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Chapter Five

Motivation

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Motivation

• Research on motivation attempts to determine why people behave the way they do and to understand the ramifications of such behavior. The changing role and interaction of technology at work is one factor that explains why motivation remains an important research topic. Additionally, our movement to an information and service-based economy may have varying effects on motivation factors and resulting employee behaviors.

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Motivation

• Motivation is derived from the Latin word movere, “to move.” The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines motivation (root motive) as “something (as a need or desire) that causes a person to act” while motivate is defined as “the object influencing a choice or prompting an action.”

• Several common themes among motivation definitions refers to action or behavior toward goals, specifically, the individual and environmental antecedent factors that cause action, the goal itself, and feedback acting as a moderator which can influence the intensity of achieving the goal

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Motivation

• An understanding of the complexities of contemporary organizations and how individual’s differing motivations influence needs, actions and goals is essential to fully comprehend the effects of variations in other factors such as leadership styles, job design, salary, as they relate to performance, satisfaction, and other outcomes

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Other Definitions

• Direction of behavior

• Strength of the response (effort) once employee chooses to follow a course of action

• Persistence of the behavior or how long the person continues to behave in a particular manner

• Different motivators for different cultures/situations

• Emphasis on different factors depending on what is being studied.

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Why does an organization want to motivate employees?

• Fear of unions• Promote positive climate• Able to pay workers less• Other reasons?

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Motivation

Popular definition of “motivation”• Willingness to perform• Regarded as an individual-level attitude• Understood to be affected by “leadership”

May be nothing more than an internal attribution when observed behavior is consistent or inconsistent with organizational expectations

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Motivation Defined

Implications Associated with This Definition

Behavior is purposive rather than random- People exhibit both positive (work done on time) and negative (arrive late for work) behavior for a reason

Motivation arouses people to do something- People are unlikely to change a behavior or do something different unless they are motivated to do so

Motivation causes people to focus on a desired end-result or goal

Motivation fuels the persistence needed to exhibit sustained effort on a task

Motivation: Psychological processes that cause the arousal direction, and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal directed.

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A Job Performance Model of Motivation

Ability, Job knowledgeDispositions & Traits

Emotions, Moods, &AffectBeliefs & Values

Individual Inputs

Physical EnvironmentTask Design

Rewards & ReinforcementSupervisory Support &

CoachingSocial Norms

Organizational Culture

Job Context

Arousal Attention Intensity & & Direction Persistence

Motivational Processes

MotivatedBehaviors

Skills

Enable, Limit

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A Job Performance Model of Motivation (cont.)

Individual Inputs

Job Context

Motivational Processes

Focus: Direction, What we doIntensity: Effort, how hard we tryQuality: Task strategies, the way we do itDuration: Persistence, how long we stick to it

Skills

Enable, Limit

Performance

Motivated Behaviors

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Motivation Theories

• Content theories – focus on factors within the person that energize, direct, sustain, and stop behavior. They attempt to determine the specific needs that motivate people (individual needs for job satisfaction, behavior, and reward systems). Aware of differences in people

• Process theories – describe and analyze how behavior is energized, directed, sustained and stopped by factors external to the person. Understand how individuals make choices based on preferences, rewards, and accomplishments.

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Content Theories

• Within a person, individual need deficiencies activate tensions that trigger a behavioral response. Managers should:– Determine what needs trigger performance, group

and personal behaviors

– Offer meaningful rewards to satisfy needs

– Know when it is appropriate to offer rewards

– Adapt to people’s changing needs

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Motivation Theories

• Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow) - content

• Nach Theory (McClelland) - content

• Reinforcement Theory - process

• Self-Efficacy Theory (Bandura)

• Job Design (Enlargement, Rotation, Enrichment)

• Two-Factor Model (Herzberg) - content

• Job Characteristics Model (Hackman & Oldham)

• Empowerment (Spreitzer)

• Equity Theory (Adams) - process

• Expectancy Theory (Vroom) - process

• Goal-Setting (Locke) - process

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Motivation Theories and Workplace Outcomes

• Choice to pursue a course of action

Need Reinforcement EquityOutcome of

Interest

• Effort

• Performance

• Satisfaction

• Absenteeism

• Turnover

X

X

X

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X

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X

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X

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Motivation Theories and Workplace Outcomes (continued)

• Choice to pursue a course of action

Expectancy Goal SettingJob

CharacteristicsOutcome of

Interest

• Effort

• Performance

• Satisfaction

• Absenteeism

• Turnover

X

X

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X

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X

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Maslow’s Need Hierarchy

PhysiologicalMost basic need.

SafetyConsists of the need to be safe.

LoveThe desire to love and be loved.

EsteemNeed for reputation, prestige, and recognition from others.

Self-ActualizationDesire for self-fulfillment.

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Research on Maslow

• Very few studies can confirm or refute the theory. It may be that the dynamics implied are too complex to be operationalized and confirmed by scientific research. Helps to explain aspects of human behavior but it is not accurate/thorough to explain individual behavior.

• A satisfied need may lose its motivating potential. Managers are advised to motivate employees by devising programs aimed at satisfying emerging or unmet needs.

• Managers high in the organization place greater emphasis on self-actualization

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Alderfer ERG Theory

• Existence – needs satisfied by factors such as food, air, water, pay, and working conditions

• Relatedness- needs satisfied by meaningful social and interpersonal relationships

• Growth – needs satisfied by creative contributions

• In addition to satisfaction-progression hierarchy, there is frustration-regression.

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Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

• Views on job satisfaction• Extrinsic conditions or job context include pay, status,

working conditions. The presence of these conditions does not motivate the person but the absence results in dissatisfaction. Also called hygiene factors

• Intrinsic conditions or job content include feelings of achievement, increased responsibility and recognition. The absence does not lead to dissatisfaction but when present they build levels of motivation that result in good job performance. Also called motivators.

• Requires an enriched job to motivate employees

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Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Model

Motivators

No Satisfaction SatisfactionJobs that do not Jobs offeringoffer achievement achievement,recognition, recognition,stimulating work, stimulating work,responsibility, responsibility,and advancement. and advancement.

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Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Model (continued)

Hygiene Factors

Dissatisfaction No DissatisfactionJobs with poor Jobs with goodcompany policies, company policies,and administration, and administration,technical supervision technical supervision,salary, interpersonal salary, interpersonalrelationships with relationships withsupervisors, and supervisors, andworking conditions. working conditions.

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McClelland’s Need Theory

Achievement-motivated people prefer tasks of moderate ability that they can achieve situations in which their performance is due to their own

efforts more feedback on their success and failures than do low

achievers

Need For Affiliation: Desire to spend time in social relationships and activities.

Need For Power: Desire to influence, coach, teach, or encourage others to achieve.

Need For Achievement: Desire to excel and accomplish something difficult.

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McClelland’s Need Theory

• When a need is strong, its effect is to motivate the person to use behavior to satisfy the need.

• Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) • Differences in needs based on culture,

economic background and gender• Can adult behaviors be changed or is

motivation developed in childhood?

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Causes of Job Satisfaction

• Need Fulfillment: Satisfaction is based on the extent to which a job satisfies a person’s needs.

• Discrepancies: Satisfaction is determined by the extent to which an individual receives what he or she expects from a job.

• Value Attainment: Satisfaction results from the extent to which a job allows fulfillment of one’s work values.

• Equity: Satisfaction is a function of how “fairly” an individual is treated at work.

• Trait/Genetic Components: Satisfaction is partly a function of personal traits and genetic factors.

Job Satisfaction: An affective or emotional response to various facets of one’s job.

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Correlates of Job Satisfaction

Variables Related Direction of Strength ofto Satisfaction Relationship Relationship

Motivation Positive ModerateJob Involvement Positive ModerateOrganizational citizenship

behavior Positive ModerateOrganizational commitment Positive StrongAbsenteeism Negative WeakTardiness Negative WeakTurnover Negative ModerateHeart Disease Negative ModeratePerceived stress Negative StrongPro-union voting Negative ModerateJob performance Positive WeakLife satisfaction Positive ModerateMental health Positive Moderate

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Figure 5.5 & Table 5.2

• Excellent Summary• Be able to discuss differences and similarities

in the models