Journal of Vocational Behavior 8, 247-258 (1976)

Organizational Tenure, Work Environment Perceptions, and Employee Mental Health

JAMES F. GAVIN Colorado State University

and

JEFFREY H. GREENHAUS Stevens Institute of Technology

The mediating effect of organizational “time investments” on the relationship between work environment perceptions and mental health was explored in two work settings. Participants were 257 managerial-level employees in a line organization and 214 in a staff setting. Results support the hypothesis of greater “responsivity” to perceived organizational stimuli for longer tenured employees, but only in the line setting. The mixed findings in the staff organization suggest that other characteristics of the environment (e.g., systems function) and of its members (e.g., organizational versus occupational identification) need to be considered. Implications for the social responsibilities of organizations to their members are offered in conclusion.

The work roles which individuals occupy in society have demonstra- ble consequences for their physical and psychological well-being (Special Task Force, 1973). A significant amount of research has highlighted the importance of such factors as ambiguity, conflict, work overload, participation, and utilization of abilities in accounting for the physical and mental strains of industrial workers (Caplan, Cobb, French, Van Harrison, & Pinneau, 1975; French, 1974; French & Caplan, 1970; Kahn, 1974). In addition, the individual’s level in the organization (Dunn & Cobb, 1962; Kasl & French,

An earlier version of this article was presented at the meeting of the Rocky Mountain Psychology Association in Salt Lake City, Utah, May 1975.

The authors are indebted to the following individuals for their contributions to the completion of this manuscript and the research on which it is based: Dr. Abraham K. Korman, Dr. Saul B. Sells, Mr. David L. Toole, Dr. Lee B. Murdy, and Ms. Wendy Axelrod.

Requests for reprints should be sent to James F. Gavin, Department of Psychol- ogy, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523.

247

Copyright @ 1976 by Academic Press, Inc. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

248 GAVINANDGREENHAUS

1962; Kornhauser, 1965) size of the work force (Kornhauser, 1965; Porter & Lawler, 1965), and shift work (French, 1963; Mott, Mann, McLaughlin, & Warwick, 1965) manifest significant relationships with various health out- comes. Past research has also indicated that the relationships between stressful environmental factors and mental health tend to be mediated by other considerations in the environment (e.g., social support), as well as by certain characteristics of the individual (e.g., biographical or personality factors).

One variable which merits attention for both theoretical and practical reasons is organizational tenure. Although a number of studies have examined the implications of tenure for various job attitudes (Gibson & Klein, 1970; Hall & Mansfield, 1975; Herzberg, Mausner, Peterson, & Capwell, 1957; Hulin & Smith, 1965) the process by which length of service influences individual responses has received relatively little attention.

One possible conception, deriving from a model presented by Gavin and Howe (1975), is that tenure affects the relationship between the individual’s perceptions of the work environment and his or her responses to it. While the possibility that tenure may also covary with either perceptions or responses is not to be ignored, what is of concern here is how tenure might serve to mediate the perceptual-response linkage. The significance of an employee’s perceptions can be seen in Likert’s (1961) remark that the way in which a person reacts to any situation is “always a function . . . of his perception of it. It is how he sees things that counts, not objective reality” (p. 102). Empirical research also supports this position (Gavin & Howe, 1975; Lawler, Hall, & Oldham, 1974; Likert, 1961).

As one illustration of the proposed mediating effect, employees differ- ing in seniority may perceive similar characteristics in a newly impiemented “participative management” program; however, their responses may vary according to the extent of their experiences with “new” management programs. As a further example, an employee’s affective response to a perceived threat of labor layoffs will probably depend on how much time the individual has “invested” in the organization. A new member may perceive a high likelihood of being laid off, but will not feel unduly upset about it, whereas someone with 20 years with the company may be considerably disturbed.

In proposing such an effect of tenure, one must also consider the manner in which tenure might influence the perceptual-response relationship. One suggestion is that the effect of tenure is to sensitize the employee to perceived organizational influences so that the longer the person is in the organization, the more responsive he or she becomes (Gibson & Klein, 1970; Katz & Kahn, 1966, pp. 119-121; Schein, 1968). In another perspective, one might argue that the longer an individual is employed by an organization, the more he or she builds a “private world” to protect himself/herself from the variety of organizational influences. With the current state of knowledge,

TENURE,PERCEPTIONS ANDMENTALHEALTH 249

hypothesizing one of these effects over the other would be mere speculation, while asserting in a more general sense that the relationships between perceptions and the employee’s affective and behavioral responses may vary as a function of time investments seems more justifiable.

These considerations in the context of studies on employee mental health gave rise to the present investigation. An earlier report (Gavin, 1975a) indicated that employees who perceived the environment as having well- defined organizational structures, minimal interference in work processes, equitable reward systems, and an atmosphere of trust and consideration tended to have more favorable scores on mental health indices. As an extension of this research, the present study set out to examine the proposed mediating effects of tenure on the relationship between six orthogonal dimensions of work environment perceptions and eight interrelated criteria of mental health. In so doing, it was hoped that some of the implications of increased service would be clarified.

METHOD

Samples

Data were gathered in two subsystems of a 35,000 employee domestic airline as part of an organizational study. One subsystem was a “line” organization (L) or, more specifically, a regional center for the airline, while the other was a “staff’ division (S) serving the airline in its management information and data processing needs. Both employed approximately 3000 members.

Research was conducted on the managerial segments of these organiza- tions. The 257 management members in L tended to be slightly older (1, = 40; Xs = 35), more tenured (XL = 12; Xs = 6), and somewhat less well-educated than the 214 managers in S. These differences appear to be consistent with the professional tone of the staff organization vis-ri-vis the production orientation of the line division.

Measures

Three sets of measures were relevant in this investigation: work environ- ment perceptions, mental health criteria as described by the worker, and mental health criteria as assessed by the individual’s supervisor. Since these have been adequately described elsewhere, they will only be summarized here.

Work Environment Perceptions (WEP). A 106-item questionnaire was used to assess six orthogonal factors derived from a principal-axis analysis and varimax rotation. Items were developed from current organizational literature

250 GAVIN AND GREENHAUS

and from the models proposed by Sells (1968) and Litwin and Stringer (1968). Similar forms of this instrument had been pretested and used on over 4000 employees. All items were answered on a five-point Likert scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Additional information regarding this instrument can be obtained in Gavin and Howe (1975) and Gavin and Hodapp (Note 1).

The labels for the six factors and their reliability estimates (coefficient alpha) were as follows: I. Clarity and Efficiency of Organizational Structure (.89), II. Hindrance (.83), III. Rewards (.90), IV. Esprit (.84), V. Managerial Trust and Consideration (.91), and VI Challenge and Risk (.67). Correlations between factors ranged from -.15 to 20, since an “approximate” scoring method was used to obtain the factor scores. Also, factors were reflected so that high scores indicated more favorable perceptions, e.g., high Hindrance meant a low degree of administrative interference.

Mental Health (Ml!). The measurement of mental health is extremely problematic owing to the inherent issue of values (Smith, 1961) and difficul- ties in operationalizing its component constructs for work environments (Gavin, Note 2). As Smith (1961) notes, there is no single set of mental health criteria, so at best our measures only suggest what is essentially defined on an individual and subjective basis as “the good life.”

Based on a comprehensive review of literature on worker mental health (Gavin, Note 2) eleven categories of “positive mental health” (Jahoda, 1958) variables were noted. The categories of interest in the present study were: (a) growth, development, and self-actualization (French & Kahn, 1962; Jahoda, 1958; Maslow, 1943); (b) environmental mastery, including measures of performance and job strain (French & Kahn, 1962; Indik, Seashore, & Slesinger, 1964; Zander & Quinn, 1962); (c) interpersonal relations (French & Kahn, 1962; Jahoda, 1958; Zander & Quinn, 1962); and (d) satisfaction (French & Kahn, 1962; Gurin, Veroff, & Feld, 1960; Zander & Quinn, 1962). Assessment of these proposed areas of mental health was achieved through instruments administered to the workers, as well as to their supervisors (cf. Gavin, 1975a, for more complete details).

The self-report measures and the mental health categories from which the measures were derived (letters corresponding to above categories are listed after measures) are reported below. Also, the number in parentheses refers to the reliability estimates (coefficient alphas based on combined samples) for scales containing more than one item: 1. Self-Development, a (.65), 2. Job Pressure, b (.71), 3, Interpersonal Relations, c (.57), and 4. Job Satisfaction, d. The supervisory-based measures, their corresponding mental health cate- gories and reliabilities were: 5. Strain Symptoms, b (.83), 6. Interpersonal Relations, c, 7. Planning and Decision making, b (.74), and 8. Performance, b (.89). As in the scoring of WEP factors, MH scaIes were reflected so that high scores indicated a more positive state.

TENURE,PERCEPTIONSAND MENTALHEALTH 251

Procedures

Questionnaires containing the WEP factors and self-report MH scales were administered under controlled testing conditions on company premises and were returned to an independent, university-based research group, ensur- ing confidentiality. Supervisory-based MH scales were available for approxi- mately half of each sample within three months after survey administrations. An analysis of differences between participants with and without supervisory evaluations indicated some notable discrepancies. In the line organization, participants with ratings tended to be at a higher job level as well as having more favorable perceptions on the Challenge/Risk factor. Participants who were rated in the staff setting showed more extreme scores on WEP factors II-VI, and on the self-rated MH criteria of Self-Development, Job Pressure, and Job Satisfaction. In this light, caution should be exercised in generalizing from the correlational data involving supervisory assessments.

A median split on tenure was used in defining long and short-term employees; the median in L was 142.5 months and in S, 44.5 months. While the medians were quite discrepant, it seemed more appropriate to use “relative” definitions of high-and low-tenure in each sample than to have numerically equivalent ones (cf. Festinger, 1954, for basis of rationale).

RESULTS

Tests of significance between means for the high- and low-tenure subgroups within each organization indicated that average scores on WFP factors and MH scales were generally comparable. Only two significant differences were found in the 28 tests (i.e., 14 in each setting). High-tenured employees in S perceived more challenge and encouragement of risk taking (Factor VI) than did low-tenured members. In L, long-tenured employees experienced more job pressure than short-tenured employees.

Tables 1 and 2 report the correlations and correlation-comparisons (using Fisher’s r to z transformation) for low- and high tenure groups in the two organizations. It should be noted that the less conservative .lO level was used in tests of significance between correlations since sample sizes in the tenure subgroups (particularly when supervisory-based criteris were involved) were such that considerable differences between correlational values would have been necessary to achieve significance at the traditional .05 level. While in a global sense L and S had a similar number of significant differences between zero-order correlation pairs (i.e., 10 out of 48, or 21%), the variables involved and the direction of differences varied across settings. In L, for example, all 10 of the differences were such that the longer service employees manifested more positive covariation between measures, while in S this was so in only half the cases.

252 GAVIN AND GREENHAUS

TABL

E 2

Com

paris

on

of Z

ero-

Ord

er

and

Mul

tiple

C

orre

latio

ns

betw

een

Wor

k En

viro

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t Pe

rcep

tion

Fact

ors

and

Men

tal

Hea

lth

Crit

eria

fo

r H

igh

and

Low

Te

nure

Su

bgro

ups

in a

Lin

e O

rgan

izat

ion

Men

tal

heal

th

Trus

t/ C

halle

nge/

cr

iteria

M

ultip

le

R

Stru

ctur

e H

indr

ance

R

ewar

ds

Espr

it C

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d.

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k G

Hig

h Lo

w

HI@

H

igh

Hig

h Lo

w

Hig

h Lo

w

Hig

h 5

Low

H

igh

Low

Lo

w

Low

“E

Se

lf re

port:

N

=

129

128

129

128

129

128

129

128

129

128

129

128

129

128

s

Self

deve

lopm

ent

.44a

,***

.6C

K***

.2

3**

.32*

**

-.13

-.02

.09a

.2

w**

* .O

BC

.49c

.***

.2-P

' .1

9*

.14

.03

E

Job

pres

sure

s ,6

3***

.7

1***

.2

4'*

.22*

* .3

0**

.21*

.o

+ .&

,***

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.4

3+**

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.***

-.28*

* -.2

9**

g

Inte

rper

sona

l 2 0

rela

tions

,5

6***

.6

6***

.0

4c

.43=

,***

.02

-.06

-.I0

.lO

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.i7

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.23*

* .1

4 2

Job

satis

fact

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.07

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.36*

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,* .4

w>*

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.22+

.2

8**

-.06

-.11

P

Supe

rvis

ory

a e&

ratio

ns:

N =

67

71

67

71

61

71

67

71

67

71

67

71

67

71

z 52

St

rain

sym

ptom

s .3

5e,**

.5

8~~*

**

-.09

-.Ol

.26*

.2

6*

.23

.21

-.046

.x

4**

.04

.I5

-.lO

-.3

4*+

Inte

rper

sona

l z

rela

tions

.3

4**

.37*

* -.1

3 -.o

1

.19

.20

.22

.ll

.07

.27*

-.0

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S -.1

3 -.I

4 I2

Pl

anni

ng &

de

cisi

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akin

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so**

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4 .0

3 .1

5 .3

1**

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.2

4*

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.lW

-.1

5 -.3

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5 Pe

rform

ance

.3

8**

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-.16

-.03

.20

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2 -.3

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Not

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alue

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ifica

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at

: cp

< .

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bp <

.05

, C

p <

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.05

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p <

.Ol.

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<

.ooi

.

254 GAVIN AND GREENHAUS

To be more specific, the only significant comparison which held up across settings was that involving Rewards and Self-Development, such that the perceived fairness of reward systems covaried more positively with a feeling of self-development for higher-tenured members. Rewards also covaried more with Job Pressure for L’s high-tenured employees and with Job Performance for S’s high-tenured personnel.

Other findings indicative of greater positive covariation for higher- tenured members were as follows: Structure with Interpersonal Relations (self-evaluated) in L, and with Interpersonal Relations (supervisor-evaluated), and Self-Development in S; Hindrance with Interpersonal Relations (self) in S; Esprit with Self-Development, Job Satisfaction, Strain Symptoms, and Perfor- mance in L; and Trust/Consideration with Job Pressure, Interpersonal Rela- tions (self), and Planning and Decision Making in L.

In some cases, the differences between high- and low-tenured groups were such that low-tenured members manifested a stronger positive association between WEP and MH; significant differences of this nature occurred only in the staff setting and involved the following variables: Hindrance with Self- Development; Esprit with Job Satisfaction; Trust/Consideration with Inter- personal Relations (supervisor); and Challenge/Risk with Self-Development and Job Satisfaction.

DISCUSSION

In general, the findings of this study provide conditional support for the mediating effects of organizational experience levels on the correspondence of mental health and the perceived work environment. If we consider the squared multiple correlations as variance estimates (cf. Tables 1 and 2), then it is relatively clear that in the line organization more of the mental health variance is accounted for by the work environment perceptions of those with more tenure in the organization. Using a nonparametric sign test, the chance probability that all eight multiple correlations for the high-tenure group would be greater than those for the low-tenure group is .004. In explaining this, the concept of “partial inclusion” (Katz & Kahn, 1966) is helpful. According to Katz and Kahn, the individual needs to be involved in the organization only on “a segmental or partial basis,” that is, only part of the person’s “life space” is consumed by his or her organizational role. Neff (1968) has proposed a similar concept, i.e., the “semi-autonomous” work personality, to describe the segmental involvements of workers in their roles. The evidence from part of this study (i.e., the line setting) would perhaps suggest that as the individual becomes more “time invested” in the organization, greater areas of his or her life space are committed to the work setting with a concomitant increase in responsivity to perceived organizational stimuli.

TENURE,PERCEPTIONS AND MENTALHEALTH 25.5

If this is so, then how might we account for the discrepant findings in the staff organization? It was suggested here, for example, that low-tenure staff employees might be at least as responsive as high-tenure members to some perceived stimuli, more so to others, and, to a few, less responsive. The answer to this is not clear, although some speculations can be offered. In discussing the concept of partial inclusion, Katz and Kahn (1966, p. 5 1) have noted the difficulty of ensuring the organizational allegiance (i.e., inclusion) of members who are in “boundary” positions. Since the staff organization in this study served “adaptive” and “maintenance” system functions (cf. Katz & Kahn, 1966) thereby operating more in a boundary role, and since its members tended to view themselves as professionals with primary identifica- tion in their occupation rather than their organization (cf. Rotondi, 1975), we might expect a different pattern of responsivity to organizational influence systems here than in a “production” system. The clearest support for this argument comes from the data concerning the Challenge/Risk factor. In the line organization, 12 out of 16 correlations between this factor and the mental health scales were negative (sign test p = .038), indicating that an environment perceived as offering challenge and encouraging risk taking tended to have unfavorable mental health effects. (Incidentally, no differences on this factor were noted between L’s tenure groups,) Staff members, particularly newer ones, responded differently. To illustrate, short-term employees saw less Challenge/Risk in the work environment than high-tenured members, and deficits in this area covaried with negative feelings about oneself and one’s job. This suggests that professionally-oriented employees may enter the organization with a built in expectation of challenging work and respond accordingly to its absence (Rotondi, 1975). On the other hand, longer service staff members did not manifest this type of responsivity, nor did they behave as long-term employees of the line organization (i.e., high Challenge/Risk, low mental health scores). Perhaps the high-tenured staff members have struck more of a balance between their organizational and occupational identifica- tions, and while not yet adversely affected by work challenges as high-tenured line employees seem to be, they do show signs of responsivity to such organizationally relevant considerations as work structures, policies, and procedures (i.e., Structure).

These speculations must be tempered by an alternative explanation for the line-staff differences. The determination of high- and low-tenure groups was based on a relative definition according to the median tenure in each setting. Since in the staff organization the median was less than four years while being more than 12 years in the line division, the results may be more parsimoniously accounted for by the noncomparability of tenure groupings. Of course, the argument on which this procedure was based was that individuals are more likely to view their situation relativistically than absolute- ly (cf. Festinger, 1954). The meaning of tenure to a staff member, for

256 GAVIN AND GREENHAUS

example, was assumed to be based on comparisons with others in that setting, as well as with professional peers in other organizational environments.

An additional consideration of the results concerns the relative similarity of high- and low-tenure employees on mental health measures, particularly satisfaction. Previous research provides a rather confused picture of the tenure-satisfaction relationship, with at least one study showing a positive relation between the two (Hulin & Smith, 1965), another evidencing a negative one (Gibson & Klein, 1970), and yet a third portraying a U-shaped function (Herzberg et al., 1957). And while the correlations between the full range of tenure and satisfaction variates in this study tend to support a positive association (Ttrne = .12, p < .05; rstarr = .13, p < .05), the relationship is somewhat trivial, accounting for less than 2% of the variance. In light of these and other findings of this study, it would seem that the importance of organizational tenure may lie more in its mediating effects than in its direct impact on employee responses.

A serious difficulty in extracting practical implications from this study arises from the distinction which must be made between the “perceived” and the “objective” work environments. Most research concerning environmental “impacts” on mental health has been based on perceptual accounts of one form or another; and while the significance of these perceptions has been duly attested to (Lawler, Hall, & Oldham, 1973; Likert, 1961; Stern, 1964), our appreciation of causal factors in the objective environments remains elusive. This is not to say that progress is minimal (cf. Gavin, 1975b; Herman, Dunham, & Hulin, 1975), rather that a more intensified search is needed.

In summary, then, this study is suggestive of the relevance of organiza- tional time investments as a mediating factor in the relationship between work environment perceptions and mental health. It also provides some rationale for a further mediating linkage, namely, organizational versus occupational identification (cf. Rotondi, 1975). One possible implication of the tenure effects can be seen in the organization’s responsibilities to its members: The data imply that, at least in production settings, an individual’s increased time commitments may carry with them more pronounced effects of perceived organizational stimuli on his or her psychological well being. If such is the case and if organizations desire more long-term member participation, then it becomes incumbent upon the organization to provide the kind of environment that is maximally conductive to employee welfare. Of course, such environ- mental provisions should serve the organization’s self-interest as well, in that psychologically healthy employees are likely to function in optimal ways in “healthy” work settings (Argyris, 1964).

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TENURE, PERCEPTIONS AND MENTAL HEALTH 257

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Gavin, J. F. Employee perceptions of the work environment and mental health: A suggestive study. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1975a, 6, 217-234.

Gavin, J. F. Organizational climate as a function of personal and organizational variables. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1975b, 60, 135-139.

Gavin, J. F., & Howe, J. G. Psychological climate: Some theoretical and empirical considerations. Behavior-41 Science, 1975, 20, 228-240.

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Gurin, G., Veroff, J., & Feld, S. Americans view their mental health: A nationwide interview survey. New York: Basic Books, 1960. Chap. VI.

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Herman, J. B., Dunham, R. B., & Hulm, C. L. Organizational structure, demographic characteristics, and employee responses. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 1975, 13, 206-232.

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Indik, B. P., Seashore, S. E., & Slesinger, J. Demographic correlates of psychological strain. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1964,69, 26-38.

Jahoda, M. Current concepts of positive men&l health. New York: Basic Books, 1958. Kahn, R. L. Conflict, ambiguity, and overload: Three elements in job stress. In A.

McLean (Ed.), Occupational stress. Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, 1974, Pp. 47-61.

Kasl, S. V., & French, J. R. P., Jr. The effects of occupational status on physical and mental health. Journal of Social Issues, 1962, 18, 67-89.

Kornhauser, A. Mentul health of the industrial worker: A Detroit study. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1965.

Lawler, E. E., III, Hall, D. T., & Oldham, G. R. Organizational climate: Relationship to organizational structure, process, and performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 1974, 11, 139-155.

Likert, R. New patterns of management. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961. Maslow, A. H. A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 1943, 50, 370-396.

258 GAVIN AND GREENHAUS

Mott, P. E., Mann, F. C., McLaughlin, Q., & Warwick, D. P. Shift work: The social, psychological, and physical consequences. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 1965.

Neff, W. S. Work and human behavior. New York: Atherton Press, 1968. Porter, L. W., & Lawler, E. E., III. Properties of organization structure in relation to job

attitudes and job behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 1965, 64, 23-51. Rotondi, T., Jr. Organizational identification: Issues and implications. Organizational

Behavior and Human Performance, 1975, 13, 95-109. Schein, E. H. Organizational socialization and the profession of management. Industrial

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Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1973. Stern, G. G. B = f (P, E). Journal of Personality Assessment, 1964, 28, 161-168. Zander, A., & Quinn, R. The social environment and mental health: A review of past

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REFERENCE NOTES

1. Gavin, J. F., & Hodapp, R. P. The measurement of organizational climate: Toward a taxonomy of climate dimensions. Paper presented at the Meeting of the Rocky Mountain Psychological Association, Las Vegas, Nevada. May 1973.

2. Gavin, J. F. Mental health at work: An emergent concern. Manuscript submitted for publication, 1975.

Received: June 30, 1975.