForest Service, 1988.Sound Levels of Five Motorcycles Traveling OverForest Trails , USDA Forest Service, 1993.Surface Water Control Techniques For TrailMaintenance (VHS Video), USDA Forest Service, 1992.Tolhurst, Neil . Trail Riding: Skills, Safety and Sensibility.American Motorcyclist Association, Pickerington, OH,1982.Utah OHV Survey , Utah Division of Parks andRecreation(economic tourism impacts), 1990.Van Der Smissen, Betty, J.D . Recreational UserStatutes; A Review of Landowner Hold-Harmless Laws inthe United States, American Motorcyclist Association,Pickerington, OH, 1988.Wernex, Joseph . Development Guidelines for TrailbikeTrails. Washington State Department of NaturalResources, Olympia, WA, 1976.Wernex, Joseph . State ORV Planning and Managementof Resources. Unpublished paper presented at PacificNorthwest Trailbike Workshop Olympia, WA, 1978.Wernex, Joseph . Trailbike Trails. Unpublished paperpresented at Sixth National Trails Symposium, Universityof California at Davis, CA, 1981.Wernex, Joseph . Trails for Trailbikes. Unpublished paper

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presented at Tahoe National Forest Off-HighwayMotorcycle Workshop, Auburn, CA, 1983.Wernex, Joseph . "Trail Tips." Articles written forpublication in Motorcycle Industry Council newsletter.Wright, Brett . A report on Strategies to Increase PublicRecreational Access to Private Lands, 1990.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCESAmerican Motorcyclist Association13515 Yarmouth DrivePickerington, OH 43147(614) 856-1900Fax: (614) 856-1920www.AMADirectLink.comA national non-profit association representing theinterests of over 270,000 motorcycle and ATVenthusiasts. Founded in 1924, the purpose of theassociation is to "preserve, promote and protect" therights of motorcyclists.

Blue Ribbon CoalitionP.O. Box 5449Pocatello, ID 83202-0003(800) 258-3742www.sharetrails.orgA national multiple-use activist organization.

Motorcycle Industry Council2 Jenner StreetSuite 150Irvine, CA 92618-3806(949) 727-4211Fax (949) 727-3313www.mic.orgA national, non-profit trade association representing themanufacturers of motorcycles, parts and accessories andallied trades.

National Off-Highway Vehicle Conservation Council4718 South Taylor DriveSheboygan, WI 53081(800) 348-6487Fax: (920) 458-3446www.nohvcc.orgA national network of state, regional and national OHVenthusiast organizations.

Tread Lightly! Inc.298 24th StreetSuite 325Ogden, UT 84401(800) 966-9900Fax: (801) 621-8633www.treadlightly.orgA national non-profit organization dedicated to protectingpublic and private lands through education.

Specialty Vehicle Institute of America2 Jenner StreetSuite 150Irvine, CA 92618-3806(949) 727-3727www.atvsafety.orgA national, non-profit trade association representing themanufacturers of all-terrain vehicles, parts andaccessories and allied trades.

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Documents

OFF-HIGHWAY MOTORCYCLE AND ATV TRAILSby Marc Dobner and the Motorcycle Industry Council. Second Edition edited by Eric Lundquist. First Edition published as:A GUIDE TO OFF-ROAD MOTORCYCLE