ON TEACHING PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES IN AN ACADEMIC SETTING*

I R V I N G ARTHUR FOSBERG, PH.D.

Director. B~crrnri of Ps3lchological Scrz$res, Assistmt Professor o f Psychology, ?’I( la ttc L’tr iuc rs i t y , Nreu Orleans. Lo tc isinna

I . I h TRODUCTTOK

Because of the growing demand for courses in projective techniques that is arising in our graduate schooIs(l2) and because the author feels that such courses pose problenis different from those of teaching either Rorschach OY the The- matic Apperception Test or any one test you please. this paper will deal with cur- ricula designed to meet these academic demands. The author has thus far tabu- lated over 150 different “tests” that pur- port to diagnose personality, to which the adjective “projective” could properly be attached. For this reason the selection of a set of objectives for such a course will bear careful consideration. An important factor is the amount of time available in the university program. The Veterans Administration’s Clinical Psychology Pro- gram has, among other things, set a vir- tual time limit on the number of years in which students of psychology expect to receive their Ph.D. degrees, and has also exerted an influence in the choice of courses. All of which results in severe cramping of time available for mastering the techniques with which this paper is dealing.

If one is limited to a one year course it should be entitled “Introduction to Pro- jective Techniques” and it should be m- derstood that the student must expect to continue his training in special schools or “workshops” after his four years in graduate academic training are coinpleted if he expects to master any of these tech- niques. I t is seriously doubted i f any curricula in any graduate school in the country is at this date prepared for a three-year course, which the author feels is ideally suited to the production of psy- chologists trained to use projective tech- niques in a clinical situation. A two-year course is considered to he a practical com-

*?2 brief part of this paper, under the same title. was presented at the September 1948 meet- ing of the APA.

promise between an informative “Intro- duction to Projective Techniques” which can only alert the student psychologist to the field, and an “Advanced Practicuni in Projective Techniques” producing a coiii- plete professionally trained “Graduate Projectionist.” Before considering each of these three curricula it is necessary to point out several differences that exist between teaching these techniques in spe- cial courses (and workshops) and teach- ing these techniques in an academic set- ting.

The workshop technique was at first the only way to learn projective test methods because ( a ) there were only a few people who knew enough about them to properly indoctrinate a student, (b) these techniques had no academic status and had therefore to be taught extra- murally, (c) the teachers were few in number. and (d) the projective tech- niques were also few in number. This system, it is felt, is now outdated because of the increased demand for training, the increased number of projective test tech- niques, and the dangers inherent in hav- ing a psychological test taught by a closely inbred group of specialists. I t is felt that when a particular test technique is claimed as the exclusive property of a test in-bred clique, the vested interests of such a group may tend to predominate over their scientific integrity on either the conscious or unconscious level. These tests are then taught as if ( a ) all their problems of validity, reliability, and pre- cision were settled issues, and (b) as if students can be qualified only through contacts with the original “master.” The rightful place of any psychometric or psychodiagnostic device both for teaching purposes and for research purposes is in the more catholic atmosphere of the graduate schools of psychology; open to the inspection and surveillance of the ex- perimental psychologists, who while not always friendly to such topics, can never-

410 IRVING ARTHUR FOSBERG

theless supply valuable criticisms. The number of authors who have rushed into print with new psychodiagnostic devices untested in the clinic and unstandardized in the laboratory would have been mate- rially decreased if these same people had to face daily a group of academic col- leagues who would be more critical of these publications than are the editors of inany of our publications. In that way, the whole structure of projective theory and philosophy would have been saved from a good deal of embarrassment in scientific circles.

11. THE ONE-YEAR CURRICULUM A. Objectives. The objectives of a one- year course in projective techniques should be limited to an informative pres- entation of material explaining projective theory and technique to students who want to be informed on the subject, but who will not be expected to master any of the techniques as a result of this course.

B. Prerequisites. For this course the prerequisites might well be courses in General Psychology, Abnormal Psychol- ogy, Experimental Psychology, Statistics , and Tests and NIeasurenients.

C. Tyfie of 5tude)if. This course could be given to first year graduate students and senior undergraduates with the neces- sary academic background. As a lec- ture and demonstration course no unusual limits would be imposed on the size of the class.

I3. Pedagogical Techiziqites. Such a course could be primarily a lecture course with demonstrations by the teacher of each of the several principal projective methods. E. Topics Covered. The curriculum out- lined for this two semester course might run as follows :

First Scir~cstcr Il’cek Topic

1 Definition of Projective Techniques and Scope of Course

2 History of Projective Techniques 3 Psychology of Personality 4 Psychodynamics

5 Problems of assaying personality by

6 On Use of Svmbolism non-projective methods

7 Organization and Classification of

8 Problem of Test Scoring in Projec- Projective Techniques

- tive Technicrues

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

I l ~ c c k 1

2

3 4

5

G 7

Problem of Ikerpretation in Projec-

Problem of Test Validity in Projec- tive Techniques

tive Techniques

jective Techniques

tive Techniques

in Projective Techniques

niques from Analytic Schools

niques from Gestalt School

Problem of Test Reliability in Pro-

Problem of Test Precision in Projec-

The Place of Experimental Evidence

Contributions to Projective Tech-

Contributions to Projective Tech-

Review

Srcorid Scwzester

Topic Rorschach Test : History and Admin-

istration Rorschach Test : Scoring and Inter-

pretation Other Blot Tests Thematic Apperception Test : His-

tory, Administration, and Inter- pretation

Szondi Test : History, Administration, Scoring, and Interpretation

Other Picture Type Tests .%utobiographies and Personal Docu-

ments: 8 Expressive Movements : H i s t o r y,

Myokinetic Psychodiagnosis 9 Expressive Movements : Play

10 Word Association Tests 11 Dream Analysis : History, Method,

1-3 Graphology 13 Tautophone and Tactile Tests 14 15 Miscellaneous Tests 16 Review

Interpretation

Drawing and Graphic Art Tests

F . Case Material. Case material for demonstration purposes could come f roin the literature, as well as from the instruc- tor’s own case files.

G. Lnborator~~ Work. The course is not conceived as a laboratory course. Class- room demonstration of the chief test forms is substituted in place of student work.

H . Tests. As of this date there is one book available : Projective Teclzniques, by Tohn E. Bell, published by Longmans. Green S- Co.(l3).

TEACHING PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 41 1

11. TWO-YEAR CURRICULUM

A . 0bjerti.ru.s. The two-year curriculum is oriented toward the production of stu- dents with both a thorough background in the theory and scope of projective tech- niques and an intensive training in one or two of them sufficient to enable them to be of use in a clinical situation, together with a certain limited familiarity with several other types of tests. Tn addition, graduate schools can expect that this ciir- riculum will become a focal point around which research projects will develop, not only for the staff involved but also for the graduate students. who are particu- larly interested in this field. This will result in a return of research work in the projective fields to the graduate schools.

B. Prerequisites. The prerequisites for this curriculuni should be General Psy- chology, Abnormal Psychology, Psycho- dynamics, Experimental Psychology, Sta- tistics, Tests and Measurements. and Per- sonality.

C. Type of Stiidenf. The students should be second year graduate students of ma- ture interest, stable personality, and of a creative imaginative mind, who are interested in training to become Clinical Psychologists. Because of the close su- pervision that it is advisable to main- tain over the work of these students, it is recommended that the class size be limited to ten students for one instructor or fifteen students i f the instructor is fortunate enough to have an assistant who is versed in projective techniques.

D. Pedagogical Tccliniques. This course should be conducted with both lecture and laboratory work. The first year should he taken up with the theories and princi- ples of projective techniques in the lec- ture hours and with demonstration and practice in using the tests during the lab- oratory hours. In addition, individual conference time should be made available, which time should I)e spent in private coaching, with special emphasis on inter- pretation.

It is expected that in the second semes- ter of this course the students will begin to concentrate on the one technique which they plan to master. -At the beginning of

the second year the student d l pick up a second technique for intensive work along with continued practice and study of the test begun the previous year. Such a curriculum could be built around the following outline.

First Year (First Scirzester.)

1 I .rrk 1

3 4 5

6

7

s 9

10

11

12

13

14

15

10

7 -

1Veck 1

? - 3

4

5

0 - /

8

9

10-1 1 12 13-11 15-1fJ

Topic Definition of topic and scope of course History of Projective Techniques Psychology of Personality Psychodynamics Problems in the Assaying of Person-

ality by Non-Projective Methods Problems in the Assaying of Person-

ality by Projective Techniques Basic Postulates in Projective Tech-

The Place of Symbolism in Projec-

Organization and Classification of

The Problem of Test Scoring in Pro-

niques

tive ,Techniques

Projective Techniques

ipctive Techniaues TGe Problem of Test Interpretation in

The Problem of Validity in Projective Projective Techniques

Techniaues The Problem of Reliability in Pro-

The Problem of Precision in Projec- jective Techniques

tive Techniques

niques from Analytic Schools

niques from the Gestalt School

Contributions to Projective Tech-

Contributioiis to Projective Tech-

First Year (Srcorrd Sriiiesfcr)

Topic The Place of Experimental Evidence

The Use of Ink Blots. Rorschach.

The Use of Ink Blots. (a) Whipple;

The Use of Ink Blots. (a) Stern;

The Use of Ink Blots. (a) Struve;

The Use of Pictures. Murrav’s The-

in Projective Techniques

Administration

(b) Rorschach Administration

(b) Rorschach Scoring

(b) Rorschach Scoring

matic Apperception Test The Use of Pictures. (a) Rosen-

zweig; (b) Rorschach Work Con- tinues-Scoring

The Use of Pictures. (a) M A P S; (.b) Rorschach Work-Interprets- t I on

The Use of Pictures. (a) . Others; ( b ) Rorschach Interpretation

The Use of Graphic Art Forms* The Use of Plastic Art Forms* The Use of Expressive Movements* The Dream Material*

* Continued work in administration, scoring and interpreting the Rorschach.

412 IRVING ARTHUR FOSBERG

Second Ycar (First Sentcstcr) Week Topic

1 The Thematic Apperception Test: Administration

2 Rorschach Work with Children 3 The T A T Scoring 4 Rorschach Work with Children 5 The T A T Interpretation 6 Rorschach Work with Low IQ Sub-

7 The T A T Interpretation 8-9 The Rorschach Work with Neurotic

10-11 The T A T with Childreti 12-13 The T A T with Neurotics 14-16 The T A T with Psychotics

jects

Subjects

Second Year (Second Sciizcsfer)

1-2 Rorschach Standards with Children 3-4 Rorschach Standards with Psychotics 5 T A T Standards with Children 6 T A T Standards with Psychotics 7 T A T Standards with Neurotics 8-9 Sentence Completion Tests*

W c e k Topic

10-12 Dream Interpretation* 13-14 Expressive Movements* 15-16 Graphic Art Work* * Continued work with Rorschach and TAT.

E. Texts. Textbook material for such a course is not available at this date. However, for such a course the teacher and student both have more time avail- able than in the one-year course and the student can be expected to do more ex- tensive journal readings. Further, there is also time to expect the student to make profitable use of a number of books now on the market that presume to provide in- struction on the Rorschach test(4. 73 9 , 11,

zl) ; the Murray Thematic Apperception test(15, 23, 26) ; the Szondi test(25) ; Dream analysis(lO. 24) ; Graphology(14~ 18) ; Draw- ing tests(2p s , & 17) ; Play 19) ; and Sentence completion(20) as well as many others.

F . Aun-iliary Readings. Again as in the textbook field more time can be devoted to a wider and more critical reading in the journal literature than was possible in the one-year curricula. There should be more stress placed on readings in ex- perimental studies on test validitv and re- liability, and on theory and practice.

G. Case Material. Case work material for this course would come in part from the literature, in part from the instruc- tor’s files, and in part from actual cases

provided by the instructor or procured by the student. Case material out of the literature enables the student to study the techniques of the “masters” in the field, the cases of his instructors will enable the student to relate theory and practice more intimately together as he sees it demon- strated by his instructor. It is recom- mended that each student be the “sub- ject” or client, and take a projective test administered by the instructor for the pedagogical and therapeutic value such a procedure has for each student. This is an important step that should not be neg- lected. It will be necessary for the stu- dents and instructor to use whatever local resources are available in procuring sub- jects. If they are in the V. A. clinical program, they niay have access to the patients of the V. A. Hospital. If the students are doing practicuni work, or extern work in a hospital or institution, these agencies niay be of help. In any event the use of friends or relatives as subjects should be discouraged. H . Laboratory Work. The laboratory time should be spent in coaching students on the techniques of administering each of the several projective techniques. The students could very well administer these tests to each other, with the instructor present to criticize the technique and skill of the examiner.

111. THE THREE-YEAR CURRICULUM A. Objectives. The three-year plan is a continuation of the two-year plan and re- sults in the student acquiring greater pro- ficiency in a larger number of tests. The third year should be an advanced course based upon two years of work in Pro- jective Techniques as outlined above. It would also be the trial arena in which re- search in the projective field would be planned and executed. B. Prerequisites and C . Type of Stu- dents. These factors would be the same as in the two-year course. D. Pedagogical Technique. The best form for the third year would be a semi- nar type of course, where further skills and greater precision and surety could be developed in the students, and where spe- cial types could be studied. The topics

TEACHING PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES 413

for the first two years would be the saiiie as given above. The content of the third year might follow a pattern such as this:

CVrek 1-2

3

4

5

6

7

8-16

Third I’ecir (First Scnicstcr) Topic

Current Trends in Projective Tech- niques

SpeFial Problems in Projective Tech- niques : Counseling

Special Problems in Projective Tech- niques : Personnel

Special Problems in Projective Tech- niques : Anthropological Studies

Special Problems in Projective Tech- niques : Schizophrenia

Special Problems in Projective Tecli- niques : Criminology

Etc.. etc , Together with Continued Work on Administration, Scoring, and Interpretation of Projective Tests under Supervision. Emphasis 011 Clinical Diagnosis

Third Year (.jccorid .Yeniester)

TOpli’S

Research Plans of Class &lernbers* Experimental Design in Projective Techniques* Test Construction in Projective Techniques”

E. Casc Matwicrls. It should he the re- sponsibility of the instructor to so guide the student that his sampling of case ma- terials is as diverse as possible. Concen- tration of attention on a limited clinical group or a limited age range, while cle- sirable for the development of special skills should not be permitted to deprive the student of the opportunity which a college environment offers to sample widely. This chance may not come again to the same individual once he has become a busy clinician.

F . Labornto~y W o r k . On this level, laboratory work would be experimental work on estahlishing validity. reliability. precision, introducing new test concepts, examining various iiiterpretive criteria. setting up standards or norms for age or sex groups, and so on .

SUMI\IARY

The teaching of 1)ro j ective Techniques for pspchodiagnosis, belongs in the cur- riculum of the graduate schools of psy-

* Continued H ork on administration, scoring. interpretation, and clinical diagnosis with each of the several techniques that the individual stu- dent is mastering

chology. rather than in private “work- shops.” The ideal curriculum for such a course would cover a three-year program. It is also possible to set up a one-year curriculum whose function it will be to introduce the student to the field of pro- jective techniques but not attempt to train him to master any one procedure. Due to time restrictions, a two-year training program may be worked out as a coni- promise between a one- and a three-year training program. Sample curricula are developed for each of the above three programs.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. ALI.PORT, G. W. Persoiiality. New York:

Henry Holt & Co., 1937. -7. XLSCHULER. R. H. & HATTMWH. L. B. W.

Paititiiig a8t.d Personality. 2 vols. Chicago : c‘. of Chicago Press, 1947.

3. AXLINE, V. M. Play Therapy. Boston: Houghton Miffiin Co., 1947.

4. BECK, S. J. Rorschach’s Test. (2 vols.). New York: Grune & Stratton, 1944.

5. BENDER, L. A Visual Motor Gestalt Test atid Its Clinical Use. Airier. Ortho. Assoc. Rescarch Monogr., No. 3, 1938.

I;. BOCHNER, R. & HALPERN, F. The Cliuical .4pplication of the Rorschach Test. New York: Grune & Stratton. 1945.

i. BI.HLER, BUHLER, and LEFEVER. Develop- ment of the Basic Rorschach Score with Manual of Directions. Rorschach Stand- ardization Studies. No. 1, 1948 (mimeo- graphed ed.), 150 pp. $3.00.

8. ELKISCH. P . Children’s Drawiiim in a

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

11.

1 s.

10,

17.

Piojectizv Tcchriique. Psycho/. .)4oPingr., 1945, 58, No. 1. FORD, M. T h e Applicatioii of thc Ro~srlzacli Tcst to Younu Childreti. Irtst. of Child Lf’elfarr Monogr., No. 23. 1946. FRETTI, S. “The Interpretation of Dreams,” in Thc Basic Writings of Sigmund Freud. N e v York: Modern Library, 1938. HARROWER-ERICKSON, M. R. & STEINER. hI C Manual for Psychodingtinstic Ink- Olnts HIRUINC, L. E. Report on Training Facili- ties. Rorschach Rcsearch E.rckaliyc. 1947,

Lollrqc Tcx t s atid Refererice Books. New York. Longman’s Green & Co.. 1948, p. 30 MKXDEI.. A. 0. Pcrsoitality i t i Handwrit- trig. Erattleboro : Stephen Daye Press, 1947. ORGAN. c. D. & M U R R A Y . H A. A meth- od for investigating phantasies : The The- matic Apperception Test Arch. Arcuro/, R Psvc-hiat.. 1935, 34: 289-306. Mc-WHY, G. Pcrsoitality. a Biosocial Ap- proach to Origins and Structure. New York: Harper Bros., 1947. NAL-MBCRC, M. Studies of the “Free” .4rt Expression of Behavior Problem Children and Adolescents as a Means of Diagnosis

’

11. 82-86, 61-62.

414 WILSON H. GUERTIN

and Therapy. Nerv . and Ment. Dis. Mono- gr., 1947.

18. RAND, H. A. Graphology. Boston: Sci- Art Press, 1947.

19. ROGERSON, C. H. Play Therapy in Child- hood.

20. ROHDE, A. R. Sentence Coinpletion 21. RORSCHACH, HERMANN. Psychodingnos-

22. STAGNER, Ross. Psychology of Personal-

23. STEIN, &I. I. The Thematic Apperceptiora

New York: Oxford Press, 1939.

tics. Berne: Hans Huber, 1942. M a n w l . A. R. Rohde, 1947.

ity. New York : McGraw-Hill. 1948.

Test. Cambridge : Addison-Wesley Press, 1948.

24. STEKEL, WILLIAM. The Interpretation of Dreams. New York : Liveright, 1943.

25. SZONDI, L. Experiinentelle Triebdiagnos- tik. Berne: Hans Huber, 1947.

26. TOMKINS, S. S. The Thematic Appercep- tion Test. New York: Grune & Stratton, 1947.

27. The TAT Newsletter. Ed. by Dr. Robert R. Holt, mimeographed at Winter V. A. Hospital, Topeka, Kansas. Subscription price $1.00 for four issues.

BIEXTAL GROWTH IS PSET

WILSON H.

Li)zcoln Stufe Srh

INTRODUCTION It has long been recognized that cer-

tain cases of apparent mental deficiency are, in reality, cases of delayed mental maturation. “Delayed maturation” is usually established post hoc since normal intellectual potentialities are seldom ob- served upon initial examination. These cases and others are subsumed under the diagnosis of pseudo-feeblemindedness.

Arthur(’), Bijou(Z), Doll(‘+) and Neu- er(Io), have discussed the factors un- derlying pseudo-f eeblemindedness. Since there is general agreement, the etiological features can he considered under the fol- lowing: (1) sensory handicap, ( 2 ) edu- cational deficit, ( 3 ) special intellectual disabilities (segmental organization), (4) speech retardation, ( 5 ) personality dis- order, and (6) delayed maturation.

This paper will be concerned with cases of intellectual retardation which, by exclusion, are primarily attributable to delayed maturation. The principle of environmental under-stimulation as an important basis for delayed maturation has been extant in clinical thinking for sometime. This idea is implicit in the studies showing the importance of the environment in determining the IQ. The role of stimulation in mental developnient can be well illustrated by analogy. Just as the child who is bedfast from birth fails to develop in a normal physical

JDO-FEEBLEMINDEDNESS

GUERTIN

001 and Colony

fashion; so the child who is deprived of mental exercise fails to develop nor- mal intellectual skills.

Actually, little is known about these cases of intellectual retardation. Since we are concerned with mental growth, comments on the principles of mental growth are relevant here. While many different curves of mental growth have been derived, they are in essential agree- ment about the point of intellectual ma- turation. Stated more exactly, the curve representing the regression of MA on CA reaches its maximum around the age of 20. It must be remembered that the mental growth curve merely represents the central tendencies of a sample popu- lation (usually a standardization group). These group data are often applied un- critically to individuals without regard for individual differences. Much of the literature presenting mental growth curves shows complete disregard for the variance of the population around those central tendencies. Since three mathe- matical parameters(Gompertz curve, 9 ) are necessary to describe mental growth ade- quately, the IQ alone will often prove an inadequate representation of an individu- al’s mental growth. When the IQ of an individual is compared with the stand- ardization group the implicit assumption is made that the growth curves are com- parable in other respects, i.e., other param-