POLITICSANDSOCIETY DURINGTHE EARLYMEDIEVALPERIOD CollectedWorksof ...ProfessorMohammadHabib Vol.One "EditedbyPrOfessorK.A.Nizami CentreofAdvancedStudy,DepartmentofHistory .AligarhMuslimUniversity PEOPLE'SPUBLISHINGHOUSE .. August1974(P 58) COPYRlGIIT1974IRFANHAnIB :' .. (>.,t'.,... b , Price:fis.50.00 l'ritltC'dh;,Tanmscng,;;t'a'Agc P;c,",Hani Hoacl:--DeIJ'li110055.andphlilished by himforI)w.. Llffiltell, n'c'YDelhi11005.'1.;...J INTRODUCTION I It wassometimeiri1947-soonaftermyjoiningtheDepartment ofHistory-that Itookcourage inboth handsand requested Professor Habibto publishallhisarticlesinonevolume.ProfessorHabibliked the.ideabutreferredtotwodifficulties:first,hehad)10off-prints of hisarticleswithhim;secondly,hewouldIikctorevisethearticles . butwasnotsureif hecouldfindtimeforthisrevision.Isubmitted thatIhadcollectedallhis andthatarrangcllientcouldbe madeforgettingthellityped.ProfessorHabibputMrNazir(his typist)intouchwithme.Heborrowedonearticleeveryweekand typed it out.Icomparedthetypescript withthe originalandpassed itontoProfessol'Habibforrevision.Hardlythreeorfourarticles weretypedthatMrNazir .suddenlyleftforPakistanandthework cametoastandstillandcouldneverberesumed.OffandonI remindedProfessorHabibandhepromisedto re-startitwhenthere wassomeleisureduringthesummervacations.Vacationfollowed vacation and year followed year butProfessor Habib could not resunie theworkandwheneverIhroachedthesuhjccthesaidwith atypicaltouchofsl!ynessthatnextvacationwouldbedevotedta thisworkandthatIwould havetohewithhimthroughthevacation. Butthatvacationt;Jevercame.Weworkedtogetheronthefifth volumeoftheComprehensiveHistoryofIndiaforthreelongyears whqnthebookappearedinprint,ProfessoxHabibwasvery happy and excited.Ithought it wasthe opportnnomomentto obtain hisapprovalforthepl1hlicationofhisarticlesinahookform.This timeheagreedtogiveuptheideaof .revision.,.--'-Iknew. hecould . neverreviseanyarticle.ThemomentIgavehimanarticlewrittei1 some1.5or20yearsback,hestartedrewritingthewholething.f biew thatit wasimpracticable.lIe filiallyagrecdthatcouldbepublishedastheywerewrittenhuthewouldwritealong introductioncovering.theentirerange.AthisinstanceIwroteto PoliticsdndSocleivdftrlngtlieEar/yMedlevatf'erloa thePeople'sPublisItingHouseinthatconnectionandtbeyreadi-lyagreed.Butheforetheworkcouldbetakenup,Professor Habibdepartedfortheworldbeyond.Ithoughttllerecouldbe no. bettertributetohismemorythantoeditandpublishnilhis works..GenerationsofresearchscholarshavebenefitedfrOmthese articlesbutunfortunatelyithasbeendifficulttofindthematone place.Thisisthefirstvolunieofhisarticlesandbroehnres;the secondvoluniecovershisrutidesonpoliticalandadminimc1Jodvl1skcdaholltIllSrchgfOl1.Povel tyhnsnowhglOn-Jle replieda"ndwentawaytohislecturerOom . . IIabihwnshomatLllcknowon1 November1894(ac-cordingtoTheV.P.Gazelle,dated1July1911,p.479;hispaSSpeil't, however,has6June1895asthedateofhishirth).Hisfather, MI'.MuhmnmadNnsim; Itlending lawyer of Lndmow. MohaminadIInhibpassedthematriculationI":wlriinatiritli'1the firstdivisionin1911lindwastheonlystudentinthedivision fromthelo.f.A.O.CollegiateSchoolthatyenr.Recnllinghiss('booI Polilies"rutSoc/MydUrt.;{tIt.etarlyM edlevatPeriod d,ays,PiofessOrHabibwroteafewmOnthsbeforehisdeath:"The steeHrame of the organization of the Collegiate School was the English HeadMaster,M1'J.C.Rees.Stoutly-built,short-lookinginstature withplcntifulenergy,MrReesknewhowtomaintaindisCiplinein the', bestsenseoftileword.Herespectedtheteachers,andhe respectedstudentswhorespectedthemselves;healsoknewhowto dmeitstudentwhohadbeentoseriousmischief.Asschoolboys we 'knewofnohigherauthoritythanourHeadMaster.Andwe deeplyre-spectedhim.Wecopiedhishand-writing,wecopiedhis signature;andadmiredhisways.Iwasthetopboyinthetentil class,. andonedayIfoundmyselfinacurious. predicament.Scott's Ivanhoewasprescribedforourgeneralreading;MrReestoldus abitofthestoryonedaybutthenextdaylieconfessedthathe hadnothadtimetoreadupthebookandtumedtowardsme: 'Habib,youcome' andstandhereandtelltherestofthestoryto theclass.'SofortwodaysItookhisclasswhileMrReessat comfortablyinhischair.". III1912,hejoinedtheMAO.CollegeandpassedtheB.A.exaini-nationin1916inthefirstdivision(herememberedhisroll-number, 223)and wastheonly student to get a firstin the AllahabadUniversity (withwhichtheMAO.Collegewasthen affiliated).Professor Habib hadpleasahtmemoriesofthethensecretaryofthecollege,Nawab Vifl'lrulMulk."liewasrcspected", .hewrotc,"asnoVice-ChanceIlot' of the MuslimUniversityhasever been respected.He livedasimple andabstemiouslifeillahouseinTarwalaBungalowcompound. HehadnodraWingroomandnoconveyance.". , InOctober1916hewentto . OxfordandjoinedtheNewCollege. Amonghisteachers' wereincluded'sucheininentBritishprofessors. asDr' D. S.Margoliouth,DrW;A.Spooner,ProfessorErnestBarker wdProfessorAdams.They' weredeeplyimpressedbyhis'intel- ligenc:.ie,thoroughnessandirietlwds'.Barkerconsicleredllimas ofthebestIndianstudentshe hadtoteach'.'With a . quiet "unassumingmanner",hewroteabouthim,"hecombines.the genuinetemperofthehistoricalscholar."Recoinmendinghim' for appointmentasProfessoratAligarh,Spoonerwrote:"Somethingof tlieenthusiasm;hefeelsforhissubjectcannotbutimpartitselfto hispupilsandIlookforivardriotonlytohisprovingariexcellent teacherandprofessor,' butalso. tohis' contributingtotheadvance' ofthe subject,on which he will be engaged."He passed the honours examinationin1920inthesecond'divisionwhichErnestBarker thoughtw:as'asgoodasafirstdivision' ..HI:)alsopassedhisBar Ix exairiinationfrom' Lincoln'sInn.Laterhetookupresearchwork underMargoliouthwhoputhimtotranslateintoEnglishsometoriesofmedievalIndia.ProfessorHabibhadaveryhighopinion ofMaJ:goliouthasalinguist.Oncday;whilediscussingEnglish equivalentofsomePei'sianword,heshowedhispupilhispersonal collection ofdictionarieswhichaboundedinseveral hundred volumes. ProfessorHabibwaselectedpresidentoftheOxfordIvfajlis,an organizationofIndianstudents.Duringhistenul'e -MrsNaiduand Yeats addressedtheMajlis. ProfessorHabibhadnotyetcompletedresearchworkwhenacall . fromIndianiade himleaveEngland.The Non-Cooperationmovement hadbecnlaunchedandPunditMotilalNchruandMaulanaMohalll-madAliinsistedthat heshould rctulll hoine.OnhisreturnProfcssor HabibjoinedthestalloftheJamiaMilliawhichhadjustbeenes-tablishedat' Aligarh. OnSarc1arK.M.Panikkar'sresignation,MohanimadHabibwas appointedon23October1922'asaReaderfotthepresentonthe initialsalaryofaProfessor'.ThethenTreasurerobjectedtohisap-pointmentashewas"anavowednon-cooperatorandinsomeway associatedwiththeNationalUnivers!tyofMrMohaniinadAli".The ExecutiveCouncil,curiouslyenough,ignoredthisobjectiollandsanc-tionedhisappointment.Hejoinedtheuniversitystaffon6December 1922.From1October1923hewasgivenprofessor'sgrade.Hewas barely28yearsofageatthattimeand\vasperhapstheyoungest ProfessorofHistoryinanyIndianuniversity., On1Novellibel'1954ProfessorHabibattaincdtheageofsuper-annuationbutwaspersuadedtoacceptanextensionofservicefor fouryears.lIeretiredin1958,aftei'36yearsofcontinuousservice. On23December1959theUniversityconferrcduponhimthedegree of Doctorbf Letters(hollol'iscal/sa).Inthe courseofthecitatioh,the ViceChanceUorsaid:"AInilliantanderuditescholar,Pro- fessorHabibhasheldtherecord. forthelongesttenureitsa professorinthi!;University."Infact'I\vasaskedtopreparethe citationandwhenIapproachedhiniforhisbio-data,hefUr1lished thenecessarydetailstoincbutalsowrote. inallhumility:"Iam afraidiriyonlydistinctionatAligarhliesinthefactthatIhave drunkmorecupsofteaandsmokedmOrecigarsandenjoyedmore lecturesthan anyone else.But the reward of thesethings isimmediate andUJ1cotl(litioned."hisretirement,hecontinuedto inBistorvandPoliticalSciencetill1970,whenm'th/'itis madeitdifficultforllimtowalkwithouthelp.Thusfornearly48 Politics"m/Soc/ety,ttl ringtI,eEarlyMedlev"tPeriod yearshisvoiceresoundedinthelecture-roomsoftheUniversityand thousandsofstudentslearntathisfeet.Therewasno rollcallinhis class(heassignedtheworkof marking attendanceto sOllieresponsible studentintheclass)buttherewashardlyanystudentwhomissed hislectures.Hedidnotlimithislecture-timetotheconventional dlmitionof4.5minutes,butcontinuedtolecturefor2tohours ata He enj()yedlecturing to hisstudentsand usedtosaythat mostofhisinspirationcamefromtheclass-rooms, It isdifficulttomeasuretheextentofhisinfluenceonthegene-rationsofstudentsand teachersthat have livedandworked in Aligarh dllringthelasthalfacentury.Threegenerationsofthewriterof these lines have had the proud privilege toleam at hisfeet-iny father, latoM.AzizAhmadSrulibNizami,Advocate,Meerut;myself(as scholar)andmydaughter,Azra.Inhispresencemlefeltas Ifhehadbreathedaspi)'itnalozone,refreshingandinvigornting.lIe neverinvolvedhimselfinpettyintrigues01'factionalpoliticswhich unfortunatelyhaveoftenbeenthebaneofAligarh.lIewasateacher andastudentallhislife.Hiswholetimewasspenteitherinstudy orinteaching,Hebelieved,likeWordsworth,inthatcompanionship withbooks:. Roltnelwhich,withtendrilsstrongasfleshlindblood, QUI'pastimesandOUI'happinesscangrotv. Hereadavidlybooksonhistory,philosophy,religion,and. evengeneralscience;andunderlinedeverynewideaandeverygood phrase.Whenhefelttiredhetumedto novelsasarelaxation. III ProfessorHabibpublishedmuchlessthanwhathewrote,andhe wrotemuchlessthanwhatheread.Whilegoing. throughhispub: lishedworksonecangetanidcaofthedepthofhisandhiscriticalacumcn,huthisconspectusofknowledgewasvaster andhisinsightdeeperthancanheestimatedfrOnihisworks,His kll'""l("-lgcofEuropeanandOrientalhistorywascharacterizedbya rareofminutedetails.Hecouldtracewithremarkablefeli-citytheevolutiOn' ofanyinstitutionandcouldCOin parewithequal clarityandcomlliandtrendsofreligiousandpolitical . thoughtinthe EastandtheWest.Oncehe startedtalkingonasuhjectit appeared asiftheentirepanoramaofhistoricaldevelopmentlaybarebelore hiseyes.Hisfundofknowledgeseemedinexhauslihleandhewould J I i illtroductiotlxl takehislistenerintothelanesandby-lanesofanenchantedintellec' tualjourneywiththeconfidenceofonewhokneweverynookand comeroftherealmhewassoftlytreading.Therewasnoringof pedall.tieorostentatiousdisplayoflearninginhisconversations;his Jistenel'wasacompanionwithhimonanintellectualincursionand notastranger withanexpe-li.Hishumility-inthought,mannersand auniquecharmtohispersonalityandremovcdthose barrierswhichoftenhinder. comrriunicationbetweenascholarand astudent. ProfessorHabibcombuledwith.hisprodigiousmerrioryarare capacityforboldandoriginalthinking.Heneverhesitatedinex-pressinghisviewshowsoeverunorthodox(orasheusedtoputit, 'heretical')theymightappear toanybody.IlisstudyofMahmuclof GhazniledhimtotheconclusionthattheSultan'sIndiancainpaigns werenot.inspiredbyanyreligiousobjectivebutweremotivatedbya desireforeconomicexploitation,Hisopinionshockedtheorthodox circlesbutheneverenteredintoadebatewithhiscriticsbecause - heknewthat theyknewlittleaboutthesubject.Oneincidentinthis connectionIcallnevel:forget thirtyyearsbackhevisited Meerut inconnection with some inspection ofcolleges.My father who was. oneof hisearliest batchof pupilsinvitedhimtodinncr.Amongst the'guestswasKhanBahadurShaikhWahicluddinofLalkurti,who believedinthetraditionalassessrrientofMahmud.Perhaps. hehad cometoknowaboutProfessorHabib'sestihiateoftheSultan,"Pro-fessorSahib I", Shaikh Wahiduddin turned to himafter the dinner' and asked,"How isit that you think that Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi fought forwealth?"The questionseemedtohaveperplexedProfessorHabib. Heknewthattheaudiencewasnotofhistoriansandanyuua.y'7:TheKshattriyas , :.:8.TheMasses ',,'9.'DressandManners 10.LawsandCusloms LordoftheAssassins ,, 111-22 125-36 137-51 152-228 229-47 ...... ).:xx PoliticsandSocietydurirrgtileEarlyMediemlPeriod PARTTHREE:MEDlEVALMYSTICISII-I EarlyMuslimMysticism I-IuzrntAmirKhusrntiofDelhi 1.LifeofAmirKhusrau 2.PoelfcalWorksofKhusrall 3.ProseWorksofKhusrau ShaikhNasiruddinMahmudChirngh-i-Dehli(asagreat personality). ChishtiMysticsRecordsoftheSultanatePeriod 251-90 291-355 3.56-84 385-433 PARTONE ApproachandMethod 0"ANINTRODUCTIONTO'THESTUDYOF MEDIEVALINDIA(A.D1000-14-00) I.SIRHENRY 'ELLIOT "IF THEARTIFICIALDEFINITIONofDionysiusbe corred",saysSir Henry .Elliot,"thathistoryisphilosophyteachingbyexamples,thenthere .isnonativel Indianhistorian;.andfewhaveevenapproachedtoso. highstandanl.Ofexamples,andverybad ones,wehaveamplestore, thougheveninthemthe radicaltruthisobscuredbythehereditillY officialand sectarianrrepossessionsof the narrator;but of philosophy whichdeducesconclusionscalculatedtobenefitusfromthelessons andexperiencesofthepast;whichadvertsonthespringsandcon-. sequencesofpoliticaltransactions,andoHerssagecounselsforthe future,wesearchinvainforanysignor symptom.Ofdomestichis-toryalsowehaveinourannalistsabsolutelynothingandt ~ esame mayberemarkedofnearlyallMohammedanhistorians,exceptIbn Khaldun.Bythemsociety isnevercontemplatedeither initsconven-tionalusagesorrecognizedprivileges,itsconstituentelementsor. mutualrelations;itsestablishedclassesorpopularinstitutions;inits privaterecessesorhabitualintercourses.Innoticesofcommerce, agricultm:e,internalpoliceandlocaljudicaturetheyareequally deflcfeilt.A fact,ananecdote,aspeech,aremark,whichwouldillus-trate the conditionsofthecommonpeople,or of anyrank subordinate tothe highest,isconsiclerecl tooinsignificantto besufferedto intnlCie uponarelationwhichconcernsonlygrandees' andministers, 'thronesandimperialpowers'.Hence,itisthattheseworksmaybe said tobe deficientin someof the ,mostessentialrequiSitesof History, for'itsgl:eatohject',saysDr.Arnold,' 'isthatwhichmostnearlv to)ichestheinnerlifeofcivilisedman,namely,thevicissitudesof institutions,social,politicalandreligious',InIndianhistoriesthere islittlethatenablesustopenetratebelowtheglitteringsurfacennd 1.Elscwhrmh ~snyfl,UNntivr.chroniclesorthetimearc,forfhemostpnrt,dun, prejudiced,ignorantandsl1pedic/a!." Pol/ticsanelSocietyelf/ringtheEarlyMeellevalPerloel observethe practical operationofadespoticgovernmentand rigor?us and sangllinmylaws,and theeHectuponthegreat body of the nahon oftheseinjnrious2influencesandagencies ... Hadtheauthors,whOrri wearecompelledto consult,portrayedtheirCaesarswiththefidelity ofSuetonius,insteadofthemoresycophancyof Pait'l'cItIlls, we 'Shallnot,asnow,havetoextractfroniunwillingwitnesses,testi-monytothetruthoftheseassertions.Fromthem,nevertheless,we canthatthecommonpeopleinusthaveheenplungedinto thelowestdepthsofwrctohedilCssanddespondency."3 Now'ifthesestatementsweretme,thercwouldhenoplacefora historyofmedievalIndianinstitutionsorcultl1l'e.Butitwouldnot betoomuchtosaythattheracialarroganceofSirHenryElliot-ofwhichmorehereafter-incitedhimtooneofthegrossest libelsontheIndianpeople.ThematterrequiresSOmeexpla-nation.SirHenrvElliot(1808-53),whohel(!variol1shighoffices inthegovernnientofNorth\Vestern lltiliscdhisolficia! leisureincollectingPcrsianhistoriesoftheMiddleAgcs,which 2.It isassumednpriorithatalldespoticgovernmentsarehadandthattheire!fect, thoughSirHenryElliotconfesseshisInahilitytoInvestigateit,wasInjnrlou . 3.[ElliotandDowson'sUls!OI'!Ioflnella,Vol.I,SirHenryElliot'sOriginalrrcfacc, pp.xix-xxi-ED.)Thefallacyofthear!!1.11:ncntisohvions,ifthehistoriansof. medievalIndiatcllusnothingofthclif"ofthecommonpeople,whatrighthave\vn toass"",etllattheywere'wretehed'?OrwnsItneeessary-lIkcaxioinsingeometry ..J. tc. theirwretchednessinordertoapplaudandjustifythepresentpolitical regime?TIl6seamusingfanciesarefurthersupportedhyacheap. philosophicalreflec-tion:"WehellOldkings,evenofourowncreation,sunkinslothanddebauchery, andemulatingthevicesofCalligulaandCommodns.Under511chrulers,wecannot wonderthat' thefountainsofjusti""arccormpted;thatthestatcrevenuesaro novercollectedwithoutviolenceoroutrage;thnt nrcburntnneltllcirinlmhit antsmutilatedor soldintoslavery;thntthe officers,sofarfroma!fouling protection,nre themselvesthechiefrohhersandusurpers;thatparasitesandeunuchsrevelin thespoilofplunderedprovinces;nndtllOpoorlindno ngainsttllOoppressor. wrongandtheproudman'scontume1y,Whenwewitnessthesescenesundert)urown eves,wherethesupremacyoftheBritishGovernment,thehenefitoritsexample,and thedreadofitsinterference,miglhtheexpectedtooperate asac1,eekuponthe progressofmisrule,canwehesurprisedthatforinerprinces,whe.nfreefromsl1ch restraints,SllOUldhavestudiedevenlesstopreservethepeople.committedtotheir charge,Inwealth,pencenndprosperity?"Noonewilldnnythntthl.isncorrect pictureofthegovernmentofseveralIndianstatessincetheusnoflire-armsinthe nr",ie.nndtheextensionofLordWellesley'ssuhsidiarysystem.DutSirHenryElliot 'knew,orshould known,tl1nttheso statesweremisgovernedonaccount ofandnotinspitoof,theprotectionextendedtothe hytl10Britishgove1'n-ment,which,nevertheless,leftthepeoplehelplessand,lisarmed,1110wnrlilce popl1lalionoftimMi,l,l1,.Ageshneleffectivemcth