ISSU

E 41

OCT

OBER

2000

PEBEXCHANGETHE JOURNAL OF THE OECD PROGRAMME ON EDUCATIONAL BUILDING

6 City Learning Centres for the 21st Century

8 School Premises and Violence

11 Invention, Maintenance and Renewal of Urban Educational Facilities – FEATURE

19 New Technology and Education in Finland

23 The Science Resource Area in the State-of-the-Art High School

Invention,Maintenance

and Renewal ofUrban Educational

Facilities

2

PEB AND OECD ACTIVITIES

The OECD Programme on Educational Building (PEB)The Programme on Educational Building (PEB) operates within the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).PEB promotes the international exchange of ideas, information, research and experience in all aspects of educational building. The overridingconcerns of the programme are to ensure that the maximum educational benefit is obtained from past and future investment in educationalbuildings and equipment, and that the building stock is planned and managed in the most efficient way.

Eighteen OECD Member countries and nine associate members currently participate in the Programme on Educational Building. PEB’s mandatefrom the OECD Council to advise and report on educational facilities for students of all ages runs until the end of 2001. A steering committee ofrepresentatives from each participating country establishes the annual programme of work and budget.

PEB Members PEB Associate Members

Australia Mexico Albania Education Development Project

Austria Netherlands Het Gemeenschapsonderwijs (Belgium)

Czech Republic New Zealand Ministerium der Deutschsprachigen Gemeinschaft (Belgium)

Finland Portugal Province of Quebec (Canada)

France Spain Regione Emilia-Romagna (Italy)

Greece Sweden Regione Toscana (Italy)

Iceland Switzerland Service général de garantie des infrastructures scolaires subventionnées (Belgium)

Ireland Turkey Slovak Republic

Korea United Kingdom Tokyo Institute of Technology (Japan)

EVALUATING FACILITIES

The PEB Steering Committee held a workshop on theevaluation of educational buildings as part of its latestmeeting in June. Participants exchanged their coun-tries’ experiences and considered studies presentedby outside experts. Patrick Alt (Ministère del’Éducation Nationale, France) described the methodused to select French schools to submit for the PEBcompendium of exemplary educational facilities; theMinistry examined building appearance, effectivenessand comfort, equipment, educational projects, thegrounds and the environment. Romeo Lajoie(Quebec, Canada) discussed qualitative and quanti-tative evaluations of facilities from three angles: thestudent’s point of view, the technical performanceand the impact on learning. Chris Watson (New Zea-land) presented the principles and methods of post-occupancy evaluation in conjunction with users of abuilding. Sam Cassels (United Kingdom) warnedagainst losing sight of relevance when studyingindicators and shared lessons from the private sector.Mukund Patel (Department for Education and

Employment, United Kingdom) presented themethodology and key findings of a study commissionedby the DfEE to determine how much every pound spenton capital contributes to pupil attainment.

In an effort to further develop understanding in thisarea, PEB is undertaking to gather indicators fromMember countries on the age of buildings, expendi-ture on buildings as a percentage of total capital valueand the value of the overall stock of buildings.

IMHE RESEARCHMANAGEMENT PROJECT

The OECD Programme on Institutional Managementin Higher Education (IMHE) launched a new projecton research management at the institutional level withan experts’ meeting on 8-9 June in Paris. Concern withinstitution-wide management of research was seen asa recent and significant development in highereducation, spurred predominantly by changes in theexternal environment of institutions. The meetingstressed the impact of the growing quality assurance

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movement in focusing the attention of institutions ontheir research profiles, and the growth of strategicplanning within institutions which necessarily raisesthe question of balance between the research,teaching and service aspects of institutional life.

Discussion on sources of funding and associated issuesaddressed the impact the priorities of external fundingorganisations can have on universities, particularlyin favouring certain fields and certain types of research.Multiple sources of funding was commended as oneway of helping institutions keep control of their ownresearch strategies and of providing equalisingmechanisms to support unfashionable research, andinstitutions in less favoured regions. An emerging issueflagged is how to establish full costing for research,given the growing number of commercial activitiesundertaken by universities.

The growing cost of providing and maintaining infra-structure, particularly for science and engineering, wasanother concern.

For more complete information on the discussions,contact Jacqueline Smith, tel.: 33 (0)1 45 24 93 23,fax: 33 (0)1 42 24 02 11, jacqueline.smith@oecd.org

SUPPORT FORSHANTYTOWN SCHOOLS

The OECD War on Hunger Group contributedFRF 30 000 for the second consecutive year towardthe refurbishment of 15 nursery school rooms in twoshantytowns of Bombay, India. The money will be usedfor roof repairs, painting and minor masonry as wellas for the purchase of basic equipment and teachingmaterials. The War on Hunger Group is made up ofstaff members who contribute a portion of their salary

toward local developmentprojects in the world’spoorest countries. This

particular project iscarried out

by the

French non-profit organisation Inter Aide in collabo-ration with Indian organisations. Inter Aide regardseducation as the best way to help people indisadvantaged areas improve their living conditions,and attaches particular importance to pre-school as itcontributes to a child’s development and reduces therisk of failure in school. For more information oneducation-related activities supported by the Group,contact Ruth Stock: ruth.stock@oecd.org

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Childrenin a balwadi(pre-school)

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NEWS

NETHERLANDS’ NETWORK

Four hundred Dutch schools, colleges and culturalinstitutions are now linked together through Kennisnet(knowledge net), a Web site developed under theauthority of the Ministry of Education, Culture andScience. The network enables schools to communicatewith one another as well as with museums, libraries,educational publishers, broadcasting organisationsand the government. The first schools to benefit arethose in the vocational and adult education sectors,to be followed by secondary schools and the olderclasses of primary schools. By January 2003, morethan 10 000 institutions will be connected. Theschools themselves will decide whether and whenthey wish to make use of the new network. Ultimately,some three million people (primarily students) willbe able to exchange information via Kennisnet. Theproject will cost more than NLG 400 million. The site,in Dutch, is accessible at http://www.kennisnet.nl

INFORMATION RESOURCECENTRES IN KOREA

The Ministry of Education of Korealast year conducted research todevelop prototype informationresource centres (IRCs) for primaryand secondary schools. The mainobjective is to produce designguidelines for both building new

resource centres and transforming existing computerlaboratories and classrooms into IRCs.

The research reflects the trend of school librarieschanging from providers of traditional hard-copybased data to media centres where residents of thecommunity as well as students can take advantage ofpaperless information transfer through a digital-basedmultimedia system.

The study identifies four IRC plans, ranging from 63to 153 square metres and accommodating 33 to 71students. Each is based on a seven by nine metremodular area, the size of a conventional classroom,with extensions for the larger plans. Each IRC containsan information area as well as areas for reading,consultation and graphic production. The latterprovides services such as scanning, printing highquality documents and the preparation of presenta-tions. The graphic production area is expected addparticular value to the IRC by increasing its use bythe community.

Isometric of the IRCConfiguration Type FourThe largest IRC plan,8.5 x 18 m

1

4

1. Information Area

2. Reading Area

3. Consultation Area

4. Graphic Production Area

3

2

IRC Configuration Type OneThe smallest of the four IRC plans, 7 x 9 m

Entrance

1

2

3

4

9 m

7 m

63 m2

A/C A/V

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Methods for Improved Management” (“Patrimoinescolaire des collectivités locales – Stratégies etméthodes pour une meilleure gestion”).

The work of PEB was presented at this colloquiumnotably by means of a paper setting out an interna-tional comparison of architectural trends in schoolbuildings in a workshop devoted to buildingprogrammes. Three other workshops addressed thefollowing topics: managing public works; norms andsafety – from conception to use; and financing.

The purpose of this gathering, designed for politiciansresponsible for school buildings, regional managers,those engaged in organising and carrying out opera-tions, and lawyers, was to examine the approachesadopted by various groups. Départements andcommunes were represented, as were all of France’sregions, except for Languedoc-Roussillon.

The colloquium brought to light, in particular, the greatdisparity and diversity of the situations prevailing indifferent regions. Stock was taken of the consequencesof the decentralisation of the education system inFrance and of the questions arising today at variouslevels (regions, départements and communes).

In 1986, education represented less than 20% ofexpenditure in six regions out of 13. One year later,this was true for only two out of 13, while five regionsspent 30% or more of their budget on education. In1986, only one region allocated more than 30% of itsbudget to education as opposed to ten out of 13 regionsin 1992.

As for financial management, secondary schoolbuilding also varied widely from one region to another.In 1998, 3 050 procurement works contracts werebeing executed in the Rhône-Alpes region, 1 721 inBrittany and 1 330 in the Loire valley, but only 331 inthe Champagne-Ardenne region, and 107 in Corsica.These contracts concerned 1 240 projects in the LoireValley, 456 in Brittany and 26 in Corsica, the averagebeing 247 projects per region.

Lastly, situations also varied widely with regard to newtechnologies. Certain regions, such as Alsace,Le Centre, Brittany and La Haute Normandie – aEuropean pilot region – were very advanced. But theproblems of fitting out, cabling, accessing the Internetand integrating new technologies into the schoolsystem were noted and discussed.

For further information, please contact Isabelle Etienneon 33 (0)1 45 24 92 72; isabelle.etienne@oecd.org

The Ministry of Education anticipates that the IRCconfigurations will also serve as a model for universityresource centres for individual departments. It hasdistributed the research results to local educationauthorities and 49 national universities and is nowmonitoring the institutions’ progress in computerisingtheir resource centres.

For more information, contact:Ki-Nam KimDirector of the Department of School Facilities andEnvironmentMinistry of EducationSejong-RoChongro-ku 110-760Fax: 82 2 730 6068

UPDATE ON SUSTAINABLESCHOOL DESIGNS IN IRELAND

The Irish Department of Education and Science hasmoved through the detailed design stages for twoschool buildings that incorporate sustainable designprinciples. The results of analysis to date identify thatadditional capital investment is required to achievethe long-term benefits of a healthy and energy efficienteducational environment. This approach to schoolbuilding reinforces a number of cogent initiativescurrently being encouraged by the Planning andBuilding Unit. The results advocate:

• a greater use of the school as a community facility,with the school becoming a centre for lifelonglearning possibly from pre-school care, rightthrough to study support for students and adulteducation;

• tighter controls on construction techniques toreduce wind infiltration and improve the energyefficiency of the building fabric;

• a more considered architectural approach todesign incorporating a true understanding of asense of place and function.

It is expected that these two projects will proceed toconstruction towards the end of the year.

SCHOOL BUILDINGS ANDLOCAL AUTHORITIES

On 16 and 17 March 2000, the Brittany RegionalCouncil, the French Regions’ Association (ARF), theAssociation of the Départements of France (ADF), andthe periodical La Gazette organised in Saint-Malo,France, a national colloquium on “School Buildingsbelonging to Local Authorities – Strategies and ………………………………………………………………

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PROJECTS

CITY LEARNING CENTRESFOR THE 21ST CENTURY

The Department for Education and Employment inEngland has launched the Excellence in Cities (EiC)initiative, aimed at driving up standards in inner cityschools. A key element of this initiative are the CityLearning Centres (CLCs). By providing outstandinglocal facilities, the centres will improve educationstandards and skills levels, promote employmentopportunities and counter social exclusion.

City Learning Centres must also serve at least five othersecondary schools in the area and offer support toprimary schools and to adults and businesses in thecatchment area.

Links to other EiC initiatives

The CLC will play an important role in the delivery ofother linked initiatives. In particular, the National Gridfor Learning; Gifted and Talented, Specialist Schools;Beacon Schools and Education Action Zones.

Business involvement

CLCs will be expected to have a key role in developingnew ways of learning and teaching using the very latestinformation and communication technology (ICT).This means identifying and testing out often radicallydifferent approaches to the traditional ways of learningand teaching. In particular, City Learning Centresshould explore the impact and potential of ICT onhome-school learning. For example, can ICT help tocreate more flexibility in where, how and whenchildren learn; can ICT be used to improve supportfor children who do not easily fit into the schoolsystem; or, more generally, can ICT improve theinterface between home and school?

Business partners and individual centres will thereforebe free to establish their own links and partnerships.These would involve key companies or consultanciesproviding individual CLCs, or groups, pro bono“Business Process Re-engineering” expertise to helpcreate new models for home-school learning that willremove learning barriers for individuals and raisestandards for all.

Funding

Government will provide GBP 1.2 million per centrefor design and capital works. This funding can be usedfor recruitment and training of staff, for purchase ofhardware and software and also for contributiontowards running costs. Each centre will also receiveGBP 220 000 per year for recurrent expenditure. CLCswill also be expected to generate income throughnominal charges to adult learners and “start up”businesses that use the centre.

Technical advice

The Department for Education and Employment hasissued a “City Learning Centre: Design Guide” (revisedJuly 2000), which covers building design, layout, equip-ping of CLCs, etc. The key issues for CLC buildings are:

Initially 66 City Learning Centres are planned. Theywill all be located in secondary schools in urban areas.The aim of CLCs is to enhance learning opportunitiesof pupils in major cities. To bring this about, theobjectives of each CLC must include:

• improve access to, and use of, the latest educa-tion technology by pupils and adults;

• improve attainment levels through use of thattechnology;

• increase staying on rates;

• reduce truancy figures;• improve employment prospects;

• act as test beds for innovation and new ways ofteaching and learning.

While the core client group for these centres willbe pupils and teachers, the centres also have a roleto play in providing opportunities for the widercommunity to promote lifelong learning, includingsupporting the work of the network of Informationand Communication Technology Learning Centres.This role will be reflected in each CLCs’ objectives.

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High quality architecture – The purpose of a CLC is todeliver high quality educational and communicationservices, and the architecture should reflect thispurpose through imaginative and innovative designsolutions. It should look modern and lively. Entranceareas should be visible, capacious and welcoming.Finishes would be similar to those associated with anoffice building.

Green architecture – Whether rehabilitation or newbuilding, it is a requirement that all building workshould be carried out to the highest environmentalstandards, with excellent insulation and low energyuse. Materials should be recycled, recyclable or fromsustainable sources. Elements such as natural stackventilation and PVC-free cabling are encouraged.

Flexibility – The space provided within a building willneed to be capable of rapid reorganisation, both on aday-to-day basis and in the longer term. Centres will ona daily basis provide for a range of clients with differentneeds. They will also cater for both individuals anddifferent sizes of groups. And in the longer term, thefuture of technology for education can only be guessed.Over time the ICT hardware will change dramaticallyand teaching methods and arrangements will be subjectto frequent reassessment.

ICT Resources – Each CLC should provide in-dividual computer workstations that havenew educational software: ComputerAssisted Design engineering andarchitectural programmes,graphic and Web site designtogether with digital com-munications equipment,scanners, laser printers,colour printers, planprinter and photocopier.All workstations should beInternet-connected. ICT

systems should be robust, flexible and adaptive. Theyshould be fast and forward-looking. They should makeextensive use of communications, to the Internet, tothe schools and to the local community; and whereverpossible high broadband connections should be used.They should offer full access to technology for thedisabled and special needs groups.

Timetable

The first 32 City Learning Centres began beingestablished in September 2000; 34 more CLCs willbe established from September 2001.

Contact for CLC design guidance:Jonathan IbikunleArchitects and Building BranchDepartment for Education and EmploymentCaxton House6-12 Tothill Street, WestminsterLondon SW1H 9NF, United KingdomTel.: 44 207 273 6704E-mail: jonathan.ibikunle@dfee.gov.uk

Newham City Learning Centreat Forest Gate Community School

Axonometric view of CLC

Wandsworth CityLearning Centreat SouthfieldsCommunity CollegePerspective viewtowards cyber café

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SCHOOL PREMISESAND VIOLENCEThe following article was contributed by ProfessorMichel Born from the Department of Psychology ofDelinquency and Psycho-social Development at theUniversity of Liège, Belgium. PEB would be interestedto receive reactions to his views and asks readers tosend feedback to the Secretariat.

The eruption of violence in society is a naturalphenomenon; its rise or fall depends on complex,interrelated social processes. The same applies toviolence on school premises, any study of whichmust address the individual characteristics of youngpeople who perpetrate violence and the specificsocial context of the school. Violence is a genericterm, covering violence towards property as well aspeople. When we speak of violence towardsproperty, we mean acts of defacement, vandalism,graffiti, etc. In the case of violence against people,we make a distinction between verbal violence andphysical acts of violence (fights, assaults, etc.),whether directed towards other pupils or teachers.

Violence amongst young people

Like any form of delinquency, violence can beexperimental, particularly during adolescence – andtherefore in schools – but it may also continue through-out different periods of life.

Discontinuity

Non-habitual violence is exceptional and results froma particular situation. It is part of a process culminat-ing in a crisis, in the sense in which this is understoodby the Belgian criminologist De Greeff. It normallyoccurs where the individual experiences conflict ortension, though it can also be a group phenomenon.Although it may sometimes have serious conse-quences, it is an isolated act, occurring where theindividual’s relationships develop in such a way thatviolence erupts in a given situation. It arises, forexample, where temptation is too great or where thereis a crisis induced by alcohol. It may take the form ofshouting, slamming doors, kicking walls, slapping,punching and more serious assaults.

Developmental violence

Such violence reflects the absence of any linkbetween the person and society. Its origin is to befound in childhood, for example where parents arethemselves violent, or where there is a general lackof respect for the law in the immediate domestic orsocial context.

In adolescence, violence is often aggravated by thepeer group, which provides role models andencourages anti-social behaviour, seen as conferringprestige. Violence then becomes an habitual way ofreducing personal tension or a way of life throughwhich the individual asserts himself or herself.

Scale of the phenomenon

Statistical studies (based on surveys and data providedby the authorities or the police) clearly show thatviolence in schools is a reality. This is nothing new;we might recall that in François Villon’s time, pupilswere told to leave their daggers in the cloakroombefore entering classes.

United States statistics for 1996, published jointlyby the Departments of Justice and Education, showthat 12- to 18-year-olds committed 225 000 seriouscrimes not involving homicide (rape, assault, armedassault) on school premises, and 671 000 outsideschool. Furthermore, 12% of the students in the lastyear of secondary education said they had beenattacked by unarmed assailants, while 5% said theyhad been victims of armed attacks, either on theschool premises or on the way to or from school. Asfor headteachers, 10% reported serious incidents tothe police and 47% complained of “minor” offences(vandalism, theft, etc.). It should be pointed out thatprimary schools experience less vandalism, whichoccurs mainly in urban secondary schools. In theperiod 1992 to 1994, i.e. in two school years,76 murders or suicides were recorded in school oron the way to or from school, which is small comparedwith the total number of murders of young persons(aged between 5 and 19) in the same period (7 357).During the school year 1993/94, 341 000 teachers(12%) complained of having been “abused”, and120 000 (4%) said they had been victims of physicalassault.

In France and Belgium, the situation is fortunately lessserious. Nevertheless, several studies (see BernardCharlot and Jean-Claud Emin, Violences à l’école : Étatsdes savoirs, Paris, 1997) have clearly shown that thephenomenon is widespread, even if some schools aremore exposed to it and others protected from it.

Attempt at an explanation

The changes in western society have undeniablyencouraged a considerable, almost unlimited,growth in opportunities for delinquency, whetherthrough the availability of goods of all kinds andthe ease of access to them, or through the massiveincrease in appropriate resources (transport,weapons, computers). Being democratic and liberal,

9society offers opportunities to whoever wishes totake advantage of them. The role models presentedby the media are often violent, and barriers todelinquency no longer take the form of obstaclesimposed from outside (parents, school, police) butof obstacles freely consented to and internalised.The individual must draw upon his or her system ofmoral references to find effective obstacles tobehaviour that falls outside socially acceptedstandards. School has become the one place wherethe references underlying individual action areacquired, like a moral beacon serving as a guide toindividual action. These points are relevant not onlyto schoolchildren but to citizens in general, and thusto society as a whole. This system of references isnot dissociated from any context but is of generalrelevance. The references acquired at school arerelated to all aspects of life in society; if they werenot, social values would not extend beyond theschool precincts. Schools would not be fulfillingtheir role and would be legitimate objects of protestor even attack.

Children and adolescents are thrust into a society whosesystem of values varies according to period, cultureand current events. This is a cultural legacy, built upover generations, with the shifts in society’s valuesproducing a strong impression of inconsistency,particularly during certain periods, such as the presentday. In today’s school system, values are rarely presented

affirmatively. The reason for this is the reaction againstwhat had formerly been a bar to freedom. Traditionalvalues and institutions – state, church, school, marriage,justice, police – have also been called into question;confidence in democracy is in decline.

Some adults, feeling that authoritarian, dogmaticattitudes are outdated, abandon their children to moralrelativism. Children need guidance, however, and itis therefore essential that they be provided with clear,strongly held values.

Learning to control oneself is a fundamental require-ment in western democratic societies. There has beena shift away from control imposed from outside (thelaw, the police) towards control exercised autono-mously and freely accepted (responsibility). Unfortu-nately, not all citizens have adequately mastered theprocess of referring to a value system. Such masterypresupposes an advanced level of moral development,based on social awareness and substantial powers ofself-control, which are by no means universal inadolescence or even in adulthood.

The school premises

The school is required to develop the individual’spowers of autonomous control in his or her interac-tion with society and life within a group. Whateverthe age of the child, the school buildings and theoutdoor areas of the school may or may not providethe opportunity for the exercise of control.

The school should be a place where children areprepared for society. But it should not be closed inupon itself like a fortress, so that such preparation isconducted in an isolated environment that bears norelation to the realities of our society. On the contrary,the preparation should involve a process of socialawakening, in which the children are made aware ofthe world and the world is present to them. The schoolshould therefore enter into a symbiotic relationshipwith the surrounding district. Leaving aside theideological conflict over the comparative merits of“closed” structures that are cloistered and isolated,and structures that are “open” to other areas, and thusto society, we know that:

• The trend in contemporary history is towardsopenness.

• Opening up the school does not necessarily implypedagogical innovation.

• Open areas are more appropriate to those with anadvanced degree of autonomous control.

• Autonomous control is not directly related to agein the development process.

Violence in Schools:Today’s Knowledge

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• Open structures, by definition, provide those whoare not at ease in the establishment with thepossibility of escape; however, they also allowaccess to persons whose intentions are repre-hensible.

The school premises are the scene ofpreventative action

A telling example of intervention in a school isprovided by Michel Floro in Questions de violence àl’école, Eres, 1996. First of all, thorough research wascarried out in order to identify the problems; after that,strategies were worked out and applied; lastly thesituation was evaluated. The opinion of the educa-tional establishment was sought regarding the layoutof the premises. An administrator was appointed andtwo target areas were designated: the playground andthe canteen. Several changes were made:

In the playground:

• Game rooms were set up, used by different classesin turn during break-time. This area was decoratedby the children with a fresco; cupboards wereinstalled in the corridor.

• The entrance hall was renovated: it was cleanedand painted, and children’s work was exhibited;the means of access to classrooms wereincreased.

• A garden was laid out.

• A running track was laid down, and basketball fa-cilities were installed.

In the canteen:

• Better management of time was instigated: twosittings were introduced.

• The canteen was transformed with the fitting ofmoveable partitions.

• Old furniture was replaced with furniture thatcould be moved more quietly.

The results were very positive: jostling and fightingdisappeared from the playground and the corridors(violence persisted only in the street after school), andfood was no longer thrown around in the canteen.Achieving this result had required consistent actionand simultaneous work on two fronts: refurbishingthe areas and encouraging participation.

In conclusion

Consequently, even if the trend in the ideology andhistory of democracy is towards open areas, we shouldnot act naïvely. It is necessary to create protected

areas, as well as places that are not visible (not“tempting”), properly isolated storage spaces allowingcontrolled access, parts of buildings that can beisolated from the rest, materials that do not lend them-selves to defacement or graffiti and can be restoredeasily and cheaply, as well as the will to keep them ingood condition (the well-known broken windowsyndrome). Above all, everybody in the schoolcommunity (teachers, pupils, parents) in associationwith the local residents, must ensure that moraldevelopment and social responsibility are incor-porated into the process of acquiring skills andknowledge.

The school, in view of its underlying principles,should be regarded as the property and the“flagship” institution of the community as a whole(those associated with the school and localresidents), forming part of a dynamic system; everysystem seeks to achieve a balance between itsconstituent elements and between itself and theoutside world. Interpersonal relations requirematerial conditions, which are not the same in anopen system as in a closed one. Everybody needsand seeks security, but children adapt to changemore quickly than adults. All depends on securingbalance, i.e. the appropriate relationship betweenthe different elements, and harmony, i.e. the propermanagement of this relationship.

Given the changing conditions, we need an“ecology” for schools, providing a secure space inwhich persons and groups can engage in collectiveactivities, discover their identity, acquire citizenshipand forge social bonds, the only effective cure forviolence.

Article contributed by:Professor Michel BornUniversity of LiègePsychology of Delinquency and Psycho-socialDevelopmentBoulevard du Rectorat B-33B-4000 Liège, BelgiumFax: 32 4 366 29 88

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FEATURE

INVENTION,MAINTENANCE ANDRENEWAL OF URBANEDUCATIONALFACILITIESPEB co-hosted a symposium entitled “Invention,Maintenance, and Renewal of Urban EducationalFacilities: Global Challenges and CommunitySolutions” with the American Institute of Architects’Committee on Architecture for Education and theCEFPI Urban Education Facilities NE Chapter inOctober 1999. The meeting aimed to providearguments and evidence for system managers seek-ing to secure resources for maintenance as well asto sharpen their abilities to use those resources well.Over 60 architects, facilities planners, schoolofficials and governmental resource providersrepresenting 11 countries gathered in Baltimore,Maryland (USA) to discuss the design and condi-tion of school buildings, and their capacity torespond to changing educational demands. Beloware excerpts from the symposium papers, includingkeynote presentations and workshop reports.

Improving the Effectiveness of EducationalFacilities, a workshop reportby Jean Drouin, Canada

Managers, faced with a perpetually changingenvironment, scarce financial resources, ageingpremises, collective agreements governing the workingconditions of teachers and other staff, environmentaland energy-efficiency concerns, shrinking or on thecontrary soaring enrolment, urban sprawl, new tech-nologies and recent pedagogical changes, are obligednevertheless to meet immediate and future studentneeds. To do this, they are having to revamp existingschools and re-design new facilities.

Advantages and drawbacks of existing facilities

Existing school buildings are old and in need of main-tenance. In highly urbanised environments, it isinconceivable that they will all be renovated, given hownumerous and dilapidated they are and hence the costinvolved. Furthermore, lack of available space makesextension difficult. Yet older facilities have their impor-tance, both symbolically and architecturally. They createnot only a feeling of belonging but also an image thatremain in the minds of all former students.

Lack of space may sometimes be more a problem ofspace management, which can be solved by re-arranging timetables to suit the number of students,the functional aspects of the premises and userrequirements. Sound timetable management canprevent schools being overcrowded at certain timesand lying empty at others.

Methods of assessment

Most assessments of the effectiveness of educationalfacilities focus on the physical aspects of the buildingand on student achievement. It is widely acknowl-edged that colours, lighting and acoustics play animportant part in the learning process, but it is hardto quantify the direct effects. These assessments areoften contested, since the inclusion of criteria suchas teaching-staff quality and user satisfaction can leadto contradictory findings.

Carmi Bee, a New York architect, reminded thesymposium that thirty years ago there was already talkof assessing facilities with a post-occupancy evalua-tion focusing on student achievement, satisfaction andsocial behaviour and on the “human” side of schoolpremises. In his view, architects did not help or influenceusers sufficiently. Post-occupancy evaluation ofeducational facilities should take into account the users’comments, attitudes and moods. And cultural differ-ences affect the way we interpret our environment.

Once people have moved into a building, adjustmentsare mainly a question of engineering. For tempera-ture, lighting and air quality, controls and adjustmentsthat are familiar to and readily understood by usersare built in at the design stage.

New information and communication technologies

With regard to new technologies, computing and newinformation technologies such as the Internet havecertainly spread rapidly throughout education, butthere is much uncertainty as to their impact and howbest to handle their introduction.

There is very high demand for teleconference rooms,computer labs and Internet connections. Severalbuilding projects are being undertaken with temporarycabling until wireless communications have developedfurther. However, nobody knows whether this is theright solution and whether wireless buildings will reallybe more commonplace in a decade’s time.

New technologies are increasingly important inschools and sharing is encouraged. Mary Dietz, a NewJersey architect, demonstrated this in the project torenovate Wadleigh School. Built in 1904 to house1 500 secondary students, the premises have beenconverted to house 1 040 students in four schools (art,

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literature, science/technology and media/technology).However, the four separate schools share a single multi-media centre.

In order to ensure that a school’s ICT project is asuccess, it is crucial for all the stakeholders to beinvolved, i.e. teachers, parents, students, adminis-trators and politicians. Mary Dietz stressed that, ifhandled well, computing as a teaching tool candevelop children’s independence, ability to workwith others, creativity, commitment, self-esteem anddecision-making faculties.

The new information technologies will not replaceteachers. Children need interpersonal contact if theyare to learn. Constant reminders are needed thatinformation technologies are not goals per se but toolsthat can serve to facilitate learning. As such they areexcellent, though some concerns remain.

Solutions

The most important key to successful school design isthe programme. It specifies the number of studentsand identifies necessary building work, surface areas,service requirements and optimal use. All this requiresteamwork. Regardless of whether teachers, profession-als, administrators or politicians want to enhance theeffectiveness of school facilities, they cannot do italone. They must work with their peers, management,students and parents.

In most cases, designers can identify solutions toarchitectural problems and eliminate them. Politiciansand administrators, however, have their own agendawhich in many cases means building new schoolsrather than renovating old buildings.

Flexibility and adaptability are required when seekingsolutions. Education is perpetually evolving, particularlywith the advent of new information and communica-tion technology and pedagogical developments.

We need places where children learn to live, want tolearn and feel safe. School is a gathering place. Itssymbolic dimension must not be overlooked. Studentshave a strong sense of belonging, years after they haveleft school.

There is no consensus on optimal class numbers. Forsome, there is an irreversible trend towards small schools.The ideal school is small, with a family atmosphere. Andyet the smaller the school, the less variety it can offer interms of the curriculum and other activities.

Regardless of the purpose a building must serve, thehuman aspect remains important. Designers should createan environment that is conducive to learning. They shouldchoose colours meticulously and pay close attention toacoustics and lighting. Areas should be designed to bewelcoming and comfortable, stimulating or calm.

Nevertheless, when people move into renovated or newpremises, they need help to make the best possible useof the facilities. Otherwise they will stick to their oldhabits, and fail to understand functional aspects or thefull potential of the designer’s changes and innovations.

The post-occupancy period is just as important. Weshould question those who represent teachers, studentsand administrators on what they find pleasant or disap-pointing and what they consider to be improvementson the previous situation.

Before

After

Renovation of the Wadleigh School

The Wadleigh School, New York City

13

Managing Educational FacilitiesInfrastructure, a workshop presentationby Manfred Hinum, Austria

Many countries, regions and communities are becomingextremely concerned about issues such as the mainte-nance of ageing stock, vandalism, the reuse andadaptation of buildings, up-to-date furniture and equip-ment, the use of premises for more than one purposeand the reduction of premises, as well as related expendi-ture. In many cases, however, even the basic informa-tion necessary for effective management is lacking.

The influence of facilities

As witnessed at an international seminar in Austria in1998 on “Improving the Quality of EducationalBuilding”, the conviction is strengthening that the qualityof facilities has an impact not only on educational out-comes but on the well-being of students and teachers.There is a growing awareness of the role that educationalfacilities play in shaping attitudes toward the environ-ment and the contribution they make to urban renewal.

Glen J. Earthman of the Virginia Polytechnic Instituteand State University, USA, reported at the Austrianseminar that studies have demonstrated a relation-ship between student achievement and behaviour andthe condition of the built environment. Some of themost important factors that influence learning andliving are those that relate to control of the thermalenvironment, proper illumination, adequate space andfurnishings. If, as studies and experience stronglyindicate, achievement (i.e. student test scores) isgreater in above-standard schools than in substand-ard buildings, it is the obligation of the responsibleauthorities to improve the facilities.

The quality and duration of a building are affectedby how it is looked after, the ways in which servicingand repairs are carried out, and the rate at whichneeds and requirements change. Therefore it isnecessary to develop strategies for managingeducational facilities but also to do research to betterunderstand how facilities influence studentbehaviour and achievement.

Maintenance

A marked deterioration in the condition of facilitiesand in the morale of facility-users is one of the mainproblems experienced. Insufficient funds, poormanagement of funds, and estate management andprovision that do not match educational needscontribute to the “maintenance gap”.

Poor maintenance increases running costs, such as forenergy and cleaning. Energy expenditure, for example,

More effective use of educational facilities

To use educational facilities more effectively, closeattention should be paid to the three following stagesof any project:

Pre-project:

• involvement of teachers, students and adminis-trators at the drawing-board stage;

• analysis of research into the performance ofeducational facilities;

• a user committee set up for the duration of theprocess;

• regard for the school’s mission and student learningpatterns.

Project implementation:• involvement of the user committee;

• information to alleviate the adverse impact andstress of change and innovation;

• technical quality and creativity demanded fromthe design team, with a view to creating anenvironment that is stimulating by its form,textures, light, adaptability and outreach, a placethat will be conducive to culture.

Project monitoring:

• user training in the design principles, scope fordevelopment and technical aspects of the facilities;

• post-occupancy evaluation one year after opening, tomake the necessary adjustments and changes in use;

• repetition of these two phases where appropriate,to ensure that the school continues to thrive.

Media center

Science laboratory

The Wadleigh School

14

buildings – which will also prepare the way for greaterICT based education – has made more money avail-able for schools and education generally. Over a fouryear period, over GBP 6 billion will be spent oncapital building works at schools.

The large inflow of extra capital has set many newchallenges, and government innovations have focusedon three main areas:

• how to target money more effectively to raisestandards;

• the need for better delivery mechanisms to improvevalue for money and the stewardship of schoolpremises;

• how to evaluate capital spending.

Better targeting

The condition of schools varies widely and there arealso huge differences between Local EducationAuthorities (LEAs). So how can one make sure themoney goes where it is most needed and where itwill have the biggest effect on standards?

The traditional method in England has been to invitebids for individual projects. But this approach generatesmuch wasted effort. In 1998, LEAs and schools bid forsix times more money than the Department for Educa-tion and Employment (DfEE) had available. It alsoinvolved those sitting in the ivory tower in Londonmaking decisions on local priorities. The governmentwants to move away from this approach to one in whichLEAs and schools have greater ownership and assesstheir priorities locally on a proper basis.

The vehicle for doing this is Asset Management Plans(AMPs).1 AMPs are essentially a framework forassessing capital needs and agreeing priorities locallyin a robust, fair and improved way, and in a spirit of

can amount to more than one third of premises–relatedexpenditure; reducing energy consumption can helpnot only to save money but also to reduce carbondioxide emissions and other forms of pollution. Furtherconsequences of poor maintenance are deteriorationof parts of the building; an unsafe and unhealthyenvironment; vandalism; and a lower quality ofteaching, learning and living.

On the other hand there are educational, social andenvironmental advantages of good maintenance. Thecondition of the environment indicates society’ssupport for education. It sets an example to pupils,that the environment in which we live should becared for. Good maintenance promotes the aims ofeducation.

Steps towards keeping schools in good and up-to-datecondition include:

• Have accurate information about the condition ofthe facilities and the scale of funds needed. Keepthe condition of the building stock and resourcesunder regular review.

• Define priorities for expenditure.

• Ensure financing by convincing authorities andother key people.

• Establish resource and funding allocation mecha-nisms.

• Stick to planned maintenance schedules.

• Act promptly to repair damage.

• Give responsibility for the condition of the facili-ties to people who are close to the facilitiesconcerned.

• Involve the users in the management.

Age of existing school building stockin England

Modernising the Schools Infrastructure inEngland, a keynote speechby Ken Beeton, United Kingdom

Most of England’s school buildings are now at or pastthe end of their design life, only a relatively small pro-portion are modern. School inspectors consider that onein five schools have unsatisfactory accommodation. Thepoor condition of many buildings is partly due to pastunder-funding, but the system for handling capital hasalso had many perverse incentives within it.

In May 1997, a new Labour Government was electedand announced its priorities as being: “Education,education, education”. The government, recognisingthat to improve standards it needs to modernise school

Post-19769%

Temporary4%

Inter-War8%

Pre-191912%

1944-196633%

1966-197634%

15

Evaluation

There is clearly an assumption that investment in schoolshas a positive impact on pupil performance. The DfEErecently commissioned PricewaterhouseCoopers tocarry out a study to test the assumption about this link.The aim of the project was “to measure the additionaleffect, in terms of pupil attainment, of every GBP 1invested in schools capital”. The study is attempting to

good partnership and collaboration. Capital require-ments will be assessed for three main types of need:condition, suitability as related to the curriculum, andsufficiency – the number of schools and total areasavailable.

Delivery of capital

To respond to the challenge of putting money whereit will be most effective, the DfEE developed a newcapital strategy. Its first key components are AMPappraisal and formula capital allocations to LEAs forcondition works at schools. This is very much on theprinciple of “intervention in inverse proportion tosuccess”. If an AMP is appraised as being sound –with good collaboration across all schools inprioritising need, value for money in the proposedsolutions and a track record of good maintenance –the government will make a big formulaic allocationof capital to the LEA and leave it to get on withmanaging its capital programme. The other side ofthe coin is that it will bypass the LEA and providegrants direct to those schools where it considersinvestment is needed if the local processes are shownto be weak. And, from 2002/03, the government willstart to make capital allocations with a “discretionary”element – initially only 5% – but enabling it to rewardAuthorities by giving them extra money for good assetmanagement.

Since April 2000, England is also providing anannual ring-fenced allocation of capital direct to allschools – typically around GBP 25 000, althoughthe amount is likely to get much bigger in futureyears. This gives schools the ability to direct capitalfunds to those areas which they regard as highpriority and, for bigger projects, to enter into a realpartnership with their LEA, based on their own,tangible stake. Clearly, the dynamics are changing,with schools having much greater ownership andinfluence. Another innovation is the use of SeedChallenge funding where the government is mak-ing available to each LEA seed money which canbe used by schools to help lever in money from theprivate sector (such as from sports or arts bodies) forimportant but lower priority work. Public privatepartnerships are being pursued as well. Already550 schools in England are benefiting from largeprivate finance deals, with many more in the pipe-line. Public private partnerships are becoming thepreferred method of procurement, subject to satisfac-tory value for money checks and transfers of risk.

1. PEB Exchange issue 38, October 1999, “An Update on AssetManagement Plans in the United Kingdom”, pages 17-18.

PEB Exchange issue 36, February 1999, “The United Kingdom’sSchool Asset Management Plans”, pages 14-16.

Interior of a modern secondary school

1930s highly glazed school

Victorian urban school

1960s system built secondary school

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The Impact of Education Trends on SchoolFacility Designs, a keynote speechby Prakash Nair, United States

There is a great divide between the current thinkingin the educational community and the work thatschool facility professionals are producing. Most ofthe older stock of existing buildings and newly builtschool facilities inhibit the proper delivery of educa-tion. The uniformity of school facilities is suited to theoutdated one-size-fits-all approach to educationwhich does not consider that: “The ways children learnand develop are highly individual – even idiosyncratic– and the attempt to have them learn the same thingsin the same way at the same pace is a form of educa-tional folly” (Scott Thompson).

Certain questions are not asked often enough:

• Architects: Should the focus be on creating betterbuildings or better students?

• Politicians, educators and administrators: Shouldthe focus be on achieving higher test scores orcreating better students?

• Parents: Should school simply focus on academicsor seek to develop responsible citizens?

The most important function of a school may not be todeliver academic education in the traditional sense, butto provide social skills for survival in the adult world.To survive and thrive in the next century, children willneed proficiency in many types of literacy, not onlyacademic but autonomous, community, family,workplace, etc. Learning is not about simply understand-ing the subject nor even retention; learning is aboutengagement. Once children are engaged in a task, theybecome partners, collaborators and even teachers. Asexpressed by Chip Wood, co-creator of the “Respon-sive Classroom” approach to school reform: “If the focuswere really on creating better students, children wouldhave time in school to consider and reflect on whatthey were learning and time to care about and contributeto one another and their school. They would have timeto ponder where their lives were headed. School wouldbe a learning community, not a fact factory.”

One must be careful of the information-rich/experi-ence-poor paradigm. Technology is a tremendous tool,but it cannot compensate for real life experiences.Schools should get children out into the community, insupervised settings such as after-school programmes,doing volunteer work, gaining skills, e.g. visiting theelderly, taking care of animals at animal shelters,reclaiming patches of land through neighbourhoodgardens. The opportunities for children’s involvementin the community are endless.

distill out from all of the very many other factors whichhave an impact on performance, the effect on standardsof capital investment. If this link can be measured, itwill be possible to focus investment where it will havethe maximum effect and, hopefully, justify furtheradditional money.

The starting point for the study was a literature review.The consultants identified 38 relevant existing studiesfrom around the world and the preliminary findingswere:

• The evidence linking capital expenditure to schoolperformance is mixed (some studies find positiverelationships, some negative, some no relation-ships at all!).

• There is broad acceptance that capital expenditurecan have an effect on performance (particularlywhen starting from a low level of initial capital –for example, in developing countries or, foradvanced economies, more strongly in the earlierpart of this century than in more recent decades).

• The general ambiguity in findings can probably berelated, at least in part, to how the work was specifiedand carried out – the nature of the studies, and thequalitative and methodological differences.

The consultants have also developed a conceptualmodel to illustrate how capital investment works itsway through into educational attainment, and havelisted a whole range of inputs and intermediate out-puts. Whilst it may be possible with some confidenceto identify the impact of capital investment on theintermediate outputs – such as improved teacherrecruitment and retention, or better staying on ratesor reduced truancy – it is of course extremelychallenging to identify the impact of capital invest-ment alone on the final output of attainment levels.

A large number of structured interviews have takenplace with a representative sample of individualschools and headteachers to help prove the model,and a whole load of data is currently being assem-bled and interrogated to try and measure the link.

The study has already identified strong links betweencapital investment and performance. For example,capital investment was seen by headteachers as beingone of the two most powerful levers on teacher moti-vation which, in turn, links directly to the quality andamount of teaching, before feeding through into thequality of learning and pupil performance. Therewere also strong correlations between a high qualitylearning environment and good teaching, leadership,attitudes and behaviours. Expenditure on such areasas heating, air quality and lighting was a particularlystrong influence on performance.

17

If school can be conducted in the outside commu-nity, so too can the outside community come into theschool. “Classrooms organised as theatres, a news-paper, art galleries, stores and post offices provideopportunities for acquiring literacy skills by simulat-ing situations that make sense in children’s everydaylife” (Carol Walker and Frank Yekovich).

One should keep in mind that schools in poorerdistricts need more services and that older buildingsneed more money. Poorer districts should get a largerallocation of public money because they are less likelyto attract private money.

When it comes to the future of schools, the schoolplanning and design community can no longer affordto be bit players on the sidelines. Facility professionalsneed to assume leadership roles in shaping both thepresent and future of schools, not school buildings.

Planning for the Future of Education, akeynote speech by John Mayfield, Australia

What will education be like in the future?

In the future, everyone will be a learner all their lives.The educational service must respond to everyone,not only but certainly including the young. Educa-tion will enable individuals to live full and fulfillinglives. It will be essential for the development of thecommunity and for economic development, includingthe development of education as a service industry inits own right.

Powerful new learning technologies will be avail-able alongside conventional teaching technologies.Education will be a traded service as well as a free,public, compulsory and secular service. The content,accreditation and assessment of learning will bemore national and international in outlook. Educa-tion will take place in the home, workplace andinstitutions. It will take place anywhere, anytime andon demand.

Education will be much more learner centred.Teachers will remain essential and will do increas-ingly different things.

New partnerships will be crucial for the educationalservice to be appropriate to the special, immediateand future needs of the learners. Education will nolonger be a monopoly. Co-operation, collaborationand partnership are necessary for maintaining, invent-ing and renewing the educational service, includingthe places in which people (especially children) learn.

Communities will need to meet these five needs:

• reintegration of the functions of the urbanenvironment: live, learn, work and play;

• the opportunity for accessing, processing andpublishing their own new knowledge;

• a set of learning services including advice,brokerage and assurance, but also a responsivelocal public learning service;

• a process for continuous improvement;

• connection and partnerships with other commu-nities.

Recommendations for facility planners

• Work with others: Identify the school as one part(perhaps the focus) of the lifelong learning service.Recognise the links between education and eco-nomic development. Recognise the importance ofinclusion – everyone will be involved all their lives.

Classroom ofthe Future –New York Citydesigncompetitionentry

Most newschools in theUnited States andCanada are stillusing conventionalfurniture layouts asshown in thisnewly constructedschool in New York

School for thePhysical City –an alternative schoollocated in an oldmanufacturing buildingin New York City

18

• Develop a signature: Identify a speciality as a pointof difference. Build on existing strengths. Recog-nise how to operate in a global community withoutlosing the sense of being special or unique.Develop a way of contributing to the network.

• Master the technologies: Maximise the use of thenew information and communication technologies.Establish some form of an ICT centre. Work withevery partner that can be found. Link with others ofthe same speciality. Access, process and publish.

• Contribute to the social process of learning: Createa facility in which people can engage in socialprocesses. Recognise the purpose of technology.

• Aim for sustainability: Education is both a publicinvestment and a traded service. Think of theeducational service as a business. Develop abusiness plan. Identify and quantify the tangiblecontributions of the educational service to theeconomy of the community.

• Ensure that the range and nature of fixed assetsare responsive to inevitable and rapid change:Facilities are now more likely to be dispersed,leased, shared, part of the urban fabric and openall hours. They are likely to include the home andthe workplace. They should still be architecturallyrecognisable.

• Set up the process of continuing improvement: Theaim is for education to contribute to making thecommunity a better place in which to live; the aimis not simply a better school.

• Invent, re-engineer, create: Try to work out whythe plant is rundown, unloved and not working.Identify (with all those concerned) what haschanged. The argument for reform is stronger todaybecause there is an acute sense of need for lifelonglearning, the technology is available, the modelsare emerging and the resources are available.

The symposium papers presented here are availablein full in the Resources section of the PEB Web site:http://www.oecd.org/els/edu/peb/

References

DALE, Julia (1999), “Inner City Primary Schools in Havana – theCasas Adaptadas”. Presentation, UEF/CAE/PEB Symposium “Inven-tion, Maintenance and Renewal of Urban Educational Facilities:Global Challenges and Community Solutions”, 30-31 October.

Impact of Facilities on Learning Page. National Clearinghouse forEducational Facilities, 31 July 2000.http://www.edfacilities.org/ir/impact_learning.cfm

LACKNEY, Jeffery A. (1999), “Track 2: Impact of Social Patterns onEducation and Facilities”. Presention, UEF/CAE/PEB Symposium“Invention, Maintenance and Renewal of Urban EducationalFacilities: Global Challenges and Community Solutions”, 30-31 October.http://www.edi.msstate.edu/track.html

PEB Exchange issue 40, “New York’s School for the Physical City”,June 2000, pages 6-7.

PEB Exchange issue 39, “Urban Educational Facilities”, February2000, pages 3-4.

Contacts

Ken Beeton, Head of Schools Capital and BuildingsDepartment for Education and EmploymentSanctuary Buildings, Great Smith Street, WestminsterLondon, SWIP 3BT, United KingdomFax: 44 171 925 6936, e-mail: ken.beeton@dfee.gov.uk

Jean Drouin, EngineerDirection des équipements scolairesDirection générale du financement et des équipementsMinistère de l’Éducation du Québec1035, rue de la Chevrotière, 14th floorQuebec, Canada G1R 5A5Fax: 1 418 643 9224E-mail: Jean.Drouin@meq.gouv.qc.ca

Manfred Hinum, Ph.D.Principal AdministratorBMUK (Federal Ministry of Education and Cultural Affairs)Minoritenplatz 51014 Vienna, AustriaFax: 43 1 531 20 4482E-mail: Manfred.Hinum@bmuk.gv.at

Edward E. Kirkbride, NCARB, REFP (symposium programme chairman)President, UEF21-NE Chapter325 Norwood RoadDowningtown, PA 19335, USAFax: 1 610 518 0395E-mail: eek@bee.net

John MayfieldDanton Services International18 Bishop StreetSkye 5072AustraliaE-mail: mayfield@camtech.net.au

Prakash Nair, RA, REFPNational Director for Education Technology ConsultingNoteSys, LLCNew York, USAFax: 1 718 459 4445E-mail: PrakashN@NoteSys.com

………………………………………………………………

Over hundred years old primary school in the

United Kingdom

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NEW TECHNOLOGYAND EDUCATION INFINLANDICT policy: a new strategy for 2000-2004

On 23 April 1999, the Ministry of Education publisheda new National Strategy for Education, Training andResearch in the Information Society for 2000–2004.1

This strategy is a sequel to the National Strategy forEducation, Training and Research completed in 1995.

On the basis of the review of the previous strategyperiod, it can be said that the development of the Finnishinformation society is faring well in international terms.This specifically applies to technological infrastructure.The utilisation of information and communicationtechnologies in educational establishments has, how-ever, been uneven. Moreover, commitment to thestrategy has varied a great deal. According to the evalu-ation, only one fifth of educational staff extensively resortto new technology to support teaching. However, almostall pupils, students and teachers would be willing toutilise new technology in teaching and studying to agreater extent. Although pedagogical utilisation ofinformation and communication technologies hassucceeded in pilot projects, the more extensive use ofpositive experiences has thus far been defective. Themajority of information society appropriations have beentargeted at equipment acquisitions and network buildingin educational establishments, universities, libraries andarchives. Funding for education, training and researchrelated to the information society has also increased,and the status of research has been strengthened byincreasing student intake and the number of teachersand researchers. These investments, however, are in-sufficient.

As approached in the new strategy period, the develop-ment of Finnish high-level know-how must include:

• a greater emphasis on the development of contentsand modes of operation;

• an increase in international co-operation ineducation, training and research;

• an increase in co-operation and co-ordinationbetween the public and private sectors;

• the notion of media development and the impactof its integration into education, training andresearch;

• providing equal opportunities for all citizens.

The research and education sector will operatethrough networks. Networking projects will developand crystallise into virtual universities, virtual schoolsand versatile research networks.

Creating favorable conditions for learning inFinland

By the year 2004 Finland will be one of the leadinginteractive knowledge societies. Success will be basedon citizens’ equal opportunities to study and developtheir own intellectual capacity and extensively utiliseinformation resources and educational services. A high-quality, economically sustainable mode of operationin network-based teaching and research will havebeen established.

These objectives will be achieved through the actionprogramme, the all-encompassing theme of whichis the development of a Finnish general knowledgebase and learning environments. The majority of theprogramme will be implemented through ordinaryoperational development. In order to keep Finlandon a steady course in developing the informationsociety, the focal areas of the action programme willrequire reallocation of resources and well-focusedadditional funding. The focal areas of the actionprogramme include:

• information society skills for all;

• the versatile use of networks in studying andteaching;

• accumulating digital information capital;

• strengthening information society structures ineducation, training and research.

The Finnish school network service “EDU.fi”

EDU.fi2 is a national service maintained by theNational Board of Education. It contains different kindsof classroom resources, information about adminis-trative matters pertaining to education, events andmatters connected with schools in general. The EDU.fipages contain basic information about education,including the Finnish education system, its financing,building of schools and matters concerning legisla-tion. In addition, EDU.fi serves as a news channelthrough which schools can get the latest and mosttopical information. This channel also provides infor-mation on the European Union and on in-servicetraining for teachers.

1. The strategy can be found on the Internet in English,http://www.minedu.fi/julkaisut/information/englishU/index.html

2. http://www.edu.fi

PROJECTS (continued)

20

EDU.fi also contains solid support materials for thepedagogic use of networks and various learningenvironments for those studying through, for example,distance learning upper secondary school, the virtualacademy for adults, Internetix or the open universitysystem.

technology equipment has turned homes intodiverse study environments.

• The diverse use of existing school premises andtechnical resources will be intensified.

• Student apartments will be provided with perma-nent datalines.

• Experience in new solutions for constructing andequipping educational institutions will be gatheredand communicated.

• In the renovation and construction of schools,closer attention should be paid to the needs of theknowledge-based society through education andtraining and through supporting co-operationbetween experts in the areas of the physical envi-ronment and technical and pedagogic planning.

• The advent of digital radio and television and thetechnical development of information networkswill significantly expand the technical infrastruc-ture for open and distance learning.

In an open learning environment, learning is activeand communal, and utilises a variety of media. Open-ness is also linked to the opportunity for networkingin learning situations, the mobility of learners, andpartial independence of time and place. Optionssupport the self-directed learning and motivation ofthe student.

Virtual school and distance learning

Learning must take place in a setting which as far aspossible corresponds to the future operationalenvironment. This requires strong utilisation of infor-mation and communication technologies and anaptitude for network-oriented studying.

Because of the long distances and the small popula-tion, educational establishments in Finland arerelatively small and scattered far from each other. Thisincreases the cost of education. Information networksoffer new opportunities to support small educationalestablishments as an alternative to closing downschools. Virtual studies also make it possible to supportthe education of Finnish children living abroad.Information networks bring study opportunities closerto the people, increase flexibility and options also inunits with a small number of students, and help increaseco-operation between various groups of educationalestablishments. Virtual studies are possible from thelower stage of the comprehensive school to uppersecondary schools and vocational institutions. Ever-diversifying wireless communication is also stronglyutilised. These are the foundations of the Finnish virtualschool, which will combine the advantages of high-quality contact and distance education.

The planning of educational establishmentsand libraries

Changes in operational culture caused by thedeveloping information society also presentchallenges for the design of concrete study andresearch facilities. Some objectives settled in thestrategy concerning school buildings and equipmentare:

• Schools will have high-quality network connec-tions to other schools and libraries in the munici-pality and to the information resources and servicesof other libraries. The computer system used at theschool library must be compatible with themunicipal public library system.

• The spatial planning of schools and school librar-ies must be carried out to take into account avariety of working methods.

• The equipment must be placed so as to achieve amaximum utilisation rate and a user-friendlyapproach.

• Public libraries and the libraries of educationalestablishments will increasingly serve as placeswhere learning based on information technologyis carried out alone or in groups. This will alsohappen at the workplace. Improved information

The Finnish school network service “EDU.fi”: http://www.edu.fi

21

The main aim of the virtual school project, which hasstarted in 2000, is to develop and implement a studysystem based on open and distance learning for uppersecondary school pupils, comprehensive school pupilsand vocational school pupils, a system which is inde-pendent of students’ place of study or residence. Inthe long run it will enable the completion of coursesof different depth and grades, and even degrees. Theproject aims to solve technical, pedagogical, social,administrative and statutory problems involved in theadoption of new forms of studying. The project willalso help every school to develop its activities towardsvirtual school. The fundamental purpose of the virtual

studies is to develop and introduce co-operative in-teractive open learning environments and teachingmethods. The prerequisites for this are systematicresearch and development and effective applicationof the results, not only in virtual studies but also inlearning material:

• A network-based user interface will be launchedwith tutoring, counselling, study material and edu-cational services serving the whole educationalsystem.

• Networking by teachers will be supported.

• A multi-disclipinary research and developmentnetwork of learning environments producing andsupplying high-quality educational services willbe established. The prerequisites for networkactivities will be created so as to facilitate newentrepreneurial activities, new services in opera-tional organisations, new products and newintellectual rights. Teacher education units areexpected to substantially capitalise on the inno-vative development of information and commu-nication technologies.

The use of ICT in schools

Finnish school curricula require that all pupils beprovided with basic skills in information technology

Heinävaara Elementary School, © Reino Tapaninen

ICT STATISTICS FOR FINLAND

Computer situation in educational institutions in 1999(min. 386 level PCs or equivalent):

Number of Students per PC Students per PCinstitutions 2000 target

Comprehensive primary schools 31 000 12 – 13 10

Comprehensive secondary schools 16 000 11 – 12 8

Upper secondary schools 12 000 9 – 10 6

Vocational institutions and polytechnics 34 000 5 – 6 3 – 5

TOTAL 93 000

Percentage connected to networks in 1999

Comprehensive primary schools 90%

Comprehensive secondary schools 90%

Upper secondary schools 95%

Vocational institutions and polytechnics 100%

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in comprehensive school. Information technologydoes not, however, have its own specific subject,but the main principle is rather to integrate it withother subjects. Elective or voluntary courses foracquiring skills in the use of computers may also beoffered to students in comprehensive secondaryschool, upper secondary school and vocationalinstitutes.

In the new strategy for 2000-2004 the local ICTstrategies in education will be integrated intocurricula. Through the evaluation and developmentof curricula, educational establishments will now havenew tools enabling them to meet new educationalchallenges. Creativity, problem solving and co-operation will be emphasised in the activities anddevelopment strategies of educational establishments.Towards the end of the strategy period, media literacywill become a part of general education.

The Finnish National Fund for Research and Devel-opment (SITRA) in 1998 at the request of the Parlia-mentary Select Committee on the Future carried outan evaluation project entitled Information andCommunications Technology in Teaching andLearning. The purpose of the project was to evaluatethe current situation regarding ICT and to ascertainthe most important development challenges whichshould be met in order to utilise the technology moreeffectively in teaching.

The research analysed the level of expertise and utili-sation of information technology by comprehensiveand upper secondary school teachers. It also analysedthe pedagogical beliefs associated with the use ofinformation technology for teaching. The analysis ofthe research material showed that there was a widedivergence in the teachers’ level of expertise in infor-mation technology and only a small proportion of theteachers had a wide ranging command of the use ofvarious ICT equipment. In the sample studied, mostof the teachers did have a good command, however,of some information technology application, andregarded ICT as an appropriate tool. The research alsoshowed that most of the teachers had a computeravailable for use both at home and at school. Almosthalf of the comprehensive secondary and uppersecondary teachers who answered used informationtechnology daily in the preparation of their ownteaching. Only about 20% of the teachers used ICTin their own teaching daily, but as many as 60% usedit at least once a week. Currently the most commonlyused applications of information technology are wordprocessing, World Wide Web services and e-mail.Although the teachers who participated in the researchhave already adopted information technology as atool, they feel in need of a great amount of ICT support, …

particularly regarding pedagogical support andtraining in the use of information technology inteaching.

The questionnaire for educational institutionsascertained how the students utilised the Internet. TheInternet is most usually used as a means of retrievinginformation (84% of the schools that answered).Almost half of the schools had their own Web page,but this was mainly to present the school, becauseonly 20% of the schools published material producedby the students on the networks. Increasing the varietyof teaching methods using networks is in its infancy,as only 10% of the schools reported that they usednetworks for sending and returning student assign-ments and for student guidance. Networks alreadyhave a clear significance in the administration ofschools as 50% of the schools used networks for thispurpose.

Ritva Kivi's article was also published in the 86th is-sue of Administration et éducation, the review of theFrench association of educational administrators(AFAE). See page 26, Bâtir pour apprendre.

Article contributed by:Ritva KiviChief TechnologistEducational Communications and TechnologyNational Board of EducationPL 38000531 Helsinki, FinlandFax: 358 9 7747 7826E-mail: ritva.kivi@oph.fi

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THE SCIENCERESOURCE AREA INTHE STATE-OF-THE-ARTHIGH SCHOOLIt appears that science education is moving moreand more toward individual and small-group, hands-on projects and away from the “sage on the stage”lecture and “one size fits all” laboratory projects.The Thomas Haney Centre in Maple Ridge, BritishColumbia (Canada) operates on individual studyplans for each student, requiring that a studentdemonstrate proficiency in the subject matter tocomplete a course, but allowing students to progressat their own rate of speed and to learn in their ownmost effective manner (following Gardiner’s sugges-tions on multiple intelligences).

If this is truly the future of secondary education, itseems that fixed, designated-subject science labora-tories may become dinosaurs. Perhaps a large, flexiblestudent project space could be combined with anumber of other, support spaces, to provide theappropriate learning environment for science. Asstudents become more and more responsible fordeveloping their own projects with which to explorethe science curriculum, the need for individuallaboratory/classrooms and prep areas should begreatly reduced. Rather than daily doses of large-grouplectures in a classroom, more and more content wouldbe delivered either by reading, study of documenta-

tion on a computer (CD-ROM or Internet), or by ac-tual experimentation, thus requiring significantly lesstraditional classroom space and significantly moreproject space.

The diagram below suggests the science resource areaof the state-of-the-art high school and includes thefollowing facilities:

Project Area: This is the primary learning space for allstudents. It would have a high ceiling (or no ceiling),flexible and adjustable lighting, water/gas/electricity/data connections throughout the space, and little orno fixed casework. The primary furniture would betables and chairs which students could arrange to suittheir needs. One or more fume hoods would be pro-vided for those projects requiring same, and increasedventilation of the project area would be required.Space and resource allocation would be the function

Project AreaHigh ceiling, flexible space, adjustable lighting,

water/gas/electric/data sources throughout,little or no fixed casework

Project PrepArea

Supplies/EquipmentCheck-out

GreenhouseArea

BiologicalWastewaterTreatment

System

Small GroupMeeting Area

OutdoorProject Area

Small GroupMeeting AreaLarge Group

Meeting Area(24 seats)Seminar

Room(12 seats/tables)

Large GroupMeeting

Area(24 seats)

Small GroupMeeting Area

Faculty Offices& Conference

Room

Small GroupMeeting Area

ControlledEnvironment

Area

F L E X I B L E , I N T E G R A T E D H I G H S C H O O L S C I E N C E R E S O U R C E A R E A

Flexible Project AreaThomas Haney Centre, Maple Ridge, BC

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of the teachers who are now truly facilitators with theknowledge and experience to guide students in theirlearning process. As this space would serve all studentsin all grades, it would necessarily be large and might,for acoustical purposes, need to be subdivided intotwo or more such spaces which could be connectedthrough large, roll-up doors to permit rearrangingequipment or long-term projects.

Outdoor Project Area: Ideally, the main project areacould open directly, via overhead or sliding doors, toan adjacent outdoor project area where outdoorexperiments such as weather observations, streammechanics, animal and plant studies could beconducted.

Supplies/Equipment Check-out: With small group andindividualised projects being accomplished on arandom schedule, a centralised storage and check-outspace for supplies and equipment would be required,replacing the individual storage and prep roomsnormally associated with dedicated laboratory/class-rooms. If the project area is subdivided, it might benecessary to have more than one supply/equipmentcheck-out room, or one such space might be locatedstrategically between two or more project rooms to serveall. The supplies/equipment check-out space would havea number of banks of shelving, possibly rolling, compactshelving to save aisle space, and would have servicewindows with roll-up grilles opening into the projectareas. At the Thomas Haney Centre, kits for individuallaboratory projects are put together in advance in plastictote trays of various sizes; when a student or team isready to do a particular project, they merely check outthe appropriate tote tray which also includes instruc-tions and safety precautions. The student or team wouldthen proceed to a vacant workstation or table in theproject area to set up and perform the project. Staffingfor this area would depend on the number of projectareas being served and the number of students in thestudent body. This space would be open at all timesthat the project area is open.

Project Prep Area: This would be the make-up areafor the project kits. Rather than scurrying to prepare adozen laboratory set-ups for a class of 24, a teacherwould prepare several tote tray kits for each projectat a convenient time, and place them in a pre-assignedlocation in the supplies/equipment check-out space.When kits are returned, the various glassware andinstruments must be cleaned and the consumablesreplaced. This work could be performed by studentsor by teachers as convenient.

Greenhouse Area: Rather than provide the type ofenvironment appropriate to a greenhouse in the entireproject area, a separate greenhouse area should be

constructed. This space could be located adjacent tothe project area, or be remote, but should have accessto the supplies/equipment check-out space. The sizeand equipment of the greenhouse will depend on theplanned curriculum which would make use of this fa-cility. It could be used for long-term demonstrations ofcomposting, solid and liquid waste processing, grow-ing of biological specimens such as fish and plants, etc.

Biological Wastewater Treatment Area: Wherepossible, the use of an environmentally sensitive,biological wastewater treatment system could act asboth a building utility and a science demonstrationarea similar to that installed at the Boyne River EcologyCentre of the Toronto (Canada) Board of Education.This space should be located on the exterior wall withdirect sun and could be adjacent to or a part of thegreenhouse area.

GreenhouseSamuel Shepard Jr. Gateway Education Park, St. Louis, MO

Biological Wastewater TreatmentBoyne River Ecology Centre, Toronto, ON

Controlled Environment Area: This space would offerthe opportunity to conduct projects requiring a morecontrolled environment than would be available in alarge, open project area. Dust control, humidity control,lighting, temperature and other variables could bedifferent in this space than elsewhere in the resourcearea. As with the greenhouse, this space could be

25

located adjacent to the main project area or be remote.It probably should not connect directly to the supplies/equipment check-out space so as to avoid contaminat-ing the controlled environment, but should be near bythis space. The space is meant to be as flexible andfunctional as the main project area.

Small Group Meeting Areas: These conference roomsshould open directly off the main project area andshould have glass partitions to allow for supervision andto create a sense of connection to the projects in thelarger space. The small group meeting areas are meantas places for small groups or teams to meet to discussthe progress of their projects or to analyse the appropri-ate method for achieving a particular project goal. Asseparate spaces they can have sound isolation from thegeneral noise of the larger space while allowing thesmall group to conduct their own discussions withoutdisturbing those in the project space. It might be possiblefor a team to check out such a space for several days ata time if the requirements of a project produced a needfor extended discussions, paperwork and computer-related activities. The space should be equipped withelectrical outlets, appropriate lighting, computer net-working capabilities and, possibly, a desktop computerconnected to the Internet. A markerboard and tacksurface should be standard equipment.

Larger Group Meeting Areas (24 Seats): In spite ofthe individualised or small group nature of the scienceexperience, there will still be times when teacher andstudents need to meet as a group to present a newconcept, lay out ground rules for a new project, etc.Other uses might include a group presentation ofproject results by an individual or team or the groupviewing of a film or other media presentation. Theroom should be sized to hold an entire class group(i.e. 24) and should be equipped with markerboard,tack area, projection screen, LCD projector, computernetwork connections, adjustable lighting andadjustable seating to permit a wide variety of func-tions to make use of the space. The number of suchlecture areas should be calculated by determining thelikely number and frequency of group presentationsin the curriculum. These spaces would not be assignedto individual teachers as “home” spaces.

Seminar Room (12 Seats/Tables): In the Thomas HaneyCentre experience, full class size meetings are rare;teachers make presentations on a particular issue whena sufficient group of students are ready for the material.One or more smaller seminar-sized spaces with movabletables and chairs should be provided. Teachers can holdgroup discussions, or review material with two or threeteams of students at once; the spaces could also beused by groups of students working as a larger team orseveral teams working on the same project to discussfindings or plan out a method of attack. Both the lectureareas and the seminar rooms could open directly off ofthe project area or be more remote.

Faculty Offices & Conference Room: These are the“home” spaces for the faculty and may be individualoffices, small cubicles in a larger space or officesshared by two teachers. They should be adjacent tothe project area so as to allow students to visit withteachers as necessary during the course of theirprojects, but should also have enough privacy that ateacher can conduct a private meeting with a studentor carry on a private telephone conversation. One ormore small conference spaces should be provided inthis area to allow teachers to meet with small groupsof students, or with a student and his/her parents, orfor groups of teachers to meet to plan curricula andprojects. If a science library is part of the school’sresources, it might also be located in this area.

In the contemporary high school where individualisedstudy and group project spaces are the rule, such ascience resource area will fit right into the plan;whether the science resource area could be integratedwith other project areas depends on the types andextent of science projects attempted. It might bepossible to equip the multipurpose project space usedby all disciplines with the appropriate utilities forscience; the question remains, however, if the noise,clutter and smells of science projects would betolerable if integrated with the other disciplines.

Many of the individual concepts elaborated in thispaper have been constructed in schools within theUnited States and Canada by various architects.However, the proposal of combining all of them intoa flexible science resource area is the intellectualproperty of Inside/Out Architecture, Inc. and is copy-righted material.

Article contributed by:James T. Biehle, AIA, PresidentInside/Out Architecture, Inc.8025 Forsyth BoulevardClayton, MO 63105 (USA)Fax: 1 314 863 1339

Weather StationSamuel Shepard Jr. Gateway Education Park, St. Louis, MO

………………………………………………………………

26

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November1-3 - “Schooling for Tomorrow” is the theme of a conference organised in Rotter-dam by the OECD Centre for Educational Research and Innovation and theNetherlands Ministry of Education, Culture and Science. Its aim is to forwardunderstanding of how different policies and innovative initiatives can address thechallenges confronting schools in the future. Contact: Mariko Kuroiwa, OECD/CERI,tel.: 33 (0)1 45 24 91 85, fax: 33 (0)1 45 24 91 12; e-mail: mariko.kuroiwa@oecd.org

6-11 - The Committee on Architecture for Education of the American Institute ofArchitects is organising a conference and exhibition entitled "Innovative Alterna-tives in Learning Environments" in Amsterdam, Netherlands. Participants willexplore changes in culture, society and technology, the impact of these changeson learning and the corresponding impact on the design of the physical environ-ment. Visit http://www.e-architect.com/pia/cae. Contact: Dean Innerarity, AIA/CAE,tel.: 1 202 626 7453, fax: 1 202 626 7518, e-mail: dinnerarity@aia.org

December8-9 – The OECD Centre for Educational Research and Innovation will hold aninternational roundtable of students and policy-makers on “ICT and the Quality ofLearning”. 17- to 20-year-olds from each OECD country will share their experienceand perspective on the use of information and communication technologies ineducation. Senior representatives from Member countries will also be invited. Themeeting will take place in Aix-en-Provence, France, in French and English. Contact:Edwyn James, OECD/CERI, tel.: 33 (0)1 45 24 76 03, fax: 33 (0)1 45 24 91 12,edwyn.james@oecd.org

2001January28-29 – CEFPI (Council of Educational Facility Planners International) will hold its 8th

Annual Technology Conference in Scottsdale, Arizona (USA). It will address plan-ning for tomorrow’s technology at the district and building level and present up-to-date techniques for integrating technology into schools. Highlight sessions will focuson media centers, science laboratories and distance education. A trade show exhibitwill be included. Contact: Barbara C. Worth, 9180 E. Desert Cove Drive, Suite 104,Scottsdale, Arizona 85260, tel.: 1 480 391 0840, e-mail: cefpi@cefpi.org, http://www.cefpi.org

April10-14 – “What We Know and How We Know” is the theme of the 82nd AnnualMeeting of the American Educational Research Association to be held in Seattle,Washington (USA). It is expected to comprise more than 1 300 sessions, with 4 500presentations on a broad spectrum of topics related to educational research. Forinformation about professional development and training sessions, contact Taya Dunn,e-mail: tdunn@aera.net. For questions about exhibits, contact Nancy Kabel, e-mail:nkabel@aera.net, http://www.aera.net/meeting/am2001/

September3-6 – The “6th European Conference for the Advancement of Assistive Technology”will take place in Ljubljana, Slovenia. The main topics for the scientific conferenceand exhibition are rehabilitation and assistive technology for different age groups anddisabilities. The event is organised by the Association for the Advancement of AssistiveTechnology in Europe. Contact: Gorazd Cad, Cankarjev Dom Cultural andCongress Centre, Pre ernova 10, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia, tel.: 386 61 17 67 134,fax: 386 61 217 431, e-mail: gorazd.cad@cd-cc.si, http://aaate2001.ir-rs.si/