Postmodern Spirituality; Implications for Promoting Change

Peter J. Jankowski

This article addresses selected effects of postmodernism on spirituality and contains a discussion of implications for promoting change in coun- seling. Because aspects of postmodern spirituality can prevent change, spiritual transformation may need to occur in the life of the client. Spiri- tual transformation is conceptualized as a process of helping the client develop resilient spirituality, which can enable the client to overcome his or her difficulties. Resilient spirituality involves finding meaning in adher- ence to a set of larger beliefs, the exercise of faith as a way of knowing, and an experience of connection with God and others.

n contrast to modernism, which denied the supernatural and valued rea- son to the point of declaring that "God was dead," aspects of postmodemism I are leading to an increased fascination with the supernatural and the realm

of the spiritual in contemporary American culture (Roof, 2000). Spirituality at one time was a forbidden subject to discuss with clients (Prest & Keller, 1993), but increased fascination with the spiritual, in the larger social context, is resulting in increased openness to the topic of spirituality in counseling (e.g., D. A. Anderson & Worthen, 1997; Butler & Harper, 1994; Kelly, 1994; Kilpatrick & Holland, 1990; Kudlac, 1991; Prest & Keller, 1993; Schultz-Ross & Gutheil, 1997; Walsh, 1998; West, 1997). This article advances conversa- tions of the topic of spirituality in counseling by discussing selected effects of postmodernism on spirituality and how counseling can promote change when those effects prevent the client from being able to overcome difficulties.

Defining Spirituality

There are three dimensions of spirituality found in the literature. First, the term spirituality refers to values and beliefs, often connected to a formal- ized religious set of doctrines (Prest & Keller, 1993). Although the term spiri- tuality can refer to adherence to a set of religious doctrines, it can also refer to simply contemplating or holding existential values and beliefs (Kilpatrick & Holland, 1990). For example, spirituality can involve beliefs about the meaning of life, the nature of reality, and the experience of death and dying. Thus, adhering to a set of beliefs or values represents the cognitive dimen- sion of spirituality. Second, there exists a metaphysical, mystical, or tran- scendent element (D. A. Anderson & Worthen, 1997; Prest & Keller, 1993;

Peter 1. Jankowski, Department of Psychology, Iudson College. Correspondence concerning this ar- ticle should be addressed to Peter 1. lankowski, Department of Psychology, judson College, 1151 North State St., Elgin, IL 60123 te-mail: pjankowski@judsoncollege.edu).

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West, 1997). The metaphysical element moves beyond cognitive or rational ex- planations for the occurrence of spiritual phenomena to the experiential realm where faith is often the only viable explanation for a given phenomenon. In other words, there is an element of spirituality that is "beyond the human ca- pacity to analyze or explain" (D. A. Anderson & Worthen, 1997, p. 4). Faith or trust, as a way of knowing, is an act of the will and consists of believing some- thing to be true or of believing that something happened or will and can hap- pen despite a lack of objective evidence. Thus, the metaphysical element of spirituality refers to the distinctively personal experience and exercise of faith.

Finally, the term spirituality involves an experience of connection (Walsh, 1998). Spirituality can be experienced as a sense of connectedness with another person or persons, nature, and/or God. Buber (as cited in West, 1997) explained the sense of connection inherent in spirituality by con- trasting the "I/It" relationship with the "I/Thou" relationship. The "I/It" relationship is the experience of "the other as different from oneself, as something of an object'' (p. 293). In contrast, the "I/Thou" relationship involves the experience of "one-ness" with the other. The "one-ness" emerges out of the relationship, forming something greater than the sum of its parts (Murr, 2001). Murr referred to this experience of "one-ness" as "spiritual communion" (p. 42).

It seems apparent from the literature that spirituality can be concep- tualized as a multidimensional construct consisting of cognitive, meta- physical, and relational dimensions. Spirituality, found to result in the experience of resilience or the ability to overcome and succeed during times of distress and challenge (Walsh, 1998), consists of the same three dimensions. Spirituality that results in resilience involves finding mean- ing in adherence to a set of larger beliefs and values, as well as the exercise of faith as a way of knowing (Walsh, 1998). Furthermore, Aponte (1998) suggested that it is the experience of connectedness that promotes healing and change in people's lives. Thus, resilient spirituality comprises cognitive, metaphysical, and relational dimensions. Much of postmodern spirituality, on the other hand, differs from resilient spiritual- ity in significant ways.

Postmodern Sciritualitv

A pervasive, and yet subtle, effect of postmodernism on spirituality seems to be the elevation of subjective experience as the legitimate way ofknowing. A way of knowing refers to how persons make sense of their selves, rela- tionships, and the world around them. Aspects of the postmodern critique centered on devaluing positivist science as the only legitimate and accepted way of knowing (Lyotard, 1979/1993). Other ways of knowing, such as subjective experience, became equally valued. However, in contemporary American culture, subjective experience seems increasingly to be given more authority than other ways of knowing.

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Experience as the Authoritative Way of Knowing

One trend within contemporary postmodern spirituality seems to concern itself increasingly less with doctrine as a way of providing meaning and more with subjective experience as the way to make sense of self, other, and world (D. E. Miller, 1998; Roof, 1996, 1998). A second related trend within postmodern spirituality seems to involve interpreting religious traditions and sacred writings with the assumption that they must be understood through the lens of subjective experience (D. E. Miller, 1998; Roof, 1996). Rather than knowing through an integration of cognition and emotion, an increasing number of people seem to be holding to a cognition-emotion dichotomy. However, unlike being influenced by modemism, which tended to overemphasize cognitive processes in knowing, many people influenced by postmodemism seem to value emotional experience over cognitive know- ing. The presence of the cognition-emotion dichotomy within contempo- rary American thought can be traced to the dualistic philosophies of the ancient Greeks (Labouvie-Vief, 1994). One effect of dualism apparently in- volved categorizing internal knowing processes into cognition (logic, rea- son) and emotion (intuition, experience), imbuing cognition with value and legitimacy and denigrating emotion as base and lowly (Labouvie-Vief, 1994). Overvaluing cognition seemingly laid a foundation for positivism to be- come the dominant way of knowing. In contrast to both modernism and postmodernism, Labouvie-Vief proposed an integrative way of knowing that synthesizes cognition and emotion into a dialectical whole. Neverthe- less, it seems that emotional experience is authoritative for an increasing number of individuals and their approach to making sense of themselves, their lives and relationships, and their religion.

Overemphasis on Vertical Spirituality

Apart from a valuing of emotional experience as the way of knowing, there seems to be an emphasis on simply experiencing for experience's own sake within con- temporary American spirituality. This emphasis seemingly results in an overem- phasis on the vertical aspect of spirituality. The vertical dimension of spirituality consists of an individual's sense of connection with God (Sider, 1993). The worth placed in simply experiencing, apart from critical, evaluative reflection, seems indicative once again of the dichotomy between cognition and emotion. Coupled with the subtle effects of the individualistic worldview of American culture, ex- perience, for its own sake, seems to promote an egocentric kind of spirituality that focuses on self-growth, "name-it-andclaim-it" theology, and a desire for intense emotional experience (Roof, 1998; Roozen, Carroll, & Roof, 1995; Shibley, 1998). Shibley referred to "name-it-andclaim-it" theology as the idea that "one can have worldly success if one prays hard enough" (p. 74).

An overemphasis on the vertical dimension of spirituality can result in a "privatized" spirituality (Greer & Roof, 1992). In other words, the horizon-

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tal aspect of spirituality seems to be largely neglected within a postmodern spirituality. The horizontal dimension is an individual‘s sense of connection with and responsibility to other people (Sider, 1993). Many religious tradi- tions seem to include expectations that adherents of that religion live in unity with one another and lovingly serve others. There seems to be an expectation that persons compassionately engage in the lives of the poor, oppressed, and needy, thus seeking to make a difference in the world around them. Therefore, the horizontal aspect of spirituality involves how persons live with one another in community and how they reach out to persons in their larger communities. Because postmodern spirituality can disconnect the person from a community of persons who can structure, inform, and guide the person in his or her private spirituality as well as in publicly liv- ing out his or her spirituality, the sense of oneness characteristic of a resil- ient spirituality seems to be missing. What seems to be absent is the oneness whereby a person can develop and make changes in his or her life by being a part of a larger whole and whereby he or she, as a part of that whole, can help others make changes in their lives, both within and outside of that whole. The larger whole can help constitute the person‘s vertical relation- ship with God and can also be the context or horizon within which he or she lives out his or her vertical relationship with God. The vertical and horizon- tal dimensions are seen as interdependent within a resilient spirituality.

An increasing number of persons immersed in postmodern culture seem to develop a spirituality that neglects the three essential dimensions of a resilient spirituality. Postmodern spirituality tends to (a) neglect the impor- tance of doctrine in providing meaning, thus devaluing the cognitive di- mension of spirituality; (b) overemphasize subjective experience, making only ”felt experience” authoritative, thereby lessening the importance of exercising faith as a way of knowing; and (c) disconnect people from each other and, in so doing, inhibit closer communion with God and neglect the inseparable responsibility of meeting other persons’ needs. Postmodern spirituality seems to alter the three components of spirituality that have been found to help people make changes in their lives and overcome diffi- culties. Rather than a helpful resource in times of trouble, postmodern spiri- tuality seems to offer little comfort to the distressed. For change to happen in counseling, spiritual transformation may need to occur in the life of the client because his or her spirituality may, in fact, be preventing change. Spiritual transformation, as defined in this article, is a process of helping to move a client from a postmodern spirituality to a resilient spirituality.

Implications for Counseling

The first suggestion for an approach to counseling that can promote change through spiritual transformation is a therapeutic stance of understanding (Kudlac, 1991). A desire to learn, listen, and understand the client is referred to in the literature as a “not-knowing” stance (H. Anderson, 1990;

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H. Anderson & Goolishian, 1992). Anot-knowing stance means that the coun- selor is guided by a curiosity about "what is not yet known" about the client's life and experience (H. Anderson & Goolishian, as cited in Freedman & Combs, 1996, p. 44). Furthermore, a not-knowing stance can guard the coun- selor from imposing his or her own spirituality on the client and can foster a relationship with the client that is conducive to change.

The use of questions is central to a not-knowing stance and is the primary means by which the counselor adds to his or her understanding of the client (Freedman & Combs, 1996). Questions are also seen as interventions through which change can happen in counseling. Examples of questions that can facilitate understanding and change include "What do you think gets in the way of you making the kinds of changes you would like to see?" or "How has your spirituality affected your life, or experience of the problem?" Other examples of questions include "Has there ever been a time when you found your spirituality to be a source of strength or found it to make a difference? If so, how did it make a difference?" Freedman and Combs classified the aforementioned examples of questions as deconstruction questions that help the client to see a need for change and opening space questions that allow the client to identify aspects of his or her life that may promote change. The significance of a not-knowing stance, however, seems to lie in the humility, tentativeness, and hesitancy in the counselor's asking of the questions and not so much in the particular types of questions asked. After all, the client's experience of the counselor and the therapeutic relationship seems to be the most significant factor in facilitating change (Lambert, 1992; S. D. Miller, Duncan, & Hubble, 1997). A not-knowing stance can help ensure that the client's experience of the counselor is one of feeling heard and understood.

A second implication of an approach sensitive to spiritual transformation can involve a sense of awareness within the counselor of how his or her spiritual beliefs and practices differ from the beliefs of his or her clients and what to do with those differences. Aponte (1998) encouraged counselors to openly discuss those differences with clients and mutually work toward overcoming the differences during counseling. The foundation for a discus- sion of spiritual differences ideally occurs in the context of a strong caring relationship between counselor and client (Aponte, 1998). Finding common- alities within the human experience can help counselors connect with their clients and establish a strong caring relationship (Aponte, 1998). The sense of connection along with dialogue about alternative practices and expres- sions of spirituality can help foster spiritual transformation.

Asking questions that highlight differences in spirituality can encourage the client to wrestle with how the differences fit with his or her current spirituality and can often result in the construction of new spiritual beliefs, experiences, and practices (Freedman & Combs, 1996). For example, the following questions may be asked: "You mentioned earlier that your faith in God was a comfort to you, but now you've indicated that you do not think God cares about your particular situation. How do those two state-

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ments fit together, or could you say more about what you mean by those state- ments?” The process of highlighting differences, offering alternatives, and en- couraging the client to make sense of the differences is akin to the process of dialectical change (Riegel, 1975) or oscillation (Mahoney, 1991). Oscillation, as defined in this article, refers to the experience of contradiction between one’s beliefs, practices, and experiences and those of another person or between the beliefs, practices, and experiences at different times in one’s own life brought to light through interaction with another person. The counselor can facilitate the experience of contradiction by asking questions from a not-knowing stance and reflecting his or her spirituality in the conversation.

Open and transparent reflection of the counselor’s own spirituality into the conversation with clients or use of the counselor‘s own spiritual expe- riences to inform the questions that he or she asks or the suggestions he or she offers to clients can help facilitate change (Prest & Keller, 1993). Trans- parency on the part of the counselor can enable the client to experience the counselor as a person who is not all that different from him- or herself (Freed- man & Combs, 1996). An example of how a clinician can reflect his or her spirituality in the conversation is “It is almost as if the answer is not that important, it is the act of praying that seems to make the difference for me.” In a situation in which a client’s comments recall an experience in the clini- cian, the counselor may say, “It was different for me because I struggled more with the silence from God than the answer I received.” Regardless of how the clinician incorporates his or her spirituality into the therapeutic conversation, the counselor is encouraged not to impose his or her spiritu- ality on the client. The counselor can use his or her own spirituality as a resource in counseling in a tentative manner from a stance of not-knowing that allows the client to take what he or she finds helpful and useful from what the counselor offers.

A third implication for spiritual transformation can involve applying a larger, systemic perspective to clinical practice (Martinez, 1994). Strength- ening clients’ relationships with extended family members and community members can foster an increased sense of connection. Mobilizing support networks and including members from the person’s religious community in the counseling process can work to overcome the isolation that postmodern spirituality may foster. One means of establishing a greater sense of con- nection with other persons in the client’s life consists of collaboration be- tween clergy or spiritual leaders and the counselor (Weaver, Koenig, & Larson, 1997). The client can be asked, “Is there someone you find helpful in nur- turing your spirituality? If so, would it be beneficial to invite that person to counseling?” The client can decline the suggestion, or the client can be asked to invite that influential person to counseling. On obtaining consent from the client, the invitee can serve as a resource or consultant during counsel- ing, perhaps offering clarification of particular beliefs and practices that may or may not be promoting resilience during this time of difficulty in the client’s life.

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Collaboration can also assist the counselor in assessing the role of com- munity members in contributing to the type of spirituality practiced by the client. It may be that people are reinforcing or encouraging postmodern spirituality, thereby contributing to the problem. In such instances, coun- seling may need to take on a systemic orientation that involves intervention in the larger social contexts in which the client is immersed (Imber-Black, 1988). Again, the client can be asked about inviting someone to counseling, with the client having the final say in the invitation. An effective initial in- tervention into this larger system may consist of conversing with the invi- tee and client. During the conversation, the clinician, functioning from a not-knowing stance, can use his or her spirituality similar to the way he or she would when talking with the client alone, but this time in an attempt to facilitate change in the client-invitee system.

An adaptation of the larger, systemic perspective conceptualizes people as bio-psycho-social-spiritual beings (Wright, Watson, & Bell, 1996). People are understood to exist within a bio-psycho-social-spiritual context that shapes their development and affects their behavior. Furthermore, spiritual beliefs and practices are molded as the individual develops within this context. As bio-psycho-social-spiritual beings, each individual has needs in each of these areas. Counselors adopting this perspective frequently initiate spiritual conversations in counseling rather than wait for the client to broach the subject (Griffith & Griffith, as cited in Walsh, 1998). Thus, a larger, systemic perspective can enable the counselor to assess the effect of a client’s spiritu- ality on change processes, can foster greater connection with other people in the client’s life, and can provide the counselor with a rationale and frame- work for initiating spiritual conversations with clients.

One final suggested implication from the practice literature for spiritual transformation stems from Bowen theory and object relations theory (But- ler & Harper, 1994; David, 1979; Griffith, 1986). When a dyad conceptual- izes and experiences God as the third member of their relationship triangle, their relationship tends to stabilize (Butler & Harper, 1994; David, 1979). Griffith cited the following example as evidence of the stabilizing effect: ”The mother, experiencing herself in the care of a good and loving parent (as God), could then entrust the care of her own daughter to God, permit- ting the growth of a more appropriate boundary between mother and daugh- ter” (p. 616). In addition, nurturing and strengthening a client’s relationship with God can resolve interpersonal difficulties in his or her other relation- ships (Butler & Harper, 1994; Griffith, 1986). Griffith proposed that con- versing with a client about his or her relationship with God, as one would any other interpersonal relationship, frequently brings about changes in a client’s relationship with God that can then facilitate changes in other rela- tionships. Thus, conceptualizing God as a member of the relationship sys- tem and addressing the client’s relationship with God as such can foster increased intimacy in the client’s relationship with God. Examples of ques- tions that may be asked, as part of this conversation, are “When was the last

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time you conversed with God? What happened?” or ”Have you ever felt closer to God? Tell me about those times.” Other examples include ”What do you think God would say about your particular situation, or how do you think God sees your dilemma?”

Strengthening a person’s relationship with God can also be experienced through the practice of spiritual disciplines (Willard, 2000). Some examples of spiritual disciplines include solitude and silence, prayer, fasting, medita- tion, reading and studying sacred writings, fellowship, worship, and con- fession of wrongdoings to one another and to God (Willard, 2000). On first glance, practicing spiritual disciplines may seem to foster an overemphasis on the client’s vertical relationship with God, particularly with examples such as solitude and silence and meditation. To avoid encouraging a spiri- tuality that is reflective of a postmodern overemphasis on the vertical di- mension, the practice of spiritual disciplines can be embedded in a social context that can structure and guide the practices. Many clinicians are in- creasingly recognizing the need to embed themselves in a community of people who will provide support, feedback, and accountability regarding their clinical practices (Freedman &Combs, 1996). Similarly, clients can benefit from the affirmation, instruction, and accountability obtained from a spiri- tual community regarding the practice of spiritual disciplines. Suggesting the practice of spiritual disciplines (McMinn & McRay, 1997; Tan, 1996), once again, raises the issue of collaboration. Collaboration may involve, in the aforementioned sense, members from the client‘s social network, or it may entail referring the client to a member of the clergy or to a congrega- tion. In the former, the counselor-client-invitee system functions as a social context that provides that support, feedback, and accountability. In the lat- ter, the clergy person or congregation, or both, can ideally function as that community.

A counselor interested in nurturing a client’s relationship with God, in order to possibly resolve the presenting problem and facilitate change in other interpersonal relationships, can simply encourage a client’s practice of any number of the spiritual disciplines. As the client experiences greater intimacy in his or her relationship with God, changes can be experienced in other relationships. Suggesting participation in spiritual disciplines can, once again, be done from a not-knowing stance in which the client has the final determination as to whether he or she wants to engage in those disciplines. A counselor may also reflect his or her experience of the spiritual disci- plines in the conversation as a way to offer alternative practices and expres- sions of spirituality that may help a client grow in his or her relationship with God. For example, the counselor may say, “I found it helpful to spend some time in silence before God when I was experiencing a difficult time in my life. What do you think would happen if you tried that?” or ‘‘I find it helpful to talk with others about their relationships with God. Are there people you could converse with about your relationship with God, as well as theirs? If so, what do you imagine that would be like?”

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Conclusion

Rather than promoting change, postmodem spirituality can remove elements of spirituality that lead to resilience. Clients may be turning to their spiritu- ality for answers, only to find that it compounds the problem because it de- emphasizes finding meaning in religious doctrine, neglects the exercise of faith as a way of knowing, and limits experiencing interpersonal connec- tion with God and others. Postmodern spirituality, as defined in this article, is similar to Fortosis’s (1992) notion of formative spirituality. Formative spiri- tuality consists of either/or, superficial answers to the existential crises of life that may not bring relief to persons (Fortosis, 1992). Furthermore, a search for deeper and novel emotional experience consistent with formative spiri- tuality (Fortosis, 1992) may lead to further isolation from others and ne- glect of the cognitive processes of reflection and contradiction so vital in promoting change (Aponte, 1998; Freedman & Combs, 1996; Mahoney, 1991; Riegel, 1975). Finally, consistent with a formative spirituality is a tendency to blame oneself and see problems as deserved or a form of justified pun- ishment (Fortosis, 1992). The egocentric nature of formative spirituality seems to intensify the experience of the problem and immobilizes the client from making changes. When a client’s spirituality is reflective of formative spiri- tuality or postmodern spirituality, fostering spiritual transformation may become necessary for change to occur in the life of the client.

The suggested goal of spiritual transformation is to promote a spirituality in the life of the client that integrates the cognitive, metaphysical, and relational components that have been found to promote resilience. Re- silient spirituality, which parallels Fortosis’s (1992) characterization of mature spirituality or self-transcendent wholeness, consists of clients find- ing meaning in religious doctrine, exercising faith as a way of knowing, and experiencing interpersonal connection with God and with others. People with a spirituality of self-transcendent wholeness can find meaning in religious traditions and beliefs yet simultaneously can recognize and accept paradoxes inherent within those same traditions and beliefs (Fortosis, 1992), for example, the paradoxical tension between God’s goodness and the experience of evil in the world. Self-transcendent wholeness can also result in people being tolerant and accepting of differing traditions and beliefs (Fortosis, 1992). Furthermore, this type of spirituality may consist of an implicit faith in God that is immovable during times of distress and challenge (Fortosis, 1992). Last, self-transcendent wholeness may be composed of an intimate relationship with God that Fortosis described as a relationship between ”two old and dear friends” (p. 293). Although one’s vertical relationship with God is often characterized by intimacy, one’s horizontal relationship with others tends to consistently be characterized by compassion and a strong sense of social justice (Fortosis, 1992).

Resilient spirituality can enable clients to overcome the challenges and difficulties that bring them to counseling. Counseling that seeks to promote

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change by fostering spiritual transformation can involve (a) a not-knowing stance; (b) a therapeutic relationship characterized by empathic engagement and connection; (c) use of the counselor's spirituality to inform the counsel- ing process; (d) collaboration with people in the client's larger social con- text; and (e) nurturance of the client's vertical relationship with God, which can simultaneously affect the client's horizontal relationships.

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