Perfusion 2015 Research Methods Qualitative & Quantative

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Perfusion

2015, Vol. 30(7) 537542

The Author(s) 2014

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DOI: 10.1177/0267659114559116

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Introduction

Qualitative research is characterized by its aims, which

relate to understanding some aspect of social life and itsmethods which (in general) generate words, rather thannumbers, as data for analysis. For researchers morefamiliar with quantitative methods, which aim to mea-sure something (such as the percentage of people with aparticular disease in a community or the number ofhouseholds owning a bed net), the aims and methods ofqualitative research can seem imprecise.

Qualitative methods generally aim to understand theexperiences and attitudes of patients, the community orhealthcare worker. These methods aim to answer ques-tions about the what, how or why of a phenomenonrather than how many or how much, which areanswered by quantitative methods. If the aim is tounderstand how a community or individuals within itperceive a particular issue, then qualitative methods areoften appropriate.1

The personality of the researcher (and his/her integ-rity) may play a much greater role than in quantitativeresearch. Therefore, the quality of raw data is essential.If the data are not of high quality, all statistical calcula-tions will be either wrong or of inferior quality. So, forqualitative research, the researcher will be important toensure the quality of the process, since he/she will need

to interpret data after its acquisition; in contrast, in

quantitative research, the quality of the raw data will bemore important.

Numerous studies have been constructed into thefield of research on human services, utilizing both quan-titative and qualitative methodologies and, in someinstances, a combination. For the purposes of this paper,quantitative research is selected as a possible methodol-ogy, therefore, elements of this type of research are eval-uated regarding if quantitative research meets thecriteria needed when investigating the broad topic per-taining to general human services.

Adding to this observation, it is interesting to notethat numerous scholars are of the opinion that the gapbetween qualitative and quantitative research is too

Research using qualitative, quantitative or mixedmethods and choice based on the research

K McCusker1and S Gunaydin2

Abstract

Research is fundamental to the advancement of medicine and critical to identifying the most optimal therapies uniqueto particular societies. This is easily observed through the dynamics associated with pharmacology, surgical techniqueand the medical equipment used today versus short years ago. Advancements in knowledge synthesis and reportingguidelines enhance the quality, scope and applicability of results; thus, improving health science and clinical practiceand advancing health policy. While advancements are critical to the progression of optimal health care, the high cost

associated with these endeavors cannot be ignored. Research fundamentally needs to be evaluated to identify the mostefficient methods of evaluation. The primary objective of this paper is to look at a specific research methodology whenapplied to the area of clinical research, especially extracorporeal circulation and its prognosis for the future.

Keywords

extracorporeal circulation; clinical methodology research; mixed methods; research methodology; human services

1New York Medical College, Valhalla, New York, USA2Medline Hospital, Eskisehi, Turkey

Corresponding author:

Kevin McCusker

188 Gosport Road

Portsmouth

New Hampshire 03801

USA.

Email: [email protected]

9116PRF0010.1177/0267659114559116PerfusionMcCusker etal.

Original Paper


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wide, yet other opinions point out that this gap is con-ducive to facilitate the acquisition of information.2Accepting the validity of both these methodologies,effort is now directed at ascertaining the feasibility ofeffectively applying the elements found in quantitativeresearch to the field of interest.

This report aims to bring an introduction to the theo-retical concepts, as well as the qualitative and quantita-tive research methods that are used by the maindisciplines engaged in research on health and health ser-vices. In order to understand why the various researchmethods are used, it is important to be aware of the con-ceptual backgrounds and scientific philosophies of thoseinvolved in research and evaluation, in particular, indemography, epidemiology, health economics, psychol-ogy and sociology.

Methods of accessing information

In order to justify the selection of quantitative researchand use the preferred methodology, attention should befocused on both perceived differences found within bothresearch methods and their relativity to the field of study.

To enable this process, comparisons of the differentelements contained within both methodologies werelooked at with a view to justifying this papers preferredchoice of research.

We searched for publications using MEDLINE,EMBASE, CINAHL, CENTRAL and Web of Science ina three-month period. We used several key words:extracorporeal circulation, clinical methodologyresearch, mixed methods, research methodology,human services. We included studies examining anytype of research methodology (qualitative, quantitativeor combined) and two reviewers independentlyextracted data. Effort was directed at accessing sourceswhich provided a current overview of the area of gen-eral human services, while also looking at future pre-dictions.

Moreover, these variable sources were also looked atfrom a human services point of view. While the effortwas primarily focused on more recent studies, chal-lenges were encountered, resulting in sources being

accessed that were published less recently. Perhaps thecombination of both recent and historical viewpointsmay serve to provide a broader outlook on how thesemethodologies have evolved up until today.

Attention was also focused on sources that depictedthe applications of both methodologies and the antici-pated or desired results. This report submits that optingto implement only the quantitative method as a meansto establish the effectiveness in researching generalhuman services may result in inadequate testing of the-ory or facts. However, accepting this limitation, thisresponse seeks to lend credibility regarding the idea that

this methodology is a viable option in which to effec-tively research the field of general human services.

Based on the criteria above, 31 sources were accessedin order to enable effective research. Then attention wasdrawn to different elements found in the quantitativeresearch method.

Results

While many studies have described transformativedesigns, few have focused on their advantages and dis-advantages. We are interested in providing informationthat allows prospective researchers, specifically thoseworking in the perfusion-related arena, to makeinformed decisions about whether or not to apply thesedesigns in their research.

Features of quantitative research

The aim is to classify features, count them and constructstatistical models in an attempt to explain what isobserved.3

- Researcher knows clearly in advance what he/sheis looking for

- Recommended during latter phases of researchprojects

- All aspects of the study are carefully designedbefore data is collected

- Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or

equipment, to collect numerical data- Data is in the form of numbers and statistics- Quantitative data is more efficient, able to test

hypotheses, but may miss contextual detail- Researcher tends to remain objectively separated

from the subject matter

Construction of statistical models

The above list clearly depicts a number of elements thatare involved in quantitative research. The first elementinvolves the identification of data followed by numeri-cally quantifying it. By deriving statistics from data

allows the researcher to fulfill a primary research func-tion, which is to choose what information is needed andcontrol the acquisition of data.4In further pursuing themethod of collecting data, attention is drawn to theaspect of generalization contained within quantifiableresearch.

According to studies into qualitative research, thefocus is narrowed down to data derived from specificparticipants and their personal viewpoints and opin-ions.5 Alternatively, the utilization of quantitativeresearch requires the extraction of data in a larger vol-ume, using standardized methods that include more


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generalized samples, where the emphasis is on statisticalinformation rather than individual perceptions. McRoypoints out that such statistical analysis allows a deduc-tive approach, thereby, enabling hypothesis testing.5To determine the future direction of general human ser-vices, a wide inclusive method of gaining data is more

relevant than merely deriving specific detail, which onlyreflects the viewpoint of a relatively narrow sample.

In todays socio-economic environment, quantitativeresearch is still utilized as a preferred methodology bymany perfusion researchers due to issues relating to timeand financial considerations.3 Accessing quantifiableinformation and data is relatively simple compared toqualitative research. This latter methodology requirestime and considerable effort in the field, allocatingresources to a relatively small sample of participants.Therefore, when looking at a broad and diverse field suchas general human services, perhaps statistics can delivermore valid data in order to ascertain present and futuretrends. In addition, the process of quantifying can berepeated utilizing the same formula or methods. Repetitionof larger and multiple samples under similar conditionsallows comparisons to be formulated. Comparing statis-tics is perhaps easier to understand compared with a moresubjective and narrow approach. Understanding numeri-cal implications can lead to the assumption that the find-ings are valid, thereby, perceived as the truth.6

Furthermore, statistics rather than real life scenar-ios tend to remove the researcher from the emotionaland subjective bias that can be more prevalent in quali-tative research. Therefore, information and data can be

interpreted, utilizing basic figures without the influenceof participants compromising neutrality.

Adding to these ideas, meta-analysis is not a func-tion of qualitative research, but enhances qualitativeresearch methodology. This analytical process enablesthe acquisition of multiple quantitative findings, fol-lowed by merging data and information to create a morerepresentative viewpoint. This form of analysis is seen asa form of systematic review which is largely a statisticaltechnique.7Meta-analysis allows findings from differ-ent sources to be factored into a broader analysis,thereby, creating a more representative finding of a topic

under investigation. When applied to the field of generalhuman services, various findings, each conducted intomore specific areas of interest such as social care, health-care and financial security, can be statistically evaluatedand correlated into a broader picture, thereby, enablinga more accurate representative conclusion to be drawn.

Clear objective of the researchphenomenon

Another element of quantitative research relates to amore planned sourcing process in which the researcher

has a definitive or clean objective as a basis from whichto research. Alternatively, by implementing qualitativeresearch, the researcher may only possess an idea orapproximation of the objective.3A study conducted intothe theory of qualitative research clearly states, In manyqualitative research studies, there is no specific hypoth-

esis at the outset. Instead, hypotheses are produced (orinduced) during the early stages of research.8Thereby,confirming the lack of an initial definitive objectiveprior to enacting qualitative research.

Further expanding on the application of these twomethodologies, another line of thought suggests that,ideally, quantitative research should possess an originat-ing hypothesis, followed by the utilization of measureddata, thereby, conclusively enabling either proving or dis-proving the hypotheses.9Relating to the field of generalhuman services, this paper submits that an initial clearobjective regarding the specifics of ascertaining bothexisting and future prognosis is perhaps lacking or inad-equate when implementing the qualitative approach.

Quantitative research - latter phases ofresearch projects

A third element pertaining to quantitative research isthe supporting role of qualitative research when utilizedin combination with quantitative research. According toa recent article, it is suggested that the opening phase ofresearch is enacted by first utilizing qualitative researchas a lead in, prior to conducting primary research viaquantitative research methodology.10It is interesting tonote that qualitative research assists management per-sonnel when investigating marketing strategies, espe-cially concerning issues that are underlying to the mainresearch question. Another study likewise points outthat there is an acceptance among researchers that qual-itative methodologies are applicable to the initial stagesor when exploring the validity of the project.11

Planning prior to data collection

One significant difference between the two above-mentioned research methods relates to the design and

formulation of the research study. In planning the designof the research paper, questions will need to be askedregarding if the research can be generalized in order tocollect relevant findings in other sources accessed.12Furthermore, such findings should enable such general-ization to be applied to the theory or to the theory or tothe practice.

Another factor to be analyzed prior to determiningwhich research methodology is most applicable pertainsto the objective of the study. The objective in looking atgeneral human services is to establish existing condi-tions and possible future outcomes. If the objective has


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been to evaluate social processes, perhaps the qualitativeresearch methods would be more suitable.

Both research methodologies conduct content anal-ysis, yet, regarding the preference of quantitativeresearch, content analysis can be utilized to evaluate thequantity of data and information, thereby, categorizing

such content into a format that can be counted.13 Inaddition, there are many potential risks pertaining toobtaining sensitive or personal data, such as normallyderived from qualitative research.

Assuming the existence of a plan or goal prior to theresearch design, focus on an objective lends weight tothe argument promoting this papers response choiceof quantifying data and information in order to estab-lish an overall picture of general human services. Toachieve this, an objective truth, as derived by quantita-tive research, needs to be a primary focus rather than asubjective truth.14 This objective approach, incorpo-rating a truth or reality, is also linked with positiv-ism which is explained by identifying quantitativeresearch with positivism and further expanded as thatphysical and social reality is independent of those whoobserve it.15

Utilization of tools

For perfusionists who are practicing clinicians, research-ers and scholars using quantitative methods for researchpurposes, data and information is accessed by the utili-zation of tools from which they can quantify and buildon existing theory. However, those applying qualitativemethods are perhaps more restricted in their scope ofresearch, due to their role as a tool or instrument inwhich to collect subjective and more personalized data.3Another restriction is that it is more challenging forqualitative researchers to attain a general overall picturepertaining to multiple settings.16 In the time-frameneeded to conduct qualitative research, in which theresearcher personally interviews individual participants,such an allocation of time could have been directedquantitatively at existing sources from which existingdata and information could have been gathered on amuch broader scale.17 This may act differently if the

quality of data was of inferior quality or might the qual-ity of data play an important role. The database of mostclinical studies might be too small to allow for a gener-alization.

Additionally, utilizing quantitative research enablesmany factors to be investigated, some of which may belinked or influence each other, allowing the researcherto analyze varying factors in how they relate to theresearch question. Set within these parameters, toolssuch as questionnaires or equipment can be applied inmultiple areas of the study, allowing more inclusivefindings.

Statistically-derived data and information

One way of achieving relevance when establishing truthor proven facts is by gathering quantified data and infor-mation. Mays and Pope argue that detail is also relevantin order to establish if findings are applicable with a

similar environment.17

However, they also admit thatprobability sampling is a viable method in which toascertain the measure of representation, adding thatform of sampling is often ignored by researchers usingqualitative methods. Inference derived by this frequentomission by qualitative researchers can lead to theassumption that quantitative research utilizes a moreobjective probable scenario when enacting the researchprocess. They suggest that quantitative research sam-pling is biased towards statistics rather than theory, as ismore the practice with qualitative-based studies.

Data in numerical and statistical formatobjective

Two further elements of quantitative research relate tothe presence of numbers and statistics when evaluatingsources. To facilitate accuracy of measurement and eval-uation of objective concepts, the achievement of suchobjectives is enabled by tools such as surveys and ques-tionnaires. In a twenty-year study into psychosocialstudies by Hawker and Boulton, quantitative researchwas designed around cross-sectional findings.18 Theyadmitted that there were some design limitations to thestudies reviewed, but altogether their results provide a

strong background for more complex research in to thecourse and treatment of victims distress. In their quan-titative research, it was noted that extensive sourceswere accessed, including electronic databases, utilizingkeywords and the names of researchers who had pub-lished studies related to specifics or niche areas withinthe field of psychosocial studies. Here, it is clearly seenhow a large volume of information and data can beeffectively evaluated by quantifying rather than qualify-ing the content.

Efficiency of quantitative research

As this paper has already frequently noted, the elementof efficiency is contained within quantitative researchmethodology. It has also drawn attention previouslythat the allocation of available time resources may bemore effectively managed when enacting the quantita-tive methodology due to the potential of procuringlarge amounts of data within a given time period.Another aspect of this research method relates to theability for organizations to act on the findings and for-mulate valid policy based on generalized statistical evi-dence. Arguably, a valid objective from research is by


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investigating existing problems and future trends, suchas in the field of general human services, thereby,influencing the establishment of informed policy byhuman services organizations decision-makers.Supporting this argument, a study into both researchmethodologies suggests that in the right circum-

stances, quantified models can be valuable tools forpolicy analysis.19

Researchers role

Perhaps the final element contained within quantitativeresearch is regarding the function and objective of theresearcher. When discussing quantitative research ver-sus the subject matter, Neill defines the researchers rolein an objective light while indicating the qualitativeresearcher is fully involved or immersed within area ofconsideration.3

When looking at quantifiable research objectives, aprimary objective from a human sciences perspectiveis the collection of data and information that verifies ordisproves the theory. According to Castellan, such amethodology allows better understanding of a theorythat will allow scientists to state causes and predicthuman behavior.14Throughout the above discussion,emphasis has been placed on the appropriateness ofboth research methodologies in areas such as generalhuman services. Based on the aforementioned data andinformation derived from cited sources, it is suggestedthat quantitative research remains the preferred optionto enable an effective and accurate assessment of thispapers research interest.

Perfusion-related research

Cardiovascular perfusion is a profession that combinestechnical expertise and medical knowledge. A scientificapproach to extracorporeal circulation and related tech-niques is necessary to solve the problems ahead.

Qualitative and mixed methods offer unique oppor-tunities to contribute to the empirical literature on keyaspects of cardiovascular outcomes.20Translation of evi-dence-based practices in primary care is a major focus of

outcomes and effectiveness research. Qualitative meth-ods have also been used to examine aspects of organiza-tional change in implementing guidelines for improvingtimeliness of cardiac care for patients. Development ofpatient-centered outcomes measures has been identifiedas a primary goal in outcomes research. Patient-centeredoutcomes research requires the development of func-tional assessment benchmarks that reflect patient per-ceptions of important aspects of function in everydaylife.21,22 Disentangling the potential sources of docu-mented disparities in access to and outcomes of cardiaccare has been identified as a priority.

Conclusion

Research is the systematic and rigorous process ofenquiry which aims to describe phenomena and todevelop and test explanatory concepts and theories.Ultimately, it aims to contribute to a scientific body of

knowledge. More specifically, in relation to the focus ofthis paper, it aims to improve health, health outcomesand health services.

However, it is not possible to place research methodsin a hierarchy of excellence, as different research meth-ods are appropriate for addressing different researchquestions. It should be pointed out that research onhealth services is not insulated from the society withinwhich it is placed. It is often responsive to current policyand political issues23and is, thus, dependent upon deci-sions taken by others in relation to research topics andresearch funding.

The strengths and weaknesses of qualitative and quan-

titative research are a perennial, hot debate, especially inthe health sciences. The issues invoke classic paradigmwar. The personality/thinking style of the researcher and/or the culture of the organization is under-recognized asa key factor in the preferred choice of methods. Overlyfocusing on the debate of qualitative versusquantitativeframes the methods in opposition. It is important tofocus, also, on how the techniques can be integrated, suchas in mixed methods research. More good can come ofhealthcare researchers developing skills in both realmsthan debating which method is superior.

Mixed methods designs can provide pragmatic

advantages when exploring complex research questions.The qualitative data provide a deep understanding ofsurvey responses and statistical analysis can providedetailed assessment of patterns of responses. However,the analytic process of combining qualitative and surveydata by quantifying qualitative data can be time-con-suming and expensive and, thus, may lead researchersworking under tight budgetary or time constraints toreduce sample sizes or limit the time spent interviewing.Ultimately, these designs seem most appropriate forresearch that does not require either extensive deepanalysis of qualitative data or multivariate analysis of

quantitative data.Research that draws on the strengths of both quanti-tative and qualitative approaches has become increas-ingly recognized as essential in a number of fieldsintrinsic to outcomes research. A clear understanding ofsuch methodologies and systematic incorporation ofestablished techniques for ensuring rigor can help out-comes researchers successfully adopt and integratequalitative approaches when they are appropriate.

Declaration of Conflicting Interest

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.


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Funding

This research received no specific grant from any funding

agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

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C o p y r i g h t o f P e r f u s i o n i s t h e p r o p e r t y o f S a g e P u b l i c a t i o n s , L t d . a n d i t s c o n t e n t m a y n o t b e

c o p i e d o r e m a i l e d t o m u l t i p l e s i t e s o r p o s t e d t o a l i s t s e r v w i t h o u t t h e c o p y r i g h t h o l d e r ' s

e x p r e s s w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . H o w e v e r , u s e r s m a y p r i n t , d o w n l o a d , o r e m a i l a r t i c l e s f o r

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Perfusion 2015 Research Methods Qualitative & Quantative