JournalofCriminalJusrrcc Vol. 16, pp. 131-137 (IYXX) All rights reserved. Printed in U.S.A.

0047-2352/M $3.(H) + .OO Copyright 01988 Pergamon Press plc

POLICE MANAGERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF EMPLOYEE TYPES: A CONCEPTUAL MODEL

JACK KUYKENDALL

Department of Administration of Justice San Jose State University

San Jose, California 95192

ROY R. ROBERG

Department of Criminal Justice Louisiana State University

Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803

ABSTRACT

Discussions with 410 police managers from 269 police agencies were utilized to identify six types of police employees. These types were distinguished by work-related attitudes, competence, and motiva- tion. The Hershey and Blanchard situational leadership model was used to identify the most appropriate managerial style for each employee type.

INTRODUCTION

Managerial style or leadership orientation

has been explored from six theoretical per- spectives. The great man theory suggests that leaders are determined naturally and have extraordinary qualities. Personality and character traits are considered impor- tant. The environmental theory holds that leadership is determined by “time, place and circumstances.” The ability to lead is a “function of the occasion” in which the leader becomes the “instrumental factor” in problem-solving or crisis reduction. The personal-situational theory attempts to ex- plain leadership based on the interactive dynamics of the individual and the situa-

tion. Closely related are the interaction-

expectation and exchange theories. The former emphasizes the importance of the leader’s ability to assist followers in realizing their expectations, whereas the latter stresses the significance of an “equitable exchange relationship” between leaders and followers. The sixth theoretical perspec- tive, the humanistic, underscores the impor- tance of balancing and integrating individual and organizational interests (Stodgill, 1974: 17-23).

Contemporary models of leadership are based on one or more of the last four theoretical perspectives, with an emphasis on situational analysis, employee interests and needs, and organizational concerns.

131

132 JACK KUYKENDALL and ROY R. ROBERG

And. although these models have been utilized to assess the styles of police manag- ers, there has not been a corresponding typology of the employees being managed (Kuykendall, 1977: 1985: Kuykendall and Unsinger, 1982; Swanson and Territo. 1982).

The purpose of the present study was to propose a police employee typology and to suggest the most effective managerial style(s) for each type of employee identi- fied.

Background and Procedure

The employee types described in this article were developed from class discus- sions with 410 police managers who were participants in nineteen managerial training programs conducted over a fifteen-year pe- riod. The participants represented 269 po- lice agencies. ranging in size from three to over 1700 personnel, throughout the states of Arizona and California. The overwhelm- ing majority of the police managers held the rank of lieutenant or above, had ten or more years of experience, and had completed some college work; 137 had completed four or more years of higher education.

Both Blake and Mouton’s (1964, 1968) managerial grid and Hershey and Blan- chard’s (1977) contingency or situational approach initially served as the basis for discussion of managerial style, but the Her- shey and Blanchard model became primary as the employee typology was developed. Although these two models have different style designations, they are both based on the degree to which a manager emphasizes a tusk

orientation (productivity) or a relationship

orientation (employee needs). Based on the degree of emphasis placed on each orienta- tion, the grid model identifies five manage- rial styles. whereas the situational model has only four. The grid model also advocates a prefcrcncc in style utilization, identifying a most-to-least effectiveness sequence. The situational model differs in that no one of the four styles is considered more or less cffcc- tivc in the absence of a situational assessment by the manager. This assessment. according

to Hershey and Blanchard. should be based on the organizational maturity of the em- ployee, which reflects competence combined with motivation.

A leadership instrument. developed from these two models. was administered and scored. and the managerial styles of the participants were identified and discussed. It was discovered that approximately ninety- five percent used two or more styles when managing their employees and that approxi- mately forty percent used three or more styles. Although it is not clear in the leader- ship theory literature whether or not leaders can change their styles,’ these data strongly suggest that these managers did use a num- ber of different leadership styles (Kuykendall, 1085; Kuykendall and Unsinger. 1982).

Once the participants’ own managerial styles were identified, discussion followed regarding employees within the managers’ police organizations and the application of the style models. Initially. the discussions centered on identifying characteristics that applied to police employees in general. In subsequent programs, the number of charac- teristics was narrowed and used to develop specific ‘*types” of employees. As the *‘types” were being developed. they were critiqued and modified by the managers. Each type of employee became the basis for discussion concerning identification of the most effective managerial style(s) for each.

Police Employee Typology

Based on the previously mentioned discus- sions, throughout the training programs it became apparent that police managers tended to classify employees in terms of general productivity. The emphasis was placed on the quality and quantity of work performed without consideration of unique or specific police problems. The managers identified three significant productivity variables-degree of motivution and compe- tence, which wcrc high, moderate, or low. and work-related attitudes, which were ei- ther positive or negative. The first two variables roughly correspond with Hershey

Police Managers’ Perceptions of Employee Types 133

and Blanchard’s concept of organizational maturity.

Motivation was essentially the manager’s perception of how hard the employee worked. Competency referred to both job knowledge and the skills and techniques required to perform effectively. A positive or negative work-related attitude was the degree to which the employee actively ex- pressed support of and commitment to orga- nizational goals and objectives.

tional protocol. However, in general, this type of employee is talented, works hard, and is ambitious.

Figure 1 depicts the three variables that were utilized to identify the six types of police employees that ultimately were devel- oped from the discussion/critiquing process with the police managers. The characteris- tics of each type are briefly described below.

Rookies. As neophytes, they are primar- ily concerned with proving themselves as police officers. Consequently, their primary frame of reference is what the organization expects. Rookies tend to have positive work-related attitudes and are highly moti- vated; however, initially they are not very competent. Although interested in the work, they have not mastered the knowl- edge and skills necessary to perform effec- tively. Assuming that they have the ability, which is not always the case, they have the potential for becoming highly competent.

Cynics. Although cynics tend to be competent, their motivation and attitudes are a function of specific tasks rather than the work in general. They tend to be pessi- mistic and suspicious, even distrustful. Their cynicism may be general in scope or directed toward specific aspects of the job. When the employee’s cynicism is directed toward a particular task, the level of motivation is low and the attitude is negative. Cynics are either stars or workers in performing those tasks they consider to be important but become indifferent if not destructive in other areas. particularly those they view as being incompatible with their definition of the police role.

Workers. This type of employee tends to be moderately motivated, have generally positive work-related attitudes, and is either moderately or highly competent. Workers are often employees whose increasing famil- iarization with the job, or lack of advance- ment, results in somewhat of a decline in motivation without a decline in attitude toward the job. This decline may be accom- panied by the development of substantial interest outside of the organization. Basi- cally, workers are responsible, dependable employees who perform an “average to good day’s work” and cause few problems.

Retirees. This type of employee also tends to be competent but has a low level of motivation and a moderate or negative work-related attitude. Performance is at the minimum acceptable level or lower, if possi- ble. Retirees have become disenchanted with the job, which may be attributable to dominating personal problems, lack of inter- est in the intrinsic nature of the work, being close to retirement, or a combination of these factors. Whatever the specific cause, these employees are basically unwilling to perform, even though they are competent.

Depleted. This type of employee is low in all of the characteristics. He or she tends to be energyless, disinterested, mistake- prone, and functions below an acceptable level of performance. This type of employee fits the classic “burned out” syndrome and only contributes to the organization in a negative way.

Managing People: The Situational Perspective

Stars. This employee is highly moti- Hershey and Blanchard’s situational lead- vated and highly competent but may have ership model identifies four styles-telling, only moderately positive work-related atti- selling, participating, and delegating-that tudes. From a managerial perspective, some reflect the degree of emphasis of the man- stars tend to be too openly critical of tradi- ager on task and relationship factors. Task tional practices. The aggressive pursuit of behavior is evident when a manager en- excellence often places a strain on organiza- gages in one-way communication by ex-

134 JACK KUYKENDALL and ROY K. KOBEKC;

Figure 1. Police Employee Typology

EMPLOYEE CHARACTERISTICS

EMPLOYEE TYPE I

Positive Work- Motivation Related Attitudes I Compentency

Rookie I High I High I Low

Worker

Star

Moderate-High

High

High

Moderate-High

Moderate-High

High

Cvnic

Retiree I Low

Low-High

Low-Moderate

Moderate-High

Moderate-High

Depleted I

Low Low Low

plaining what the employee is to do and when, where. and how to accomplish the task. Relationship behavior occurs when the manager engages in two-way communica- tion and provides socioemotional support and positive psychological feedback to the

employee. The telling style has a high task. low

relationship emphasis. It is characterized by one-way communication that explicitly de- fines the role and activities of followers. The selling style is high in both tusk and relution- ship emphasis. It is characterized by two way communication and supportive, persua- sive behavior in which the manager attempts to get employees to “buy into” the decisions that have to be made. The participating style has a high relationship, low task emphasis. Two-way communication is used to encour- age and facilitate shared decisionmaking between manager and employee. The dele- gating style is low in both tusk and relation- ship emphasis. This approach results in letting followers “run their own show.”

Determination of the appropriate style is based on the organizational maturity of the employee or the group. This maturity assess- ment by the manager must take into account two variables, willingness or motivation and ability or competence. Mature employees have the ability and knowledge to do the work, have high expectations about their

performance. are concerned with personal achievement, and want feedback based on performance rather than attitude or how well they arc liked (Hershey and Blanchard, 1977: 161-172).

Motivation and competency were two of the three variables identified by the police managers in their discussion of employee types. The third was work-related attitudes. An employee with a positive work-related attitude is supportive of the organization’s goals and objectives, contributes to the development of policies and procedures when permitted, and suggests changes in existing practices in a constructive manner. Often, motivation and work-related atti- tudcs are closely related; however. it is possible to be highly motivated without having a highly positive attitude or to have a highly positive attitude without being highly motivated.

With followers of high maturity, delegut-

ing was considered by Hershey and Blanchard the most effective leadership style; purticipating was also considered effec- tive. but less so. With followers of high-to- moderate maturity, the most effective style was thought to be participating, with delegat- ing and selling ranked second. With follow- ers of low-to-moderate maturity, selling was considered the most effective style, followed by tither telling or participating. For follow-

Police Managers’ Perceptions of Employee Types 135

ers of low maturity, the telling style was considered most effective, followed by sell- ing (Kuykendall and Unsinger, 1982).

The objective of the Hershey and Blanchard model is to manage employees in such a way as to ensure that as many as possible become highly mature. The manage- rial styles suggested below are not based on this objective. Rather, the typology assigns a relatively permanent status to employees, with the exception of rookies. The manage- rial styles suggested are considered to be most effective in maintaining a level of performance, possibly improving that perfor- mance, or simply responding to a problem.

Police Employee Types: A Managerial Analysis

This section attempts to suggest the most effective managerial style(s) for each type of employee identified through discussions with police managers in this study. It is important to understand that more than a single style may be necessary for each em- ployee type-depending on situational cir- cumstances. As figure 2 indicates, both a basic style and a secondary style(s) have been indicated. This simply means that under normal conditions, a police manager will be most effective in managing a certain type of employee by first utilizing the basic style identified and then moving to a secon- dary style as circumstances dictate. Each of the styles and their rationale are discussed below.

Rookies. Organizationally, their matu- rity level is low; consequently, a telling style utilizing considerable structure is required. Managers must specifically emphasize the task requirements of a position as well as how those tasks are to be performed. As the Rookie’s competency is demonstrated, the manager should begin gradually to utilize the selling style. When the relational behav- ior of the manager begins to be stressed, it is appropriate initially to provide feedback on the employee’s attitude as well as perfor- mance. As the Rookie’s maturity increases, the manager can concentrate almost solely on the employee’s performance.

Workers. Organizationally, they are of moderate maturity. Their maturity level is not considered to be high because they are not highly motivated or they may be only moderately competent. Some employees are limited by their intellectual capabilities, whereas others are not motivated suffi- ciently to realize their potential.

The basic style of the manager should be participating, although selling may occasion- ally be required. In general, workers are basically competent and responsible, so a task emphasis is infrequently necessary. The manager should encourage the development of an open and candid dialogue and be supportive of the worker’s endeavors. Posi- tive feedback for significant performance accomplishments is also important.

Stars. Stars are highly mature in an organizational sense. Managers most effec- tively relate to stars with the delegating style. Within the limits of a constructive contribution, they should be given as much latitude as possible. They are not ignored; rather, the manager-star relationship is more one of two peers than that of superior- subordinate.

Although stars may make significant con- tributions to the organization, they may also be or become “workaholics.” The long-term consequences of such behavior may result in stress-related problems that are damaging to both the employee and the organization. In relating to such employees, managers may want to consider strategies to reduce or modify the level of commitment or the star’s approach to problem-solving.

Cynics. Cynics are probably the most difficult type of employee to manage be- cause although they are competent, their motivation and attitude are based on the task to be performed. Consequently, the organizational maturity of the cynic also ranges from low-to-high based on the task to be performed.

This requires the utilization of multiple styles by the manager. The basic style should be selling but with a readiness to adjust to telling or participating. The telling style should be employed in responding to inadequate performance in those tasks the

136 JACK KUYKENDALL and ROY R. ROBERG

Figure 2. Matching Managerial Styles with Employee Types

EMPLOYEE TYPE

Rookie

Worker

Star

MA TURITY

Low

Moderate

High

MANAGERIAL STYLE

Basic: Telling Secondary: Selling

Basic: Participating Secondary: Selling

Basic: Delegating Secondary: None

Cynic Low-High Basic: Selling Secondary: Telling

Participating

Retiree Low Basic: Telling Secondary: Selling

Depleted Low Referral: Professional Assistance

cynic does not consider to be important, whereas the participating style is most effec- tive when this employee performs as a worker or star.

Retirees. Organizationally, this type of employee is of low maturity. The basic managerial style should be telling with a willingness to utilize a selling style as the employee improves his or her performance. However. until retirees perform at a mini- mally acceptable level, the manager must specify task requirements. They should be required to reach and maintain a specified level of performance.

Depleted. Organizationally, these em- ployees arc of low maturity; however. they cannot be managed in a conventional sense nor can they be ignored. Employees who become depleted or “burnt out” should be removed from the complex operational envi- ronment of police work and referred to appropriate persons (i.e., doctor. psycholo- gist) for assistance. Managers should not try to cope with depleted employees because they require expertise that the manager does not possess.

CONCLUSION

The purpose of this study was to identify a typology of police employees and to suggest the most effective styles to manage the types identified. The typology was developed through extensive discussions with 410 po- lice managers in nineteen training programs. The typology assumes that employees re- main in a particular status for an extended period. Temporary or organizational prob- lems that may result in a change in an employee’s performance are not considered, although managers should, of course, be alert to such problems.

The police employee typology developed in this study is conceptual in nature. Al- though we believe that certain categories of employees exist in all organizations and that a single managerial style is not appropriate for all employees, empirical verification is necessary to determine the validity of our typology and further to refine or modify the relative nature of each category.

Another aspect of the employee typology not discussed but that may be relevant for

Police Managers’ Perceptions of Employee Types 137

future research is the career stages of the police employee (Niederhoffer, 1967). It was apparent from discussions with police managers that there is a sequential develop- ment of types. Rookies frequently become cynics, who either develop into workers or stars or remain cynics. Those employees who become pervasively cynical often be- come depleted. All types have the potential of eventually becoming retirees. Managers not only need to know how to manage each type, they also need to know the specific developmental experiences required to maximize the number of employees who reach and maintain the worker or star status.

NOTES

Fiedler’s early research (1965), for example, indi- Swanson, J.R.. and Territo, L. (1982) Police leader- cated that leadership styles are very difficult to ship and interpersonal communication styles. In change and, therefore. the job should be “engi- Managing police work, ed. Jack Greene, pp. 123- neered” to fit the leader. 39. Beverley Hills. CA: Sage.

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