PERSONALITY Unit 10

Personality an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

‘An individuals unique variation on the general evolutionary design for human nature.’

Expressed in one’s traits and cultural situation.

2 main theories: 1) Freud’s psychoanalytic theory proposed that childhood sexuality and unconscious motivations influence personality.

2) Humanistic approach focused on our inner capacities for growth and self-fulfillment.

Today’s personality researchers study the basic dimensions of personality, the biological roots of these basic dimensions, and the interaction of persons and environments. They also study self-esteem, self-serving bias, and cultural influences on one’ sense of self.

PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE – FREUD

Freud started out as a physician and moved into psychology when he could not find solutions to some of the neurological problems with his patients. Lead to his research and ideas

Parts of the Mind:

Conscious – Freud's idea that the mind is mostly hidden and only the tip of the iceberg is the conscious part of our mind.

Preconscious – Bridge between conscious and unconscious. Thoughts are stored in the unconscious and brought to the conscious through the preconscious mind.

Unconscious according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.

Free Association in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.

Psychoanalysis Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions.

Regression – of greatest interest to Freud, thoughts that are too unsettling to acknowledge and are therefore we forcibly block them from our awareness.

PERSONALITY STRUCTURE

In Freud’s view, personality comes from a conflict between impulse and restraint – between aggressive, pleasure-seeking biological urges and our internalized social controls over these urges.

Freud also believed that personality is the result of our efforts to resolve the basic conflict – to express the impulses in a way that brings satisfaction without also bringing guilt or punishment.

Id a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

Ego the largely conscious, “executive” part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

Superego the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations.

ID EGO SUPEREGO

PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

Psychosexual Stages the childhood stages of development, (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones: Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital

Exploring the UnconsciousPsychosexual Stages

PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT Erogenous zones are part of the psychosexual stages, during which the Id’s pleasure seeking energies focus on distinct pleasure seeking areas.

Oedipus complex according to Freud, a boy’s sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father.

Electra complex – female parallel of the Oedipus Complex.

Identification the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parent’s values into their developing superegos.

Ex. Gender identity could come from identification with same gendered parent.

Fixation according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual state, in which conflicts were unresolved.

Ex. Early weaning from breast feeding could lead to fixation in the oral stage.

DEFENSE MECHANISMS

Defense mechanismsRepressionRegressionReaction formationProjectionRationalizationDisplacementSublimationDenial

DEFENSE MECHANISMS

Defense Mechanisms in psychoanalytic theory, the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.

Freud said that anxiety is the price we pay for civilization. For example, controlling sexual and aggressive impulses in social groups.

Eight types of Defense Mechanisms –

1) Repression in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety- arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.

Freud used this to explain why we do not remember our childhood lust for our parent of the other sex. Also, that repression was incomplete and would create urges seeping out through dream symbolism and slips of the tongue.

2) Regression psychoanalytic defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated.

Ex. When a child is faced with the stress of starting school for the first time, they may regression back to oral fixation by thumb sucking.

3) Reaction Formation psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulse into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings.

Ex. I hate my Dad is actually I love my Dad.

4) Projection psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others.

Ex. “I don’t trust him” may actually mean “I don’t trust myself”. “The thief thinks everyone else is a thief’.

5) Rationalization psychoanalytic defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one’s actions.

Ex. Habitual drinker who says they drink with their friends ‘just to be sociable’.

6) Displacement psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet.

Ex. Child fears expressing anger towards parent, so they kick the family dog instead.

7) Sublimation psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people re-channel their unacceptable impulses into socially approved activities.

Ex. daVinci’s paintings of Madonna are because he was separated from his mother at an early age.

8) Denial psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people refuse to believe or even to perceive painful realities.

Ex. Terminally ill patients denial about their illness.

THE NEO-FREUDIAN THEORISTSDifferent from Freud in that they placed more emphasis on conscious mind’s role in interpreting experience and in coping with the environment, and, they doubted that sex and aggressing were all consuming motivations. Adler’s inferiority complex – childhood is important but social not sexual tensions are critical to development. Childhood feelings of inferiority drive later behavior. Ex. Illness as child.

Horney’s sense of helplessness – Childhood anxiety, caused by the dependent child’s sense of helplessness, triggers desire for love and security.

Jung’s collective unconsciousness Carl Jung’s concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history. Less emphasis on social factors and agreed with Freud about the unconscious having a large influence. According to Jung, collective unconsciousness explains why spiritual images, for some people, are deeply rooted.

Psychodynamic theory in the modern world does not just focus on sexual tendencies, the Id and the Ego. What they do use from the theory is the idea of unconscious thought and that inner conflicts can cause struggle in other parts of life.

ASSESSING UNCONSCIOUS PROCESSES Psychologists use different testing methods to help tap into the uncocious minds of their patients to find out more about their past. This helps them to plan the best treatment for them.

Projective Test a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics.

Thematic Apperception Test a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.

Rorschach Inkblot Test the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots. Psychologists are divided if this a helpful test or not.

Laptops! http://personality-testing.info/tests/HEMCR.php

EVALUATING THE PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE – RAGGING ON FREUD FOR A BIT.. Freud gets a lot flack from 21st century psychologists about his theories. But remember, he did not have access or knowledge of MRI machines, neurotransmitters and other modern attributes to psych.

Both Freud admirers and critics agree that research now contradicts many of his specific ideas. Development is lifelong, not just set in childhood. Doubtful that infant neural networks are mature enough to sustain as much emotional trauma as Freud assumed.

Is Repression a Myth then?

Freud's entire theory rests on his assumption that human mind represses offending wishes and sends them to the unconscious. Today’s ideas tend to lean towards repression happening as response to terrible trauma. Extreme, prolonged stress may disrupt memory by damaging the hippocampus.

So how can we think of the unconscious mind in a modern way knowing all we know now? The unconscious mind is huge and can lead us to understand ideas about emotion, schemas and self-concept.

Terror Management Theory a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people’s emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death.

This relates to unconscious mind in that when faced with a threatening world we use defense mechanisms, such as placing traumatic events into our unconscious mind, to cope.

Freud's Ideas as Scientific Theory

Freud's theory is short in scientific theory – few testable hypothesis and explanations of observations.

After the fact explanations for any characteristic, but fails to predict behaviours and traits. – “Betting on the horse, after the race has been run’. Good theory makes testable predictions.

So should we throw Freud out? Maybe… but there are some good things that he contributed – unconscious mind, self-protective mechanisms, importance of human sexuality and the tensions between biological impulses and social well-being.

Good way to reach the general public about psychology because his theories are so well know. Ex. Freudian Slip

THE HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE Contrasted Freud’s study of ‘sick’ people with looking at ‘helthy’ people and how they strive for self-determination and self- realization

2 Big Theorists – Maslow and Rogers – focused on human potential.

Maslow:

Hierarchy of Needs – y’all should know that!

Self-Actualization according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one’s potential.

Self-Transcendence – meaning, purpose beyond one's self.

Noted that successful people are self-aware, self-accepting, open, spontaneous, loving, caring and not paralyzed by others opinions.

“Acquired enough courage to be unpopular, to be unashamed about being openly virtuous…”

Rogers:

People are basically good and are endowed with self-actualizing tendencies.

Unless placed in an environment l that inhibits growth, each person has the ability for growth and fulfillment. GenuinenessAcceptanceEmpathy

People nurture growth through being genuine – open with feelings, dropping facades and self-disclosing.

Unconditional Positive Regard according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person.

Self-Concept all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?” Can be positive or negative. Reach the potential or don’t.

ASSESSING THE SELF

Self-report tests: Ideal versus actual self

EVALUATING THE HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE – TIME TO CRITICIZE!

Humanistic process has influenced counselling, education, child-rearing and management. Popular, modern psychology. Renewed interest in self-concept CriticismsVague and subjective – descriptions are not scientific or measurable. Ex. What exactly is an open and spontaneous person? Is it tangible or just based on the researchers ideas?

Individualistic and Western biased – Selfish way of looking at things. Naïve – Fails to appreciate the reality of our human capacity for evil. :<

TRAIT PERSPECTIVE

Traits a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports.

Describing rather than explaining – take away the psychologists subjective definition of personality traits. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) – 126 questionnaire used for counselling, leadership training and work-team development.

EXPLORING TRAITS

By classifying people as one or more of the distinct personality types, we fail to capture full individuality.

Description is important but can get overwhelming. There are over 18000 words in the English language that can be used to describe people.

So how can we do it?

Factor analysis – a statistical procedure that identifies cluster of correlated test items that tap basic component of intelligence. Ex. Someone who describes themselves as outgoing may also say they like excitement. Leads us to label them as an extravert. Eysenck and Eysenck – how to describe: Extroversion versus introversionEmotional stability versus instabilityEysenck Personality Questionnaire

Exploring TraitsFactor Analysis

BIOLOGY AND PERSONALITY

Brain scans – extroverts tend to have lower than normal brain arousal, and therefore may seek out stimulation externally. Flipped for introverts. GeneticsAutonomic nervous system reactivity can be used to explain shyness in children. Tend to continue into adult hood on both levels.

Personality differences are seen more in certain species, like animal and dogs, and less in others, like birds and monkeys.

However, personality traits can be bred into different species over time.

ASSESSING TRAITS

Assessing traits concretely allows us to gather stable evidence of traits. Different tests are used:

Personality inventories a questionnaire (often true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.

To the Laptops!

http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/jtypes2.asp

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.

The MMPI items were empirically derived a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups.

THE BIG FIVE FACTORS

The Big FiveConscientiousnessAgreeablenessNeuroticismEmotional stability vs instability

OpennessExtraversion

The Big Five Factors

THE BIG FIVE FACTORS

Questions on The Big FiveHow stable are the traits? Adulthood – stable How heritable are the traits? 50% of the timeDo the traits predict other personal attributes? – Yup, for example, highly conscientious people tend to get better grades and be morning people.

EVALUATING THE TRAIT PERSPECTIVETHE PERSON-SITUATION CONTROVERSY

Person-situation controversy – can personality change over time or in different situations? Are traits consistent?Can traits predict behavior?Studies on music preference, bedroom/office organization, personal websites and email may show clues into understanding identity through traits.

THE SOCIAL COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE Social Cognitive Perspective views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people’s traits (including their thinking) and their social context.

Believe that we learn our behaviours either through conditioning or bye observing other and model our behavior after theirs.

Mental processes play a role. Ex. What we think about our situations affects our behaviour. – AKA Social OR Cognitive Behavioural Approach.

RECIPROCAL INFLUENCES Reciprocal Determinism the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment.

RECIPROCAL INFLUENCES

Ways individuals and the environment interactDifferent people choose different environments – school, friends, TV shows you watch – you choose your environment and then it shapes you.

Our personalities shape how we interpret and react to events – Ex. Anxious people at attuned to potentially threatening events. Thus they perceive the world as threatening, and react accordingly.

Our personalities help create situations to which we react – How we view and treat other people influences how they, in turn, react.

The Biopsychosocial Approach to the Study of Personality

PERSONAL CONTROL – CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES Personal Control the extent to which people perceive control over their environment rather than feeling helpless.

Two ways to study personal controlCorrelate people’s feelings of control with their behaviors and achievementsExperiment by raising and lowering people’s sense of control and noting the effects

INTERNAL VS EXTERNAL LOCUS OF CONTROL External Locus of Control the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.

Internal Locus of Control the perception that you control your own fate.

Internals tend to achieve more in school and work, act independently, have better health and feel less depressed than externals.

PERSONAL CONTROLDEPLETING AND STRENGTHENING SELF-CONTROL

Self-control is the ability to control impulses and delay gratification. Ex. How does exercise show self-control?

PERSONAL CONTROLBENEFITS OF PERSONAL CONTROL

Learned helplessness – people who feel helpless and oppressed often perceive control as external and develop learned helplessness. Little control creates lower morale and increased stress. Ex. Giving choice to those in care homes. Tyranny of choice – too much choice brings an overload and can cause even more stress. Western culture norm.

OPTIMISM VERSUS PESSIMISM Optimism and Health – Optimists will outlive pessimists. If 2 optimists in a relationship are fighting, they tend to feel more supported and satisfied with the resolution. Expect good things from others and that’s usually what you will get.

Excessive Optimism – Self-disparaging explanations of past failures can depress ambition, but realistic anxiety over possible future failures can fuel energetic efforts to avoid the dreaded fate. Ex. Amount of studying before a test.

Blindness to One’s Own Incompetence – People are most overconfident when they are the most incompetent. Ex. Score bad on a grammar test, but thought you did good, you may not know what good grammar actually is. How to overcome this? Ask your peers for honest feedback on your levels. That will give you a realistic level of where you are at.

Positive Psychology the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive.

ASSESSING BEHAVIOUR IN SITUATIONS US Army Spy Training – instead of pencil and paper tests, candidates were given simulated undercover missions to test their ability to handle stress, solve problems and withstand interrogation. Although time consuming, did show way more insight into how they would react in future spy missions.

Business Uses – Simulated managerial work.

Education – Teacher candidate blocks.

Army – Simulate war strategies.

EVALUATING THE SOCIAL-COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE

Sensitizes researchers to how situations affect, and are affected by individuals. Based on research only. Focuses too much on the situation fails to appreciate the person’s inner traits. Personality traits have shown to predict behavior at work, love and play. However, biological influenced traits matter as well.

Comparing Research Methods

EXPLORING THE SELF

Self in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions.

Example – possible selves include your visions of the self you dreamed of becoming, as well as the self you fear of becoming. Such possible selves motivate us by laying out specific goals and calling out the energy to work towards them.

Sense of self extends to the spotlight effect overestimating other’s noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us).

It’s hard to ignore, but everyone is concerned with themselves and not you!

THE BENEFITS OF SELF ESTEEM Self-Esteem one’s feelings of high or low self-worth.

Self-esteem can be seen as the ‘armor that protects all kids’ from lifes problems. Maybe feeling good follow doing well. If problems and failures come from low self-esteem, won’t the best boost therefore come not so much from our repeatedly telling kids how wonderful they are as from their own effective coping and hard-won achievements?

SELF-SERVING BIAS

Self Serving Bias a readiness to perceive oneself favorably.Wait! Figure out how Self Serving Bias is different from Self-Esteem! People accept more responsibility for good deeds than for bad, successes than failures. Ex. Athlete wins a game it’s because they have trained, lose a game; it’s because the ‘reffing’ was bad.

Most people see themselves as better than average. Ex. Depends on country – Australians rate at 86% above average job performance, Asia, less because of valued modesty.

Defensive self-esteem is fragile. Focuses on sustaining itself, which makes failures and criticism feel threatening. See comic page 514. Secure self-esteem is less fragile because it is less contingent on external evaluations. Focus beyond yourself.

CULTURE AND THE SELF.

Individualism giving priority to one’s own goals to over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications.

Some may see school uniforms as confining, but from the Japanese perspective, the same tradition may express a ‘serenity that comes to people who know exactly what to expect from each other.’

Collectivism giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work group) and defining one’s identity accordingly.

Man is helping fellow student who was trapped in the building after an earthquake. By identifying strongly with family and other groups, Chinese people tend to have a collectivist sense of ‘we’ and accompanying support network of care, which may help to succeed after such a disaster.

Individualism versus Collectivism