Peer coaching as part of a professional development program for science teachers in Botswana

International Journal of Educational Development 22 (2002) 55–68www.elsevier.com/locate/ijedudev

Peer coaching as part of a professional developmentprogram for science teachers in Botswana

Annette Thijs*, Ellen van den BergUniversity of Twente, Faculty of Educational Science and Technology, Department of Curriculum, PO Box 217, 7500 AE

Enschede, The Netherlands

Abstract

This paper discusses the findings of a study into the potentials of peer coaching as part of a professional developmentprogram, consisting of an in-service course and exemplary curriculum materials, in supporting the implementation oflearner-centred teaching in senior secondary science and mathematics education in Botswana. Teachers in the studyorganised several peer coaching activities and considered them beneficial. They primarily indicated having learnedabout general teaching issues while comments referring specifically to the implementation of learner-centred teachingwere sparse. It is argued that for peer coaching to be an effective support tool teachers should have a thorough concep-tualisation of this innovative approach. 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Curriculum; Professional development; Peer coaching

1. Introduction

Reforming educational practice is a complexundertaking, and this certainly holds true fordeveloping countries. Comprehensive teacherdevelopment programs can play an important rolein this process (Dalin, 1994; de Feiter et al., 1995;Loucks-Horsley et al., 1998). This paper discussespeer coaching as a promising component of sucha support program. Peer coaching is a confidentialrelationship between professional colleagues work-ing together to reflect on their teaching and shareideas in order to improve their professional skills.Realising effective peer coaching in schools is,however, not a simple endeavour. While the chal-

* Corresponding author.E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Thijs).

0738-0593/02/$ - see front matter 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.PII: S0738 -0593(00 )00078-X

lenge of initiating peer coaching and promotingcollegiality in schools has been taken up by severalin-service education projects throughout both thedeveloped world (see for examples: Fullan, 1991)and the developing world (see for an example:Anderson and Sumra, 1995), there still are manyhurdles to conquer. This papers focuses on theCOAST study (COAching to support Science andmathematics Teachers), which aims at exploringwhat support is needed to bring about effectivepeer coaching practices in schools in Botswana.The main purpose of the study is to explore thepotential role of peer coaching to support teacherswith implementing learner-centred teachingmethods in secondary science and mathematicseducation in Botswana. The COAST study hastaken place as a joint venture between the In-ser-vice Education and Training Programme forScience and Mathematics Teachers at the Univer-

56 A. Thijs, E. van den Berg / International Journal of Educational Development 22 (2002) 55–68

sity of Botswana (UB-INSET project), the Univer-sity of Twente, and the Centre for DevelopmentCooperation Services (CDCS) of the Vrije Univer-siteit Amsterdam in The Netherlands.

2. Context and theoretical background

2.1. Botswana and the UB-INSET project

The nation of Botswana, independent since1966, is a large but sparsely populated country inthe south of Africa. After its neighbour SouthAfrica, Botswana has the highest per capita grossnational product (GNP) in sub-Saharan Africa.Income inequities are, however, enormous betweenurban and rural households. The structure of theschool system in Botswana has undergone severalchanges over the past years. Presently Botswanaemploys a 7–3–2 system, consisting of seven yearsof primary education, 3 years of junior secondaryeducation, and 2 years of senior secondary edu-cation.

The UB-INSET project, located at the Depart-ment of Mathematics and Science Education(DMSE) of the University of Botswana, focuseson senior secondary education. The project aimsto improve the quality of science and mathematicseducation at this level. At present there are 27senior secondary schools and a handful of privateschools in Botswana, with about 400 science andmathematics teachers. Almost all of these teachersare fully qualified. However, the number ofexpatriate teachers is considerable, that is about65% (van Maarseveen, 1995).

The main aim of the UB-INSET project is topromote learner-centred teaching methods inscience and mathematics education. Learner-centred education is related to several internationaltrends in improving science education (van denAkker, 1994), such as the emphasis on meaningfulcontent, promoting scientific literacy for all stu-dents, and the importance of learning to learn.These elements are also reflected in the goals andoverall philosophy of the educational system inBotswana as outlined in the National Policy onEducation. The implementation of this learner-centred approach is a complex endeavour as the

typical science classroom practice in Botswana, aswell as in other Southern African countries (cf. deFeiter et al., 1995), often includes an over-depen-dence on the lecture method, a lack of questioningby learners, and passivity on the part of the learner,and there are many conditions that are not con-ducive to change such as lack of material facilities,high class sizes, and insufficient confidence andmastery by teachers of both subject content andbasic teaching skills (Fuller and Snyder, 1991; Pro-phet, 1995; Rowell and Prophet, 1990; Snyder andRamatsui, 1990). Considering the complexity ofimplementing learner-centred education, UB-INSET uses an incremental approach to promotingthis innovative method. While the full potential oflearner-centred education is communicated to tea-chers, the more specific focus is on less far reach-ing strategies that are feasible in view of local prac-tices and conditions. These strategies purport to bean activity-based approach where teachers areencouraged to include (hands-on) activities in theirscience and mathematics teaching. To support tea-chers with implementing this approach, the UB-INSET project has developed a department-ori-ented in-service education approach. Support is notonly given to individual teachers, but also todepartments as a whole. Heads of science andmathematics departments are provided with pro-fessional development programs to improve theireducational leadership capacities. Teachers aresupported by in-service education courses, the pro-vision of innovative curriculum materials, and vis-its to schools by project staff. Peer coaching isanother important component of the in-service edu-cation approach. During in-service educationcourses and school visits by project staff, teachersare encouraged to organise peer coaching activitiesto support each other with the implementation ofactivity-based methods. Peer coaching can bedescribed as a collegial approach to the analysis ofteaching aimed at integrating new skills and stra-tegies in classroom practice (Joyce and Showers,1982). Peer coaching activities usually includeelements of classroom observation and collegialdiscussion. Joyce and Showers (1995) make a dis-tinction between peer coaching that supports teach-ers with implementation of a specific innovation,and peer coaching with a more general focus aimed

57A. Thijs, E. van den Berg / International Journal of Educational Development 22 (2002) 55–68

at improving existing teaching practices. Thispaper focuses on the first type of peer coaching,which aims at facilitating the transfer of new teach-ing skills into the existing repertoire of teachers.

Peer coaching appears to be a promising strategywithin the Botswana context, as science and math-ematics departments in senior secondary schoolsare relatively large, consisting of eight to ten teach-ers. Furthermore, the leadership role of the Headsof the science and mathematics departments can beseen as a promising condition for the implemen-tation of peer coaching. As educational leaders oftheir departments, the Heads of Department canencourage and support teachers with their peercoaching activities, and can create the necessaryorganisational conditions. Despite these favourableconditions, however, the actual implementation ofeffective peer coaching activities in Botswanaschools is difficult (Thijs and van den Akker,1997). Time constraints greatly contribute to thelimited use of peer coaching. Teachers usuallyhave heavy teaching loads and are not always ableto meet with colleagues due to clashing timetables.Teachers also appear to be hesitant to initiate peercoaching sessions. They do not want to force theircolleagues into peer coaching relationships, andrather wait until other teachers invite them to theirclassroom. Furthermore, teachers are not fully con-vinced of the personal benefits of peer coaching.Finally, the link between peer coaching and the useof activity-based methods is also not always appar-ent. Many teachers that have organised coachingactivities focus on general teaching issues.

The COAST study has been designed to explorehow the potential of peer coaching, as part of theUB-INSET professional development approach,can be realised. Its main focus is on investigatingwhat type of peer coaching would be effective insupporting the implementation of activity-basedmethods, and how such peer coaching can beimplemented in schools. Central to the study is theassumption that peer coaching will be most effec-tive as part of a more comprehensive support pro-gram in which various support tools are combined.A combination of exemplary curriculum materials,in-service education courses, and peer coachingappears to be promising in this respect.

2.2. Supporting teachers with implementingcurriculum change

Curriculum materials can support teachers inchanging their teaching practice (Ball and Cohen,1996). By picturing how a proposed innovationworks in classroom practice, materials can helpteachers to understand the critical features andbenefits of using the proposed change. When con-taining clear guidelines with accurate and concreteadvice on how to deal with typical implementationproblems, materials can also help teachers preventor solve problems met during initial implemen-tation of the change in practice (van den Akker,1994). These so-called procedural specificationscan support teachers in performing the new tasksrequired by the change successfully. As such, thematerials provide teachers with a scaffold in theirinitial implementation efforts with which they canimplement teaching approaches that would other-wise be out of their reach (van den Berg, 1996).In this respect curriculum materials can stimulateteachers to develop their teaching repertoire, there-by expanding their “zone of proximal develop-ment” (van den Akker, 1994). Studies conductedin Namibia (Ottevanger et al., 1995) and Swaziland(Dlamini et al., 1995) show that curriculummaterials can also be an effective means for teacherlearning within the African context.

Curriculum materials are especially effectivewhen used in combination with in-service edu-cation courses (van den Berg, 1996; Roes, 1997).Effective in-service education courses consist oftheory, demonstration, practice and feedback, andcoaching (Joyce and Showers, 1995). An explo-ration of theory is needed to understand the ration-ale behind the new teaching approach. Demon-stration of the new approach facilitatesunderstanding of the underlying theories and pro-vides a picture of the use of the approach in prac-tice. Practicing the new approach in a safe setting,for example in an in-service program, is beneficialfor the development of skills in using the approach.Skill development is further facilitated by feedbackabout teacher performance in the practice sessions.Finally, coaching should take place in the schoolsetting following the initial in-service program.Within such a program, curriculum materials can


be used for demonstration and practice purposes.An in-service education program with curriculummaterials is especially effective in supportingteacher in their initial implementation efforts. Theprogram can enhance teachers’ understanding ofthe change and its implications of use in practice(Roes, 1997), while also stimulating teachers toimplement the proposed change and providingthem with a successful first experience (van denBerg, 1996).

For more long-term effectiveness, additional in-school support is needed (Fullan, 1991; Sparks andLoucks, 1990). This support is needed to help tea-chers integrate new skills within their existingteaching repertoire, and to assist them in overcom-ing initial uncertainties created by the requiredchange (Loucks-Horsley et al., 1998). Joyce andShowers (1995) convincingly point at the potentialof peer coaching in this respect. Coached teachersappear to use new teaching strategies more fre-quently and with greater competence. They alsotend to experiment more with the strategies, adapt-ing them to the needs of their students, and havea greater long-term retention of the new teachingskills. Besides supporting individual learning, peercoaching can also foster collegiality in schools. Inseveral studies (Sharan and Hertz-Lazarowitz,1982; Sparks and Bruder, 1987) peer coachingappeared to enhance mutual sharing and assistanceamong teachers. The importance of teacher collab-oration with regard to sustainable school improve-ment has often been stressed (Fullan, 1991; Harg-reaves, 1992) and has also been highlighted byseveral studies in the developed world (Hameyeret al., 1995; Rosenholtz, 1989) as well as indeveloping countries (Dalin, 1994).

Peer coaching can be described as a collegialapproach to the analysis of teaching aimed at inte-grating new skills and strategies in classroom prac-tice (Joyce and Showers, 1982). Three character-istics have become common to the variety of peercoaching approaches that have developed over theyears (Ackland, 1991). Firstly, peer coaching hasto be separated from teacher evaluation. While thelatter implies assessment of a teacher’s adequacy,peer coaching implies assistance in a learning pro-cess and a safe environment in which to experi-ment with new teaching strategies (Joyce and

Showers, 1995). Secondly, peer coaching modelsdraw on elements of the clinical supervision cycle.Joyce and Showers have developed the mostwidely known peer coaching model. In their earlywork peer coaching includes a cycle of objectiveclassroom observation, followed by accurate feed-back on the use of the new teaching skills (Joyceand Showers, 1982). In their more recent work,Joyce and Showers (1995) use a broadened viewon peer coaching. Their current emphasis is onlearning through collaborative planning, develop-ment, and observation of instruction. They stressthe importance of a non-hierarchical relationshipbetween peers working and learning collabor-atively to improve their teaching. Thirdly, peercoaching models aim to improve classroom prac-tice. In order to be effective in this respect, thesemodels should meet criteria of selectivity, saliency,and treatability (Goldhammer et al., 1993). Thismeans that peer coaching should focus on a fewrelevant issues that can be changed by the teacher.In relation to curriculum change, peer coachingshould thus focus on a few most salient aspectsof the change, which are perceived as relevant byteachers. Moreover, the aspects should be withinteachers’ “ zone of proximal development” .

Implementing and achieving effective peercoaching in schools is, however, a complex processas it requires radical changes in the technology oftraining, school organisation, and school culture(Fullan, 1991). Teachers should receive training incoaching skills, such as classroom observation anddiscussion skills. Furthermore, organisational con-ditions at schools should be restructured in such away that collaboration between teachers is poss-ible. To create these conditions strong leadershipat school level is essential. This leadership is alsoimportant for motivational purposes and to stimu-late the development of a collegial culture inschools. Considering these complex preconditions,peer coaching should be seen as an innovation initself, subject to the same laws that govern anyother curriculum innovation (Joyce and Showers,1995).


3. Developing a professional developmentprogram

3.1. The COAST research project

To explore the potentials of a professional devel-opment program combining exemplary curriculummaterials, in-service education course, and peercoaching, within the context of Botswana, theCOAST study employs a developmental researchapproach. This approach is characterised by con-stant interaction between development andresearch activities (Richey and Nelson, 1997). Thefirst phase of the COAST study focused on gener-ating design specifications for a professional devel-opment program aimed at supporting science andmathematics teachers with the implementation ofan activity-based approach. This was done bymeans of literature review, and a needs and contextanalysis (Thijs and van den Akker, 1997). Thedesign specifications guided the development of aprofessional development program within two sub-ject contexts: mathematics and physics. While theprogram for both subject contexts aimed at promot-ing activity-based methods, the two differed intheir more specific aims and focus. The mathemat-ics program specifically focused on cooperativelearning strategies. In physics, the program aimedat promoting the use of the Predict–Observe–Explain (POE) model, as proposed by White andGunstone (1992), in lessons with demonstrations.During the development of the program, formativeevaluation was an important activity to ensure thatthe program was theoretically sound, practicalfrom a teacher’s point of view, and potentiallyeffective. Outcomes of the various evaluationactivities served as a basis for revision of the pro-gram. The basic characteristics of the program thatwas thus developed are outlined in Box 1.

4. Exploring the effectiveness of the program

4.1. Research design

Exploration of the effectiveness of the pro-fessional development program, as outlined in Box1, was the next step in the study. The effectiveness

study was guided by the following research ques-tions:

1. What are teachers’ opinions on the usefulnessof the in-service education course, and what aretheir perceived learning outcomes?

2. What changes have taken place in teachers’ useof activity-based methods in classroom practiceas a result of the program?

3. How do teachers conduct and value the peercoaching sessions in practice?

4. How are the results of the program integratedat the departmental level?

Sixty physics teachers, two teachers from eachsenior secondary school in Botswana, participatedin the physics in-service education program. Simi-larly, 60 secondary mathematics teachers partici-pated in the mathematics program. The in-serviceeducation courses for both subjects were conduc-ted separately.

4.1.1. Data collection methodsCombinations of qualitative and quantitative

research methods were used to gather data. First,the researcher conducted participant observation ofthe in-service course. This provided insight as tothe extent to which the course was implementedaccording to plan. Next, a questionnaire was dis-tributed among all participants at the end of thecourse to ask about their opinion on the usefulnessof the course and perceived learning outcomes.This questionnaire consisted of questions with afive-point Likert format, and a few additional openquestions. To explore effects on teacher attitudestowards peer coaching, an attitude questionnairewas administered in a pre-test–post-test design.The attitude questionnaire consisted of a benefitsscale (eight items), assessing participants percep-tions of benefits of peer coaching, and a concernsscales, assessing the extent to which participantshave concerns about peer coaching (10 items). Thereliability of the scales was considered to beacceptable: scale 1: Cronbach’s a=0.73, and scale2: a=0.67.

A few weeks after the course, more in-depthdata collection took place at school level to exploreteachers’ use of coaching and activity-based


Box 1. Professional development scenario in the COAST study

Two day in-service education courseBoth the mathematics and physics course consisted of the following courseelements:

� presentation and discussion of the theoretical rationale underlying the specificinnovations;

� demonstration of the specific innovations by means of videotaped classroomlessons;

� microteaching sessions, in which teachers practiced with the use of the innovativeteaching methods as well as with their observation and discussion techniques;

� discussion of the potential of peer coaching.

To facilitate the organisation of peer coaching in schools, teachers were invited tothe courses in pairs: two mathematics and physics teachers from each school.

Exemplary curriculum materialsThe main characteristics of the materials:

� lesson plans with guidelines for using activity-based approaches� the mathematics materials focused on the topic ‘Patterns and Sequences’, a

syllabus topic for which textbook material is hardly available� the physics materials focused on Electromagnetic Induction.

Coaching guidebookParticipants were handed a guidebook consisting of:

� general information on peer coaching;� specific guidelines on how to conduct classroom observations and reflect on these

lessons in a collegial discussion;� observation forms, focusing on central aspects of lessons, as outlined in the

exemplary curriculum materials, in which the specific innovations are used.

The guidebook was introduced and explained in the in-service course. Moreover, theobservation form was used in the microteaching sessions to practice with its use.

methods in practice. For this purpose eight physicsand eight maths teachers (four coaching pairs persubject) were selected out of the total number ofparticipants. Selection of these teachers was guidedby criteria of informativity and convenience (Milesand Huberman, 1994). Teachers from schools withactive departmental policies on peer coaching wereregarded as informative as they would be in a good

position to organise coaching sessions. Practicalconsiderations that were taken into considerationincluded teachers’ willingness to participate andthe geographical location of schools.

The following data collection activities wereused with the selected teachers. Four to six weeksafter the in-service course, interviews were held togain insight in teachers’ fi rst experiences with


using activity-based methods and organising peercoaching sessions. The selected teachers were alsoasked to keep a log for the first few weeks afterthe course, in which they recorded their experi-ences with peer coaching. For additional insight inteachers’ coaching sessions, the selected teacherswere asked to audiotape their coaching sessions.This was presented as a voluntary activity, as itwas thought that if teachers would not feelcomfortable with the Audiotaping it would affecttheir peer coaching sessions.

4.1.2. Data analysisQuestionnaire results were analysed through the

computation of descriptive statistics and compari-son of pre- and post-course scores using a Studentt-test. The qualitative data were analysed withtechniques of pattern coding (Miles and Huberman,1994). A written report was made of each inter-view based on the interview tapes and notes madeby the researcher during the interview. The resultsof the teachers’ log were summarised and categor-ised according to data patterns. Finally, transcrip-tions were made of each audio-taped coaching ses-sion. These written reports were used incombination with and in addition to the results ofthe teachers’ log and interviews on teachers’experiences with peer coaching. Through this tri-angulation of data a clear picture could be createdof the selected teachers’ use of peer coaching inpractice and perceived benefits.

4.2. Results of the study

4.2.1. Teachers’ perceptions of the professionaldevelopment program

Teachers’ perceptions were considered animportant factor regarding the transfer of courseideas to classroom practice and included teachers’opinions on the in-service course and their per-ceived learning outcomes. Questionnaire resultsshow that both mathematics and physics parti-cipants highly appreciated the in-service courses.They regarded the courses as relevant and useful.Both physics and mathematics participants parti-cularly appreciated the microteaching sessions. Ascan be seen in Table 1, participants were also posi-tive with regard to perceived learning outcomes.

The course provided them with a clear under-standing of the use of the innovation in practice.They acquired sufficient information on the inno-vation to be able to use it in practice, and theirconfidence has been enhanced in this respect. Thecourse also enhanced participants’ confidence inconducting peer coaching sessions and helpedthem to develop a clear understanding of peercoaching (see Table 2).

Finally, the course provided them with sufficientinformation on how to conduct peer coaching inpractice. Results of the attitude questionnaire arepresented in Table 3.

The results show that the in-service course posi-tively affected participants’ attitudes towards peercoaching. The effect is, however, modest. Thecourse made participants slightly more positiveabout benefits of peer coaching and somewhat lessanxious to conduct peer coaching sessions. At theend of the course all participants indicated that theyintended to use the exemplary curriculum materialsand to organise peer coaching sessions with theircolleagues.

4.2.2. Implementation of activity-based methodsThe implementation of activity-based methods

and the use of the exemplary curriculum materialsin this process was a next point of focus. Resultsof the study show that all of the eight selectedmathematics teachers used the exemplary materialsin their teaching. Two teachers taught several les-sons based on the materials. Three teachers usedthe materials to develop their own lesson plans,incorporating elements from different lessons out-lined in the materials. Two teachers used thematerials to prepare for their lessons with cooperat-ive learning activities. As a result of the course,teachers have changed the organisation of thegroup activities in their lessons to some extent.These changes include organising students intolarger groups instead of pairs, providing one work-sheet for a whole group of students to encouragecooperation within the group, using group activi-ties to let students explore theoretical concepts, anddiscussing group outcomes with students in steadof checking the outcomes after the lesson.

All eight physics teachers used the POE methodin their teaching. Most teachers, however, did not


Table 1Perceived learning outcomes of the in-service education course with regard to the proposed curriculum innovationa

Mathematicsb Physicsc

Items Mean SD Mean SD

The in-service education course changed my 3.72 1.14 3.62 0.98opinion about the proposed curriculum innovationThe in-service education course enhanced my 4.02 0.66 4.32 0.71confidence in using the proposed curriculuminnovationThe in-service education course provided me with a 4.07 0.58 4.41 0.56clear understanding of the use of the proposedcurriculum innovation in practiceThe in-service education course provided sufficient 4.16 0.80 4.32 0.58information about the use of the proposedcurriculum innovation in practice

a Judgements were made on a five-point scale (1=completely disagree, 5=completey agree).b N=45.c N=37.

Table 2Perceived learning outcomes of the in-service education course with regard to peer coachinga

Mathematicsb Physicsc

Items Mean SD Mean SD

The in-service education course enhanced my 4.02 0.69 4.22 0.63confidence in conducting peer coaching sessionsThe in-service education course provided me with a 4.07 0.65 4.38 0.64clear understanding of how to conduct peercoaching sessionsThe in-service education course provided sufficient 4.20 0.63 4.41 0.55information about peer coaching

a Judgements were made on a five-point scale (1=completely disagree, 5=completely agree).b N=45.c N=37.

perceive the method as an innovation. Accordingto six of them, the method does not differ fromtheir usual way of teaching physics demon-strations. They are used to asking students whatthey expect to see during the demonstration, andto make predictions, and to correct students’ mis-conceptions on the topic. Two teachers perceivedslight differences between the POE method andtheir usual way of teaching. The majority of thephysics teachers did not use the exemplary curricu-lum materials in their teaching. Most teachers didnot use the materials because the subject topic,

although selected after consultation of teachers,was not part of their scheme of work for the firstperiod after the in-service course. One teacher didnot feel the need to use the materials because shedid not perceive the POE method as a change. Oneteacher did use the materials in his teaching. Heconsidered them useful, but not very different fromhis usual way of teaching.

In conclusion, the curriculum materials, as partof the professional development program, appearedto work well with the mathematics teachers but notwith the physics teachers. With the mathematics


Table 3Participants’ scores on attitude questionnaire on peer coachinga

Pre-test scores Post-test scores t p

Scale Mean SD Mean SD

Benefits of peer coaching Mathematicsb 3.92 0.52 4.13 0.46 3.16 0.000Physicsc 4.04 0.49 4.16 0.40 2.07 0.046

Concerns about peer coaching Mathematicsd 2.44 0.53 2.19 0.52 �3.80 0.000Physicse 2.39 0.52 2.19 0.53 �3.02 0.000

a Judgements were made on a five-point scale (1=completely disagree, 5=completely agree).b N=39.c N=35.d N=40.e N=35.

teachers the materials served a need because therewas no material available for group work activities.Furthermore, the materials addressed a topic forwhich hardly any material is available. The physicsteachers, on the other hand, did not perceive thePOE method as something new and therefore maynot have felt the need to use the materials. Thiscould be due to two reasons. Firstly, the innovativeaspects of the POE method may not have beenclearly reflected in the materials. This idea is sup-ported by the fact that the one physics teacher thatused the materials did not consider them very dif-ferent from his usual lessons. Secondly, there maybe some false clarity among the physics parti-cipants. False clarity occurs when “ the proposedchange has more to it than teachers perceive orrealise” (Fullan, 1991: 70). The physics teachersappeared to understand the literal intentions ofPOE method, but may have had difficulty withfully comprehending the deeper meaning of whatit intended.

4.2.3. Peer coaching in practiceAll mathematics and physics teachers organised

peer coaching sessions. The number of sessionsranged from one to eight. The majority of themathematics teachers did not follow the suggestedcycle of observation and discussion, but generatedalternative ways of collaborating with their col-leagues. Two mathematics teachers jointlydeveloped a lesson plan based on the exemplarycurriculum materials and observed each other

teaching the lessons. Two mathematics teachersmet prior to the classroom observations to discussthe content of the lesson, the level of difficulty forthe students, and the focus points of the obser-vation. Finally, two mathematics teachers preferredteam teaching to the suggested classroom obser-vation. They observed the start of the lesson, butassisted the observed teacher during the groupactivities that followed. The majority of the physicsteachers followed the suggested cycle of classroomobservation followed by a collegial discussion. Inaddition to the suggested observation and dis-cussion, two physics teachers also met prior to theobservation to discuss the content of the lesson andfocus of the observation.

The mathematics and physics teachers con-sidered the coaching guidebook useful to help themprepare and conduct their coaching activities Theguidebook provided them with a good idea of whatis expected of an observed and of the observedteacher. They also appreciated the guidelines onquestions to ask during the discussion meetingswithout being offensive and evaluative. Three outof the eight teachers did not use the guidebookbecause they felt the in-service course had pro-vided them with sufficient information on how toconduct peer coaching sessions.

All mathematics and physics teachers were posi-tive about the peer coaching sessions and perceivedthem as beneficial. They learned both from observ-ing their colleagues and from the collegial dis-cussions. While the majority of the teachers experi-


enced no major problems with conducting thecoaching activities, three mathematics teachers feltslightly uncomfortable with the observation oftheir teaching by their colleague. These teachers,however, had no prior experience with peer coach-ing, and indicated that they slowly got used to hav-ing a colleague in the back of their class as thelessons proceeded. One physics teacher felt uneasyduring the collegial discussions as he was afraidthat he might upset his colleagues with his com-ments on the lesson.

All mathematics teachers observed lessons inwhich use was made of the exemplary materials.Six of the eight mathematics teachers made use ofthe observation form provided in the coachingguidebook. Two teachers preferred to identify theirown points for observation. In their feedback meet-ings, teachers discussed subject matter content andstudent understanding, and the use of groupworkactivities. The physics teachers did not focus theirpeer coaching activities on the use of the materialsas the majority did not use these materials in theirteaching. They did, however, observe each otherteaching lessons in which they experimented withthe POE method. Four teachers made use of theobservation form provided. Two teachers preferredto use a self-design form and two teachers pre-ferred to record their observations on a blank sheetof paper. In the collegial discussions following theobservations most teachers discussed generalaspects of a lesson as well as issues related to theuse of the POE method.

4.2.4. Benefits of peer coachingAll physics and mathematics teachers regard the

peer coaching sessions as beneficial. The class-room observations provided most teachers withnew insights and ideas about general aspects ofteaching. Teachers considered the collegial dis-cussions beneficial because they provided anopportunity to hear their colleagues’ view on theirteaching and to discuss suggestions for improve-ment. As a result of the coaching sessions, the eightmathematics teachers all learned about the subjectmatter content outlined in the exemplary materials.Five mathematics teachers also generated newideas regarding the use of groupwork activities,such as how to group students and explain a group

work task to students. Finally, five teachers per-ceived learning outcomes regarding general aspectsof teaching such as use of the blackboard, introduc-tion to a topic, and timing of the lesson.

The eight physics teachers acquired new ideasregarding general aspects of the lesson, such as theuse of questioning strategies, efficient distributionof equipment needed in a lesson, blackboard use,timing of the lesson and grouping of students sothat they could all view a demonstration. Threephysics teachers also perceive learning outcomesregarding the use of the POE method. The obser-vations and discussions made them more aware ofpossibilities to implement the method and their col-league’s positive appraisal encouraged them tocontinue using the method in future lessons.

Concluding, teachers consider the peer coachingsessions to be beneficial. Perceived learning out-comes mostly consist of new insights and sugges-tions for improvement with regard to generalaspects of teaching. Learning outcomes with regardto the use of the POE method in physics and coop-erative learning strategies in mathematics are men-tioned to a lesser extent.

4.2.5. Implementation at the department levelA final focus of the effectiveness study was the

extent to which participants shared and discussedcourse issues with colleagues in the department. Inall except two departments, participants informedtheir colleagues about the content of the course indepartmental meetings. In one mathematics andone science department, participants intended toinform their colleagues about course issues in thenear future. The exemplary curriculum materialswere distributed in two mathematics departments.The physics teachers did not see the need for distri-buting the materials as they would not be relevantfor their chemistry and biology colleagues withinthe science department. In two departments thephysics teachers do intend to discuss the exemplarymaterials with their physics colleagues.

The integration of peer coaching at the depart-ment level was less apparent. In one mathematicsand one science department a department policy onpeer coaching had been in place for some timeprior to the in-service education course. In thismathematics department all teachers had been


paired and had been assigned to organise coachingsessions before the end of the term. In one sciencedepartment there was a general informal agreementon being involved in peer coaching as much aspossible. The Head of Department strongly sup-ported the implementation of peer coaching. In thisdepartment the two physics teachers that partici-pated in the in-service course used peer coachingas a dissemination strategy. They invited theirscience colleagues to observe them using the POEmethod in practice so as to be informed about itsparticulars. In one case this classroom observationmotivated a science colleague to use the POEmethod in his own teaching as well.

5. Discussion

This paper focused on peer coaching as part ofa program for teachers’ professional development.This program aimed at enhancing activity-basedlearning methods in secondary mathematics andscience teaching in Botswana. Besides peer coach-ing the program consisted of exemplary curriculummaterials and an in-service education course. Thisprogram had two focal points: activity-based learn-ing methods and peer coaching. These two pointswere interrelated, because peer coaching was intro-duced as a means that teachers may use to supporteach other in implementing activity-based teach-ing.

In our study we tried to answer several researchquestions. The first question dealt with teachers’perceptions of the in-service program. Investigat-ing these perceptions was considered crucial,because if teachers do not value the in-servicecourse it is highly unlikely that they would be wil-ling to implement the course ideas into practice.However, the results of this study show that teach-ers appreciated the in-service program. Teacherswere also positive about what they learned fromthe program with regard to activity-based methodsas well as to peer coaching. Moreover, their atti-tude towards peer coaching changed positively dueto the in-service program. It must be noted how-ever, that this effect, although significant, wasrather modest.

The second research question dealt with the

transfer of the ideas presented in the in-service pro-gram into practice. As far as the implementationof activity-based learning methods are concernedthe results are mixed. There was a differencebetween the mathematics teachers and the physicsteachers. The mathematics teachers took some firststeps towards including forms of cooperative learn-ing into their teaching. They used the exemplarycurriculum materials and considered these usefulfor two reasons. Firstly, the materials providedthem with suggestions for collaborative groupactivities, which are rarely available in commontextbooks and teacher guides. Secondly, the subjecttopic outline of the exemplary curriculum materialsis, although part of the mathematics syllabus,barely covered in common textbooks. So, from acontent point of view, there was also a need forthe materials.

As far as cooperative group learning is con-cerned, the mathematics teachers especially valuedthe active and enthusiastic participation of thepupils throughout the lessons. They also perceivedthe way they implemented the lessons as differentfrom their regular teaching style. It must be noted,however, that the mathematics teachers did notimplement cooperative group learning to its fullextent and in complete accordance with the under-lying rationale. Considering the complexity of theinnovation, this may not be surprising. It is promis-ing that the mathematics teachers were able andwilling to deviate from their routine and integratean activity-based approach in their lessons.

The attempts of the physics teachers to incorpor-ate pupil centred learning into their lessons turnedout to be less promising. The physics teachersreported that they implemented the POE methodinto their lessons, but a closer look at the datarevealed that they only implemented the superficialattributes of this method. Results indicate that theteachers understood the literal intentions of themethod, yet failed to comprehend the deeper mean-ing of what was intended. This finding is strength-ened by the fact that teachers stated that the POEmethod was not different from their usual way ofteaching. This also gives an indication that the tea-chers were not fully aware of the underlying ration-ale of the method, which is related to principles ofconstructivism such as taking students’ concep-


tions as a starting point and constructing meaningthrough social interaction.

Unlike their mathematics colleagues, the physicsteachers (except one) hardly used the exemplarycurriculum materials, because the subject topic,although selected after a thorough consultation ofteachers, did not fit in with their scheme of work.Another plausible reason for not using thematerials might be that the teachers were not verymotivated to use the materials, because they didnot perceive the POE-method as an innovation. So,in their view, they did not need support from cur-riculum materials. This finding is confirmed by thejudgement of the only teacher who did use thematerials, and did not regard them as innovative.

In hindsight it can be concluded that the essen-tial characteristics of the POE method were notreflected clearly enough in the in-service courseand in the curriculum materials. This caused falseclarity among the physics teachers, which seriouslyhampered the implementation of pupil centredlearning.

The third research question was focused on theway teachers valued the peer coaching sessions,which they organised after the in-service program.The pattern emerging from the results of the peercoaching sessions does not show major differencesbetween the mathematics and physics teachers. Allteachers organised peer coaching sessions in thefirst weeks after the in-service course, including avariety of working formats. For the mathematicsteachers the exemplary curriculum materials pro-vided a starting point for a variety of coachingactivities such as joint lesson planning and lessonpreparation. Teachers considered the coachingguidebook useful in helping them prepare and con-duct their peer coaching activities. Peer coachingwas considered to be beneficial. Teachers learnedfrom observing their colleagues as well as from thecollegial discussions. The classroom observationsprovided them with new ideas about a variety ofpractical aspects of teaching a lesson. In the col-legial discussions teachers learned both about theuse of the POE method and cooperative learningas well as about general aspects of teaching. In theinterviews, teachers were more outspoken aboutthe practical issues they had learned from the peer

coaching sessions, such as blackboard use, ques-tioning strategies and grouping of students.

In conclusion, peer coaching sessions were con-ducted and were beneficial for teachers in terms ofhelping them improve their professional skills. Asa tool to support the implementation of activity-based methods, however, peer coaching was notutilised fully. Although teachers were providedwith exemplary materials as a basis for their coach-ing activities and an observation form focusing onessential aspects of activity-based methods, teach-ers often preferred to chose their own coachingfocus. This could, of course, be related to the factthat the physics teachers did not use the materialsand that most teachers did not perceive the inno-vation as a change to their normal way of teachingand did not grasp the full implications of the inno-vation for their teaching practice. Furthermore, tea-chers apparently valued a broader coaching focusrather than focusing specifically on the curriculuminnovation. This points to the importance ofteacher ownership and perceived relevance of theinnovations at stake, and the importance of con-vincing teachers of the need to implement the inno-vation in their teaching. In other words, teachers’perceived relevance of the change is a preconditionfor the use of peer coaching as a support tool inthe implementation process. Finally, it should benoted that the teachers in the study only organiseda few coaching sessions. For peer coaching to befully effective in supporting each other to improvethe use of a curriculum change, more peer coach-ing sessions would most likely be required. Futureresearch activities within the COAST research pro-ject will explore how teachers can be supported toorganise peer coaching sessions over a longer per-iod of time.

The final research question dealt with the depart-mental integration as one of the benefits of the sup-port program. The results show that the majorityof the teachers shared and discussed course issueswith their colleagues in their department. Theyinformed their colleagues about the content of thecourse, and, to a lesser extent, shared coursematerials.

The integration of peer coaching activities at thedepartmental level was less apparent. Only whena policy on peer coaching at the departmental level


already existed (which was the case in one math-ematics and one physics department), did the peercoaching activities get a follow-up in the depart-ment immediately after the in-service program. Inthese departments teachers, who did not participatein the in-service program, were also engaged incoaching activities. Information from the partici-pating teachers was used to shape these activities.For a more long lasting incorporation of coachingactivities in a department, it seems not only crucialto provide teachers with information and support,but also to support Heads of Departments in gain-ing the insights and skills to set the conditions anda climate for teacher collaboration and peer coach-ing. The next stage of the COAST study will alsobe focused on this aspect.

6. Concluding remarks

Some important lessons can be learned from ourstudy. These lessons are discussed in this final sec-tion. As far as the role of exemplary curriculummaterials is concerned, this study shows that theirimpact in changing teaching practice is only effec-tive if the essential characteristics of the specificinnovation are clearly incorporated in thematerials. Moreover, these characteristics shouldbe given considerable attention in the in-servicecourse. If these requirements are fulfilled, curricu-lum materials can be a supportive tool in assistingteachers trying to change their practice. Further-more, curriculum materials also provide a usefulstarting point for the organisation of peer coachingactivities. Curriculum materials with content thatis hardly covered by existing materials appears tobe a good means to stimulate teachers’ use of aninnovative approach.

This study also shows that teachers did notentirely implement peer coaching activities as theyhad been discussed and practised in the in-serviceprogram. They adhered to a broader scope ofcoaching activities, rather then sticking to theactivities that were presented in the in-service pro-gram. This is the case for the organisation and theformat of coaching sessions as well as for the focusof the sessions. Teachers used a variety of peercoaching activities ranging from informal dis-

cussions during lunch to forms of collaborativeplanning of lessons and team-teaching. The issuesthat entered the discussions among teachers werenot limited to the innovation at hand. All kind oftopics relating to classroom practice entered theirdiscourse. For the physics teachers in this study,this finding may not be surprising, because theydid not perceive and experience the POE method asan innovation but as part of their normal teachingroutine. However, many topics discussed by themathematics teachers in their coaching sessionswere also more aligned to general teachingapproaches than specifically attuned to the innov-ative practice.

The findings of this study imply that peer coach-ing activities as a means of supporting teachers inthe implementation of innovative practices canonly be effective if other parts of the support pro-gram are effective as well. But even if the latter isthe case, peer coaching seems to be viewed by tea-chers as a means of giving attention to all class-room related aspects of their work. Apparently theperspective on peer coaching in this study, with arather fixed format for preparing and conductinglesson observations and a debriefing session, andlimited to well defined aspects of classroom teach-ing, is not very well aligned to teachers’ ways ofpractising peer coaching. In the next stage of theCOAST project more attention will be given to dif-ferent formats of peer coaching, and building onexisting forms of collaboration in schools in Bots-wana. The focus on innovative practice, however,will remain central, because these practices havethe potential to improve student learning. Further-more, in the next stage of the study also moreattention will be given to the departmental inte-gration of peer coaching activities. This studyclearly shows that providing support to teachers toconduct peer coaching activities is a prerequisitefor implementing those activities, but for morelasting forms of collaboration among teachers,changes in school organisation and school cultureare of crucial importance.

References

Ackland, R., 1991. A review of the peer coaching literature.Journal of Staff Development 12, 22–27.


Anderson, S.E., Sumra, S., 1995. The School Improvement Pro-gramme: Aga Khan Mzizima Secondary School. Aga KhanFoundation, Dar-es-Salaam.

Ball, D.L., Cohen, D.K., 1996. Reform by the book: what is —or might be — the role of curriculum materials in teacherlearning and instructional reform? Educational Researcher25, 6–8.

Dalin, P., 1994. How Schools Improve. Cassell, London.de Feiter, L., Vonk, H., van den Akker, J., 1995. Towards more

Effective Science Teacher Development in Southern Africa.VU University Press, Amsterdam.

Dlamini, B., Coenders, F., Stronkhorst, R. (1995). Improvementof the effectiveness of the in-service for science and math-ematics teachers in Swaziland. Paper presented at the Con-ference on Improving Science and Mathematics Teaching inSouthern Africa: Effectiveness of Interventions, Windhoek,Namibia, December 1995.

Fullan, M., 1991. The New Meaning of Educational Change.Teacher College Press, New York.

Fuller, B., Snyder, C.W. Jr, 1991. Vocal teachers, silent pupils?Life in Botswana classrooms. Comparative EducationReview 35, 274–294.

Goldhammer, R., Anderson, R.H., Krajewski, R.J., 1993. Clini-cal Supervision. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Fort Worth,TX.

Hameyer, U., van den Akker, J., Anderson, R.D., Ekholm, M.,1995. Portraits of Productive Schools. State University ofNew York Press, New York.

Hargreaves, A., 1992. Cultures of teaching: a focus for change.In: Hargreaves, A., Fullan, M.G. (Eds.), UnderstandingTeacher Development. Cassell, London, pp. 216–240.

Joyce, B., Showers, B., 1982. The coaching of teaching. Edu-cational Leadership 40, 4–8.

Joyce, B., Showers, B., 1995. Student Achievement throughStaff Development: Fundamentals of School Renewal.Longman, New York.

Loucks-Horsley, S., Hewson, P.W., Love, N., Stiles, K.W.,1998. Designing Professional Development for Teachers ofScience and Mathematics. SAGE, Thousand Oaks, CA.

Miles, M.B., Huberman, A.M., 1994. Qualitative Data Analysis.SAGE, Thousand Oaks, CA.

Ottevanger, W., Benschop, M., van den Akker, J., 1995.Teacher guides for science curriculum implementation inNamibia. Paper presented at the AERA Annual Meeting,San Francisco, April 1995.

Prophet, R., 1995. Views from the Botswana junior secondaryclassroom: case study of a curriculum intervention. Inter-national Journal of Educational Development 15, 127–140.

Richey, R.C., Nelson, W.A., 1997. Developmental research. In:Jonassen, D. (Ed.), Handbook of Research on EducationalCommunications and Technology. MacMillan, New York,pp. 1213–1246.

Roes, M.G., 1997. Nascholing op basis van lesvoorbeelden inde context van curriculum-vernieuwing (Curriculummaterials as a strategy for in-service education in the contextof curriculum innovation). Dissertation. University ofTwente, Enschede.

Rosenholtz, S.J., 1989. Teachers’ Workplace: The SocialOrganisation of Schools. Longman, New York.

Rowell, P.M., Prophet, R., 1990. Curriculum-in-action: thepractical dimension in Botswana classrooms. InternationalJournal of Educational Development 10, 17–26.

Sharan, S., Hertz-Lazarowitz, R., 1982. Effects of an instruc-tional change program on teachers’ behavior, attitudes, andperceptions. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 18,185–201.

Snyder, C.W. Jr, Ramatsui, P.T., 1990. Curriculum in the Class-room. MacMillan, Gaborone.

Sparks, G.M., Bruder, S., 1987. Before and after peer coaching.Educational Leadership 45, 54–57.

Sparks, D., Loucks, S., 1990. Models of staff development. In:Houston, W.R. (Ed.), Handbook of Research on TeacherEducation. MacMillan, New York, pp. 234–250.

Thijs, A., van den Akker, J., 1997. Peer coaching as a promisingcomponent of science teachers inservice training? Paperpresented at the SAARMSE Annual Conference, January23–26, Johannesburg.

van den Akker, J., 1994. Designing innovations from animplementation perspective. In: Husen, T., Postlethwaite,T.N. (Eds.), The International Encyclopedia of Education.Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp. 1491–1494.

van den Berg, E., 1996. Effects of inservice education onimplementation of elementary science. Dissertation. Univer-sity of Twente, Enschede.

van Maarseveen, C., 1995. The composition of the maths andscience teaching force in Botswana. Paper presented at theConference on Improving Science and Mathematics Teach-ing in Southern Africa: Effectiveness of Interventions,Windhoek, Namibia, December 1995.

White, R., Gunstone, R., 1992. Probing Understanding. TheFalmer Press, London.

Documents

Peer coaching as part of a professional development program for science teachers in Botswana