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Teaching and Teacher Education 28 (2012) 781e790

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Teaching and Teacher Education

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Practicalising theoretical knowledge in student teachers’ professional learning ininitial teacher education

May M.H. Cheng a,*, Sylvia Y.F. Tang b, Annie Y.N. Cheng b

aDepartment of Science and Environmental Studies, 10 Lo Ping Road, Tai Po, Hong KongbDepartment of Education Policy and Leadership, 10 Lo Ping Road, Tai Po, Hong Kong

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 28 April 2011Received in revised form13 January 2012Accepted 28 February 2012

Keywords:Initial teacher educationProfessional learning

* Corresponding author.E-mail address: maycheng@ied.edu.hk (M.M.H. Ch

0742-051X/$ e see front matter � 2012 Elsevier Ltd.doi:10.1016/j.tate.2012.02.008

a b s t r a c t

This paper reports the findings collected from a four year longitudinal study aiming to investigate theprofessional learning of student-teachers in Bachelor of Education programmes. Four case studies whichsuggest a typology of ways of practicalising theoretical knowledge with one extreme as the testing out ofteaching approaches mainly to find out their practicality in the school context to the other extremewhereby the student-teacher sought to work out a schema or personal theory were identified. Influencesfrom the campus-based and the field-based components of the teacher education programme are drawn.The paper ends with implications for initial teacher education.

� 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

This paper looks at professional learning among student-teachers as a process involving the integration of the campus-based and the school-based components of a teacher educationprogramme. One of the qualities of distinctive expert teachers istheir ability to integrate aspects of teacher knowledge in theteaching act (Tsui, 2009). The use of the concept ‘practicalisingtheoretical knowledge’ (Tsui, 2009), which involves makingpersonal interpretations of formal knowledge, is relevant as teachereducators will then be able to explore how this may happen andways to support its occurrence among student-teachers. This paperlooks into the professional learning of student-teachers in terms oftheir integration of theoretical knowledge learnt in the campus-based component of the programme to practices in differentschool contexts. Moreover, influences acting on the student-teachers were identified such that teacher educators can identifyimplications for programme development.

This paper contributes to the literature by providing evidence ofstudent-teachers’ professional learning and their developmenttowards being able to ‘practicalise theoretical knowledge,’which isseen to be one of the abilities of expert teachers (Tsui, 2009). As thefindings were generated from a teacher education programme inAsia, it expands current international discussions about diversemodels of teacher education (such as Darling-Hammond, 2010;

eng).

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Zeichner, 2010). The findings provide suggestions for facilitatingstudent-teacher professional learning within the given structuraland institutional parameters in teacher education programmes inan Asian context.

2. The epistemological nature of the theory-practice issue instudent teachers professional learning

Researchers highlight the theory-practice issue in studentteachers’ professional learning in initial teacher education (ITE) asepistemological in nature. Kessels and Korthagen (1996) go back toAristotle’s concepts of episteme and phronesis to explain thedifference between theory and practice. Knowledge as episteme isconnected to the scientific understanding of a problem. It refers tothe general conceptions, applicable to a variety of situations, ofa problem. Knowledge as phronesis is related to practical wisdom.It refers to the perception of a problem in a particular situation, andthe search for a helpful course of action on the basis of strength-ened awareness. The distinction between knowledge as epistemeand knowledge as phronesis is revealed as the differentiationbetween theoretical/propositional knowledge and practicalknowledge in teacher education. Theoretical/propositional knowl-edge about teaching encompasses the conceptual aspects ofprofessional practice, and can be classified into three categories: 1.discipline-based theories and concepts, derived from bodies ofcoherent, systematic knowledge; 2. generalisations and practicalprinciples in the applied field of professional action; and 3. specificpropositions about particular cases, decisions and actions (Eraut,1994). It is explicit by definition, being an external body of

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codified knowledge about teaching often learnt at higher educationinstitutions. Eraut (1994) highlights the importance of processknowledge, that is, knowing how to conduct the various processesthat contribute to professional action. Leinhardt, Young, andMerriman (1995) argue that the learning of professional knowl-edge in practice means learning the procedural knowledge andpragmatic aspects of the practice. Such learning, which is situa-tional, informal and tacit, is learnt “through experience andthrough considered and deliberative reflection about or enquiryinto experience” (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999, p. 262).

Korthagen and Lagerwerf (1996) propose a very different viewof teacher knowledge, and distinguish between the gestalt, schemaand theory levels. Rooted in practical experiences, the gestaltdepicts the complex and holistic nature of the practice of teaching.It is “considered as a dynamic and constantly changing entity,encompasses the whole of a teacher’s perception of the here-and-now situation, i.e. both his or her sensory perception of the envi-ronment as well as the images, thoughts, feelings, needs, values,and behavioural tendencies elicited by the situation” (Korthagen,2010b, p.101). Many sources of a teacher’s behaviour remainunconscious at the gestalt level. Through reflection, often a previ-ously unconscious gestalt develops into a conscious cognitiveschema which is a conscious network of concepts, principles, etc.helpful in describing practice. At the theory level, logical orderingwithin one’s schema or several schemata takes place (Korthagen,2010a). Buitink’s (2009) study informs our understanding of“well-developed practical theory” in contrast to “mediocre peda-gogy” in student teachers’ professional learning. Richness incontent, coherence in structure, focus on pupils’ learning processes,and awareness of underlying principles of teaching and educationcharacterise “well-developed practical theory” in Buitink’s study.

2.1. Making sense of theoretical knowledge in student teachers’professional learning

Baxter Magolda (1992) and Moon (2008) suggest a qualitativechange in learners’ conceptions of knowledge in the processes oflearning in higher education, shifting from absolutist under-standing, i.e. seeing knowledge as “right or wrong”, or “black orwhite”, towards contextual conceptions of knowledge, i.e. recog-nising the constructed nature of knowledge and understanding it inrelation to the effective deployment of evidence that bestfits a givencontext. The shift in learners’ conceptions of knowledge can befacilitated in situations in which learners have to make significantindependent decisions, e.g. placements in higher education. In thecontext of ITE, Tang (2004) highlights the dynamic and interactivenature of professional knowledge construction in student teachers’professional learning. The interaction between student teachers’sense of self as a teacher, repertoire of knowledge, and practicesituations embedded in the classroom and school contexts consti-tutes this dynamic and interactive nature of professional knowledgeconstruction. Tsui (2009) illuminates that teachers’ development ofexpert knowledge involves ‘theorising practical knowledge’ and‘practicalising theoretical knowledge’, that is, making explicit thetacit knowledge that is gained from experience, and makingpersonal interpretations of formal knowledge through teachers’own practice in their specific contexts of work, respectively.

Researchers’ work enriches our understanding of ‘practicalisingtheoretical knowledge’ (Tsui, 2009), i.e. teachers’ making ofpersonal interpretations of theoretical knowledge. Eraut (2003)regards utility, effectiveness and alignment with one’s ownperceived goals as the key criteria for evaluating theoreticalknowledge from a practitioner perspective. In the context of ITE,student teachers are active agents making evaluative judgementson the more theoretical forms of knowledge learnt in higher

education. Emerging professional and educational values, practicalrelevance, as well as affinity with the knowledge in relation toactual practice in specific contexts are criteria for judging the utilityof the more theoretical forms of knowledge learnt in highereducation (Tang, 2002). Hobson (2003) classifies student teachersusing a three-fold typology in relation to their approaches tolearning to teach, and their beliefs about the utility of theory. Themain concern of “proceduralist apprentices” is to be given proce-dures and strategies that can be used in the classroom, and theyhave little interest in the “theoretical” work encountered in highereducation. Like the proceduralist apprentice, “education-orientedapprentices” are “predominantly concerned with being givena repertoire of strategies that they can use in the classroom, plus theopportunity to practise these and gain feedback, yet for variousreasons they feel that they should also acquire a certain amount of‘background knowledge’ about teaching and education” (Hobson,2003, p.254). In contrast, “understanding-oriented learners” showeagerness to develop an understanding of the rationale underlyingthe strategies, and a broader knowledge and understanding of theeducation system and practice, in addition to learning a repertoireof teaching techniques and strategies. They actively engage withand deliberate upon different aspects of “theory”, and use it asa means of reflecting on and improving practice.

The importance of reflection in student teachers’ professionallearning is highlighted by several researchers. Orland-Barak andYinon (2007) regard that reflection facilitates the integration oftheory and practice through dialectical processes of constructing,reconstructing and co-constructing theory. Griffiths andTann (1992)put forward five levels of reflection, namely 1. rapid reflection; 2.repair; 3. review; 4. research; and 5. retheorising and reformulating.They view that research, retheorising and reformulating lendthemselves to engaging with bridging personal and public theorieswhich can be regarded as “living, intertwining tendrils of knowledgewhich grow from and feed into practice” (p.71). Smith and Hodson(2010) argue that to develop “professional craft knowledge”,student teachers need, “whilst in practice themselves, to engage ina process of searching, critical reflection or ‘practical theorizing’ inorder to frame questions, trial solutions and examine outcomesagainst more generalized criteria about practice” (p.263). Thisechoes Loughran’s (2010) emphasis on the importance of testing outalternative teaching approaches and discovering new ways of ana-lysing teaching situations, and Myers and Simpson’s (1998) view ofteacher learning and professional practice which involves a “never-ending process of investigating and experimenting, reflecting andanalysis”of classroompractice.Mason’s (2002) conceptof “noticing”refers to expert teachers’ ability to analyse situations and proposealternatives, and the characteristic of being able to reason and beingaware of their actions, and eventually, how these act together toimpact on pupils’ learning.

2.2. Making sense of theoretical knowledge: provisions of ITEprogrammes

Programme structures and practices as well as the quality ofstaff and the organisation (Korthagen, Loughran, & Russell, 2006)are provisions of ITE programmes for facilitating student teachers’making sense of theoretical knowledge in their professionallearning. The curriculum of most ITE programmes includesdifferent components: general education; subject-matter studies(whether taught concurrently or consecutively with other studies);foundation of education studies; methods studies; and field expe-rience. In most programmes, the first four components are deliv-ered in higher education, while the fifth is housed in the schoolcontext. Grossman, Hammerness, McDonald, and Ronfeldt (2008)stress the importance of and identify the features of “coherence”

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in ITE programmes e “a shared vision regarding teaching andlearning, conceptual and logistical organization of courseworkaround those aims and goals, and courses and clinical experiencesdesigned to support, reinforce, and reflect those shared ideas”(p.282). Darling-Hammond (2010) stresses the importance ofquality field experience. She points out that the most powerfulprogrammes require student teachers to spend extensive time inthe field throughout the entire programme, and to work alongsideteachers who can show them how to teach in ways that areresponsive to learners, while examining and applying the conceptsand strategies they are simultaneously learning about in theircoursework. This points to the importance of quality mentoringsupport during field experience.

Tertiary faculty’s modelling, pedagogical practices and fieldsupervision are also crucial factors to support student teachers’making sense of theoretical knowledge in their professionallearning. Beck and Kosnik (2002) as well as Cheng, Tang, and Cheng(2010) stress the importance of tertiary faculty’s modelling inteaching and learning. Segall (2001) suggests that teacher educa-tors shape the teacher education classrooms to become a “prac-ticum environment in-and-of themselves where practice getstheorized and theory is not only considered for practice but isindeed practiced” (p.240). Cook-Sather (2001) shares her peda-gogical experience of facilitating student teachers to “translate”themselves as teachers e a form of creative re-integration ofidentities and discourse practices afforded by the contexts of highereducation and high school classrooms. Various pedagogical strat-egies have been used to promote student teachers’ reflection,including the development of reflective tasks, (video) cases, port-folios, and regular site-based seminars during which tertiaryfaculty work closely with interns to examine practice against moretheoretical inputs (Johnston, Wetherill, & Greenebaum, 2002;Korthagen, 2010c; Orland-Barak & Yinon, 2007). In addition topedagogies of reflection and investigation, Grossman,Hammerness, and McDonald (2009) argue for the incorporationof “pedagogies of enactment” including the use of approximationsof practice in teacher education. High quality supervision of studentteachers’ field experience supervision is also important. Korthagen(2010c) argues that “a strong supervisor may be able to effectivelyconnect the student’s personal experiences in educational settingsand his/her present concerns to theorye both theory with a small tand theory with a big T” (p.673). Grossman et al. (2009) concurwith the emphasis on skilled coaching in terms of providing richfeedback on specific practices and routines for student teachers.

3. Method

This paper mainly focuses on the analysis and reporting of fourcase studies’ data in order to answer two research questions:

� How do student teachers make sense of formal knowledge inrelation to their practice?

� What are the sources of influences on student teachers’professional learning and interpretations of formal knowledgein relation to their practice?

3.1. The teacher education programme

“Concurrent” and “consecutive” models (usually in the form ofBachelor of Education, BEd, and Postgraduate Diploma in Educa-tion, PGDE, programmes, respectively) are the two main structuralmodels of ITE programmes in different parts of the world. Thisstudy was contextualised in the Four-year Bachelor of Education(BEd) Programme, a “concurrent”model of ITE, in Hong Kong. Froman international comparative perspective, Morris and Williamson

(1998) argue that the Confucian heritage cultures (e.g. China,Japan and Taiwan) tend to stress ITE curricula which are oriented toacademic content knowledge, whilst ITE curricula in anglo-celticcultures (e.g. Australia, the UK and the USA) tend to be morepractice-oriented. Leung’s (2003) examination of six countries/cities in East Asia (including Mainland China, Hong Kong, Japan,Korea, Singapore and Taiwan) shows that the practicum, i.e. fieldexperience, seems not to receive a great deal of emphasis, as shownin the relatively short length of the field experience in the ITEcurricula. Comparatively speaking, field experience has a longerduration in the more westernised East Asian countries/cities (e.g.Singapore and Hong Kong) according to Leung’s study (p.135).

In this study, the four-year full-time BEd (Secondary) pro-gramme consists of three core components: Professional Studies,Discipline Studies, and Field Experience (i.e. school attachment andteaching practice). The Professional Studies component coverseducational studies such as child development, classroommanagement, and the philosophical and sociological aspects ofeducation. The Discipline Studies component includes both themajor academic studies and the pedagogical method modules. Inthe field experience component, a placement scheme with schoolsis in place which is characterised by the training of supportingteachers from schools and tripartite conferences involving thestudent-teacher, the supporting teacher and the university tutorduring the school visits. Student-teachers are placed in twodifferent schools during their field experience in years 3 and 4. Theteaching of the campus-based components and supervision of thestudent-teachers mainly rely on the expertise and professionalismof faculty members. Most of the teaching and supervision areconducted by full-time employed academics, the majority of whomhave full-time teaching experience in primary or secondary schoolsas well as doctoral degrees.

3.2. Data collection

This paper draws on data from a research project examining thestudent-teachers’ conceptions of teaching in an undergraduateteacher education programme. The study looks into the learningexperiences of the student-teachers based on their own percep-tions, and is not taken to be a reality existing out there to bediscovered (Robson, 2002). The qualitative approach offers a betterunderstanding of how the student-teachers practicalise theoreticalknowledge by analysing the process by which they construct theirunderstanding about teaching and what those understandings are(Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). Emphasising the construction of a socialreality by the student-teachers themselves (Bryman, 2008) in thispaper, the qualitative approach is appropriate for more holisticallyand comprehensively providing an understanding of student-teacher learning in its context (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Thestudy adopts a case study approach which offers an in-depthunderstanding of student-teacher learning in its natural setting(Punch, 2005; Yin, 2003).

Interviews were adopted to collect the perceptions of thestudent-teachers, as they are regarded as an effective means ofunderstanding their thoughts and meaning construction (Punch,2005) and their ideas and experiences in the programme (Cohen,Manion, & Morrison, 2007). The semi-structured interviews offerin-depth understanding (Rubin & Rubin, 2005) which works wellwith the case study approach adopted. Semi-structured interviewsoffer opportunities for immediate follow-up, clarification andfollowing the lines of thoughts of the interviewees (Robson, 2002),as well as greater flexibility in answering the questions and shapingthe flow of information (Wilkinson & Birmingham, 2003).

The participants of the project are ten student-teachers from thesame cohort of the BEd (Secondary) programme at the Hong Kong

1 EMI stands for English as a Medium of Instruction. The label suggests that theseschools are teaching all the subjects in English except for Chinese History. Normallythese schools admit students of a higher academic ability.

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Institute of Education who started their study in the academic year2006e07. These student-teachers were involved in the studybecause they agreed to participate after receiving an open invita-tion. They were drawn randomly without any consideration ofbackground, gender or academic results. They understood thatparticipation in the study was not related to any performanceassessment and that they had the right to withdraw from the studyat any time. Pseudonyms were used throughout the study. Thestudent-teachers were interviewed at the end of each academicyear (June) during their first three years of study in the programmeand in the December of their final year when they had completedtheir final block of teaching practice. The participants were asked toreflect on how and which components of the programme influ-enced their professional learning. During the interviews in year 3and the final year, special references to the teaching practice weremade. Each interview lasted about 45 min to 1 h, was audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. All interviews werecompleted in the winter of 2009.

3.3. Data analysis

Interview data were processed with computer assisted quali-tative data analysis (CAQDA). The software ‘NVivo 8’ was used toassist in managing and analysing the data emerging from thetranscriptions. The development of coding categories involved aniterative process that entailed considering the relevant literatureand exploring the interview data. In the process of data analysis,two research team members cross-checked the coding of theresponses and the categorisations, and refined the set of codes inlight of the insights generated from reading and coding the data.Codes were defined to reflect the issues and with reference tonotions in the conceptual framework. Consensus was achievedupon discussion of differences in coding and categorising thethemes. For each case, a summary report was generated based ona within-case analysis of the coded data. Cross-case analysis wasconducted aiming to reveal similarities and differences, and therelationships between categories of data were identified. Thethemes were generated by comparing and grouping data whichwere related to theory-practice issues in the student teachers’professional learning as indicated by the literature. The themeswhich emerged from the coding include the student teachers’interpretations of theoretical knowledge, their trying out ofteaching strategies, as well as influences related to the campus-based and field-based components of the ITE programme.

The analysis of the findings is built based on a framework con-sisting of the three types of theoretical and propositional knowl-edge as proposed by Eraut (1994), the concepts of episteme andphronesis (Kessels & Korthagen, 1996), and the development ofa conscious cognitive schema (Korthagen, 2010b). The campus-based component of the ITE programme is seen as introducing tothe student-teachers episteme (Kessels & Korthagen, 1996), i.e.scientific understanding of a problem, and phronesis, i.e. thedevelopment of practical wisdomwhich is of particular importancein the field experience. In the campus-based component of the ITEprogramme, both the Professional Studies and the DisciplineStudies modules facilitate the student-teachers’ understandings ofdiscipline-based knowledge (Eraut, 1994). The other two forms ofpropositional and theoretical knowledge, namely, generalisationsand practical principles, and specific propositions about particularcases, decisions and actions (Eraut, 1994), are most relevant in thepedagogical methods modules. In the field experience/school-based component of the ITE programme, the student-teachersengage with the practice of teaching and interact with otherpractitioners. Informed by the conceptual inputs in the literature,the campus-based and school-based influences were identified for

each case study and compared across cases. This provided infor-mation on the content and the process of the student-teachers’professional learning. With an understanding of these influences,three approaches to practicalise theoretical knowledge wereidentified across the ten cases by drawing on the strategies thestudent-teachers adopted to relate practice and theory during theirteaching practice as well as their reflection on their professionallearning.

For reasons of clarity of presentation, we present four cases inthis paper which may represent the three approaches adopted bythe student-teachers. These four cases satisfy Patton’s (1990) defi-nition of information-rich cases, as they are more articulate and canprovide details about issues to illustrate the influences and theapproaches they adopted to ‘practicalise theoretical knowledge’.

3.4. Background of the four cases

In the BEd (Secondary) programme, the student-teachers areable to choose from a limited range of subjects as their major,including Music, Physical Education, Business Studies, CreativeArts, and Home Economics. These cases, therefore, provide a goodrepresentation of student-teachers across the various majorsubjects. Three student-teachers were able to describe subject-based pedagogies, related alternative pedagogies and their reflec-tion on their teaching of the subject. All four student-teachers werelocally born Chinese, did not have prior work experience (in termsof a sustained period of full-time employment) and were admittedright after their graduation from secondary school. Their agesranged from 18 to 20 when they started the programme.

Scott was a Business Studies major. This is a subject offered atthe senior secondary level from age 16 onwards. This subject in thesecondary curriculum demands some understanding across a rangeof areas loosely defined under Business Studies, includingaccounting, management, marketing and finance. In most circum-stances, schools and parents see this as a more vocational-orientedsubject and it is not taken as a core subject such as Mathematics,languages, or the traditional Arts and Science subjects. Scott metclassroom management problems in both of the field experienceblocks, and attempted different strategies during these periods.

Seline, a Physical Education (PE) major, attempted differentteaching pedagogies during the two blocks of field experience, andexperienced some success. The programme requires that all the PEmajors develop skill proficiency and teachingmethods for at least 8physical activities selected from 4 different areas in order to meetthe demands of the secondary curriculum. This diverse range ofknowledge and competence has been found to be a challenge forthe PE student-teachers.

Our third case, Sharon, majored in Home Economics anddepended greatly on the advice of her supporting teacher duringthe first field experience in Year 3. The second field experience wasmore of a challenge for her due to it being at an EMI1 school whichhad smart, capable students who expected to learn a high level ofknowledge. Her supporting teacher also had high expectations ofher teaching. Therefore, she felt much pressure.

Fourthly, Stanley, a music major, had some previous workexperience in an orchestra, as required by the programme. As allthe music majors have to be able to play at least two musicalinstruments when they graduate, Stanley was taking saxophonelessons during the four-year programme.

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4. Findings and discussion

4.1. Typology of different ways of practicalising theoreticalknowledge

The data suggest a typology of different approaches of practic-alising theoretical knowledge (Tsui, 2009) which reflect howstudent-teachers make personal interpretations of theoreticalknowledge (Eraut, 1994) and develop their own teaching pedgag-ogies in school contexts. The following four cases, presented inthree groups according to the approach they adopted, showincreasing sophistication in their personal interpretations oftheoretical knowledge, according to the approaches used to try outteaching strategies. The findings from the four cases show that theteacher education programme provided the student-teachers withtheoretical knowledge through the modules in the ProfessionalStudies and Discipline Studies domains. Both the influences fromthe campus-based and the school-based contexts constituted thedifferent approaches in which student-teachers practicalise theo-retical knowledge. In each case study or group, the campus-basedand the school-based contexts are provided, as these are essentialin leading to an explanation of the approach of practicalising thetheoretical knowledge adopted.

4.2. Case study 1 - Scott

4.2.1. The campus-based influencesAlthough Scott did not agree with some of the classroom

management methods, he took those methods as a starting pointfor trying out. Furthermore, he applied other theories he had learntfrom the counsellingmodule (in the teacher education programme)that teachers (referring to both teacher educators and teachers inschools) need to care for their students (or learners in general), andthe students will be able to feel this.

COUNSELLING is very good. I took this module just before theteaching practice, but there is one strategy which I do not agreewith i.e. the strategy of not handling students’ problems on the spot.However, I learnt an important point; with all the strategies, weneed to be aware of our own teaching style and the teachingcontext; there is no right answer. He taught us a range of differentstrategies. The module on Counselling is very good. (Scott, Year 4)

4.2.2. The school-based influencesThe challenges, demands and constraints of the immediate

practice situations at the classroom and school levels shape studentteachers’ decisions in their practice. Building good teacherestudentrelationships is a challenge andmay influence the student-teachersin making decisions related to the design of their lessons. Scottconsidered building studenteteacher relationships as one of thechallenges in his field experience.

Other challenges are related to building good relationships with thestudents. I have tried to make my teaching relevant to their dailylife experiences, to build good relationships with them. If they findmy teaching relevant, they will participate in the lessons. If not,they go to sleep. (Scott, Year 4)

Scott found building a good working relationship with thestudents to be crucial, as this would influence classroom manage-ment and their participation in his lessons.

4.2.3. Adopting a procedural approachScott is seen tohave adopted aprocedural approach, driven byhis

experience of the effectiveness of using or applying generalisationsand practical principles (Eraut, 1994) in a specific situation. This

knowledge input, taking the form of discipline-based knowledgeand generalisations (Eraut, 1994), from the teacher education pro-grammewas essential as it provided himwith initial ideas for tryingout strategies in the classroom. Scott mentioned that he had beentrying out different teaching strategies as suggested in the modulesand categorising them as directly applicable or not. For example,

The institute taught us to never handle incidents spontaneouslywhen something suddenly happens in the classroom because itmay influence other students. I tried to use it in my last fieldexperience, but it didn’t work. Since then, I believe that thatclassroom management method is not practical. (Scott, Year 4)

After Scott failed in applying theoretical knowledge learnt fromthe teacher education programme in his last field experience, hedid not agree with the suggestion from the programme and cat-egorised it as ‘not practical’.

In his second field experience, he addressed the problemdifferently and adopted his own method to deal with classroomdiscipline.

I did not handle classroom management problems spontaneously.The students are responsible for their behaviour, but I, as theirteacher, have a greater responsibility. As I did not handle theincident spontaneously, the students thought that I would allowthem to chat during lessons. This is basically a consequence offollowing what is taught at the Institute. So, I tried to use my ownmethod in this current field experience. Once, a student didsomething inappropriate in class; then I talked to him immediately.It worked and I think it’s good.’ (Scott, Year 4)

Scott found his own strategy to be the most effective, andprovided justifications for how he handled discipline problems inhis classroom. The strategy learnt in the teacher education pro-gramme was categorised as being ‘what did not work’, and hestrongly adheres to the one which he thinks has worked.

The teacher education programme was not the only source fromwhich I learnt how to teach. I have my own style. (Scott, Year 3)

This quote suggests that Scott seems to have a strong personalstyle in teaching. While the programme provided theory input,Scott made evaluative judgements of the various kinds of input andcategorised them as practical or not. Scott’s action conforms toa procedural approach by which, according to Hobson (2003),proceduralist apprentices adhere to given procedures and strate-gies with little interest in the ‘theoretical’ work.

4.3. Case-studies 2 and 3- Seline and Sharon

4.3.1. The campus-based influencesThe drive to try out the different teaching approaches intro-

duced in the teacher education programme and to adapt them tovarying classroom situations was evident in the findings from twocases, Sharon and Seline. Seline illustrated that theories introducedin the modules on teaching pedagogy are an essential part of theteacher education programme and provide a starting point for trialsin the field experience.

The module named ‘Physical Education Pedagogy’ is really good. Istarted to apply those theories frommy first field experience in year3. My lecturer always promoted ‘Teaching Games for Under-standing Method’. I didn’t know if it was good or not, so I tried it.(Seline, Year 4)

The modules stimulated Sharon to consider alternative teachingstrategies, and she identified some new teaching strategies whichshe aimed to try out in the schools,

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(My aspiration for the field experience is that)I can further developmy teaching skills and try out some new teaching strategies e.g. theexperimental approach. I would also like to develop a betterunderstanding of the students. (Sharon, Year 4)

Moreover, Sharon was impressed by one of the lecturers whostimulated her to conduct social enquiry, promote independentlearning, and demonstrated to her ways to improve her teaching,

A teaching and learning module of my major subject influenced mea lot. It is because the lecturer taught this subject really well. Shenot only taught us basic teaching methods, but she also taught ushow to conduct social enquiry with our students. She was aware ofThe New Senior Secondary Curriculum and emphasised thatstudents need to search for information themselves instead of beingtaught directly by the teachers. By demonstrating the experimentalteaching approach, she showed us how to improve our teachingand change the traditional teaching conceptions which we hadexperienced. (Sharon, Year 3)

Again, Seline appreciated the discipline-based theories that shegained from the teacher education programme and was enthusi-astic about learning ‘Teaching games for understanding method’ fromone of the lecturers who was an expert in the field. Based on thediscussion in the module, she was enthusiastic about trying out theapproach.

I think that the PE subject (modules) are very good. The module onteaching pedagogy is excellent, and the teaching was of highquality. I could use them immediately when I was in year 3. Themain influence is the lecturer; he is very professional and so I chosethis module on ‘Teaching games for understanding method’. As thelecturer suggested that this is a very good approach, I really wantedto try it out and find out the benefits. (Seline, Year 4)

The influence of the lecturers persisting throughout the school-based component was reflected by Seline when she sensed thepressure from her supervisor from the institute who expected herto try out different teaching strategies. She held an attitude ofwanting to experiment, and further tried more different methodssuch as self evaluation and peer evaluation.

In practice, we need to try. If a lesson is not well taught, I will thinkabout new methods. (Seline, Year 3)

I did not try the ‘Teaching games for understanding method’ lastyear; in fact, I did not have the courage to do so. It is because of thesupervision visit that I was forced to try it. My supervisor asked meto use other teaching methods, and I chose this as it is the simplest.After the try out, [I found that] it was quite good. (Seline, Year 4)

Advice from supervisors from the institute during the fieldexperience was crucial for Seline and Sharon.

My supervisor gave me a lot of advice. She helped me to improvea lot. (Sharon, Year 4)

The FE (Field Experience) supervisor is really good. .She doesthings so thoroughly. I have learnt a lot from my supervisor whilesome course mates didn’t learn much from theirs. It all depends onwhich supervisor one has. (Seline, Year 4)

4.3.2. The school-based influencesSeline regarded that the time constraints were an obstacle

during the field experience.

Because of the limited time available, it is not possible to besuccessful. I put this down in my lesson plans. (Seline, Year 4)

However, these limitations provided Seline with more oppor-tunities to explore teaching strategies she had not planned for. She

mentioned limited resources such as those related to the shortageof a suitable venue which made her change her teaching plan. Yet,she found that she gained some benefits from it.

I think this has to do with the venue.I forced myself to use thecovered playground or other places. I forced myself to teach othercontents, something new, such as Aerobic dance. These are what Igained; I have tried alternative teaching strategies which I wouldnot have planned for. Having tried them out, it turned out to beeasier to teach dance and I do not need to teach this under the sun,which makes life much easier. (Seline, Year 4)

Peer support and interaction to discuss problems encounteredin school was found to have enhanced Sharon and Seline’s adap-tation of their teaching and reflection. Seline demonstrated thebenefit of peer observations of teaching that provided them withopportunities to try out different teaching strategies, share theirexperiences of the trials and their attitudes of valuing differentteaching strategies.

My peer in the field experience would point out my problems inteaching. I would give him advice too. Whenever we co-teach, wewould figure out how to solve the problems together. (Seline,Year 4)

The supporting teachers being a role model as well as a source ofcontextual information and advice is generally regarded by Sharonas influential on the adaptation of her teaching.

The mentor in this school is really great. She expects the student-teacher to have the same performance as her. In the beginning, Itried so hard to meet her expectations of writing scripts forinstructions in the lessons. Since then, I have been writing scriptsfor every lesson. I think it’s important and it helps me a lot. (Sharon,Year 4)

Sharon admired her supporting teacher and took her adviceseriously. Seline also acknowledged the support from the sup-porting teacher as she said,

The supporting teacher has helped a lot. He sometimes observes mylessons and gives me some feedback. I can then take time toimprove. I have tried a lot of different things and am not as anxiousas before. (Seline, Year 4)

4.3.3. Adopting a reflective-adaptive approachStarting off with the generalisations and practical principles as

well as specific propositions about particular cases (Eraut, 1994)that they learnt from the teacher education programme, Sharonand Seline are engaged in the trying out of alternatives in theirclassrooms, which is characteristic of this approach. Instead ofcategorising teaching strategies as ‘practical’ or not as in the pro-ceduralist approach, the reflective-adaptive approach is charac-terised by testing out alternative teaching approaches anddiscovering new ways of analysing teaching situations (Loughran,2010). The consequence of this approach is not to categorise theteaching strategies as ‘practical’ or not, but to engage in modifica-tion involving ‘repair’ and ‘review’ (Griffiths & Tann, 1992).

Seline not only emphasised trying out teaching methods to testout their effectiveness. In addition, she also showed that herunderstanding of the methods was further refined.

It would be difficult to practice ‘Teaching Games for UnderstandingMethod’ if the students were not enthusiastic enough to take partin the game. If this happened, I would try to guide them better byquestioning. For students of lower grade levels, I would focus onteaching themmore foundation knowledge and skills before I applythe ‘Teaching Games for Understanding Method’. (Seline, Year 4)

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After Sharon had put into practice a range of teaching strategieslearnt from the institute, she reflected on her experience andconcludedwith her preference of teaching strategies. With this, sheis making personal interpretations of theoretical knowledgethrough her own practice in a specific school context.

I have put into practice a lot of different teaching strategiesincluding DEMONSTRATION, LECTURES and the EXPERIMENTALAPPROACH. These are possible in this school. For me, I preferDEMONSTRATION. I see some limitations with the EXPERI-MENTAL APPROACH; I cannot monitor the development of SKILLSamong my students, though I think their thinking skills weredeveloped. With demonstration, they will be in a better positionto learn the skills, but then they would not know how to think.The best strategy will be to see a balance between the two.(Sharon, Year 4)

Sharon and Seline started off their classroom-based trials basedon the theoretical knowledge introduced in the teacher educationprogramme. The trials resulted in refinement of their under-standing as well as the teaching strategies which they will adopt inthe future. Sharon and Seline moved away from a subconsciousgestalt towards a conscious schema, though the schemamay not bea very organised network of concepts or principles, as suggested byKorthagen (2010b).

4.4. Case study 4 - Stanley

4.4.1. The campus-based influencesWhile the three cases (Scott, Sharon and Seline) above illus-

trated how the modules in the teacher education programmes andthe lecturers played an important role in introducing a range ofteaching pedagogies, Stanley related that his learning about musicteaching pedagogy was reinforced in the programme,

It is similar. Music requires students to listen, perform andcompose. It (the teacher education programme) strongly empha-sises not only listening but also performing and composing.Everyunit has to have these components. (Stanley, Year 4)

Stanley’s responses illustrate the importance of engaging incritical analysis with the lecturers, and that he expected quality anddetailed feedback on his learning. The ability to reflect and criticallyanalyse is crucial for the development of the reflective approachwhich characterises Stanley’s experience. The building up ofteacherestudent relationships is also seen to be important, and thislater became one of the concerns in Stanley’s reflection on studentlearning. The willingness of the lecturers to discuss with thestudent-teachers, engaging them in critical analysis of the subject,stimulated Stanley to take on a reflective or critical approach in hisown learning.

I think some lecturers..... can answer a lot of interesting questions ifyou approach them individually. I will go to ask them if theymention some interesting points. I think we need to be critical aslearners and not just believe what we are told. I have always learntin this way. (Stanley, Year 2)

Sometimes I think feedback [is important]..I will adopt this atti-tude when I become a teacher. When students provide really goodanswers, I think we need to provide them with some reward. It isnot about handing out candies, it is just to write their answers onthe blackboard, showing that I am adopting their answers. I thinkfeedback is not only about whether you have done well or not, buthas to be in-depth. (Stanley,Year 2)

Stanley elaborated on how the quality of feedback provided bya lecturer helped him learn,

My saxophone teacher is better; he is very serious but he canidentify quite a lot of ‘points’ (problems) easily, and you’ll knowthat he is very demanding. Therefore, I will ask him, he can pointout a lot of my weaknesses, very much to the point and in greatdetail. I think this is the teacher-student relationship and becauseof this he is very good to me, I am good to him and I continue to askthat he teaches accordingly. (Stanley, Year 3)

The last part of the above quotation suggests that the influenceon Stanley works beyond the information provided in the feedback.It is the teacherestudent relationship (referring to teachers andstudents in general in both the school context and the teachereducation programme) which matters and creates a longer termimpact.

4.4.2. The school-based influencesIt was a challenge for Stanley to understand the students’

different levels of ability, and he needed to tailor-make his teachingstrategies according to the students’ prior knowledge of the subject.

Teaching students with different levels of ability, I understand thatthey have their own difficulties.....I need to rethink my teachingstrategy if they do not know how to read notes. A lot of thingscannot be done...It depends on individual classes. This has todepend on how much the students can learn. (Stanley, Year 4)

Behaviour management is also a challenge. The strategies haveto be context-based as there are varying expectations fromdifferent schools, and how students’ problems were handled variedconsiderably in different school contexts. Stanley considered theeffectiveness of the various strategies, helping students to realisetheir problems and eventually supporting student development.

They are not only weak in the subject matter; they also havedifficulty in understanding. They only think that the teacher isscolding them. They do not ever think whether it is their ownproblem or what they have done wrong.If they cannot get whatthey want, they will think that the teacher is working against them.(Stanley, Year 4)

I have not yet quite got a grasp of the school culture. This is howmuch the students can stand in terms of discipline, what they canand cannot take, I need to reflect. I have given detention manytimes, I can demand them to stand in the playground but I will notdo so, I tried not to. I need to reflect on whether giving studentsfreedom and self-respect always means supporting their develop-ment or not. (Stanley, Year 4)

Stanley acknowledged the help from the supporting teacher andhas modelled his strategies.

It was like taking medicine. The medicine I prescribed did not work;the supporting teacher finds that his drugs work better. Sometimesa change will work better, and so I appreciate the help from mysupporting teacher. Apart from my strategies, I also follow his waysof dealing with students. (Stanley, Year 4)

4.4.3. Adopting a reflective-theorising approachSimilar to the reflective-adaptive approach analysed above,

theoretical knowledge as delineated by Eraut (1994) and Kesselsand Korthagen (1996) played an important role in this case. Apartfrom providing a basis for trying out and adapting teaching peda-gogies, theoretical knowledge stimulates the student-teachers’reflection. The emphasis of this approach is the development ofa conscious logical schema (Korthagen, 2010b) as a result ofreflection. The outcome also involves a search for a course of actionor phronesis (Kessels & Korthagen, 1996). The approach proposedhere is in line with Myers and Simpson’s (1998) view of teacher

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learning and professional practice which involves a “never-endingprocess of investigating and experimenting, reflecting and analysis”of classroom practice. The process then leads to the formulation ofpersonal practical theories which guide future practice as well asprofessional judgement.

Stanley tailor-made his teaching to suit the students’ ability andlearning habits, by adjusting his expectations of the students andthinking of ways to help them to be involved in the lessons, andincreasing their willingness to learn.

The institute expected us to include three elements in each lesson:listening, performance and composing. Different from my previousfield experience, the students in this school did not expect tocontribute in lessons.Although I could not include all the threeelements, I would include at least one in each lesson. As you mightnotice in my lesson, I gave them pens to write with. It was becausethey did not prepare for this lesson. So, I would prepare for them. Ifthey (the students) like the teacher, they would be willing toparticipate in class. (Stanley, Year 4)

Stanley demonstrated more than just the trying-out of a theory;he took a step further, placing an emphasis on the importance ofdeeper reflection.

My supervisor commented that I should teach the students moredetails of singing as teaching for choir. Generally, Hong Kongstudents don’t like singing in class very much. In fact, singing is tolet them be happy, express themselves and, as they cannot chat inthe lesson, they may as well let go of their emotions. Singing in classis only a way for them to relieve or express themselves. I thinkteaching them about performance is more useful to them. It is hardto change the classroom environment; even if I make the changesthey are still not attentive.. it may need to take a lot of effort toconstruct an ideal environment for them to learn in these tradi-tional schools. (Stanley, Year 4)

Student learning as the focus of reflection is evident throughStanley’s consideration of the students’ needs e.g. considering whatis useful for them, ways to engage students in music lessons, andmaking singing relevant to the students in light of the classroomcontext. He has formulated systematic responses to these needsand built a ‘well-developed practical theory’ (Buitink, 2009), or anorganised network of principles as a schema (Korthagen, 2010b).Further, in the quote below, Stanley reflects how he was engaged inan attempt to develop the students’ musical sense, how he offeredexplanations for why certain methods work, and made detailedpedagogical considerations.

In fact, we need to teach students some knowledge about music,especially aural training and musical sense; it is not only aboutwhether you like or do not like a piece of music. Students need tounderstand what makes a piece good or not; it is not somethingcomplicated, we can just train their musical sense. For example, inthe haunted house activity, they can apply what they have learnt inthe lesson. I have taught them what is happy or not, and they canfind some songs to match the activity. But I think the students arenot yet ready, this takes time. (Stanley, Year 4)

The focus of attention is always on the students’ learning.Stanley elaborated on understanding the students’ needs andabilities, and on building up relationships with them as a long termcommitment,

Teaching students with different abilities made me understandtheir difficulties more .It is like taking medicine. It takes time. Orelse, it may not work for some people. (Stanley, Year 4)

As a teacher, he was very reflective on facilitating studentlearning in Music and the students’ personal development. He

possessed a very strong sense of self as a teacher, and valuedcontinuous improvement and lifelong learning.

Certainly, I will reflect on or evaluate my teaching skills, forexample, whether my expression was too direct or loose. I oftenreflect on those questions. (Stanley, Year 4)

Stanley’s case demonstrated a process of involving a dynamicand interactive construction or reconstruction of professionalknowledge (Tang, 2004). The process demands both input into theteacher education programme and the personal characteristic ofbeing reflective. Mason (2002) pointed out that what differentiatesan expert teacher is the ability of ‘noticing’. Noticing involves theability to analyse situations and to propose alternatives, and thecharacteristic of being able to reason and to be aware of theiractions, and eventually how these act together to impact on studentlearning.

4.5. The three approaches to practicalising theoretical knowledge

Drawing the findings together, the characteristics of the threeapproaches adopted by the student-teachers in practicalisingtheoretical knowledge are summarised in Table 1, whichalso presents the analysis of the findings showing the campus-based and the school-based influences on each of the threeapproaches.

The level and content of reflection differs among the threeapproaches for ‘practicalising theoretical knowledge’ proposed inthis paper. The Procedural Approach describes student-teacherswho test out in the field experience teaching strategies or theo-retical knowledge learnt in the campus-based component to findout whether they are workable. Students adopting the Reflective-adaptive approach reflect on and adapt the theoretical knowledgelearnt in the campus-based component with refined practice in theschool-based contexts. The Reflective-theorising approach differsby making a further attempt to arrange the experience of refiningpractice into a conscious schema or personal theoretical frame-work. The reflection involved in the reflective-adaptive approachrelates mainly to ‘repair’ and ‘review’, which constitute levels twoand three of the five-level framework proposed by Griffiths andTann (1992). Level five, which is characterised by ‘retheorisingand reformulating,’ occurs in the reflective-theorising approach asillustrated by Stanley’s case. The content of reflection shifts frommanaging teaching or survival concerns in the procedural approachto focussing on pupils’ learning, which is regarded as a more well-developed form of practical theory (Buitink, 2009) in the reflective-theorising approach.

The shift from knowledge to contextual-based interpretationsas suggested by Baxter Magolda (1992) and Moon (2008) mayprovide an insight into a developmental view of the threeapproaches. While the three approaches can be taken as discrete,and each is held by different individuals, they can also be viewedin a developmental sense which suggests student-teachers’development towards the reflective-theorising approach and thedevelopment of their personal theory or schema of teaching. Thestarting point can be taken as a procedural approach. With somereflection and practice, the student-teachers are not only be ableto categorise teaching strategies as ‘practical’ or not, but also torefine and adapt them. The focus of attention shifts from concernsabout teachers’ teaching to students’ learning. Student-teachersadopting a reflective-theorising approach demonstrate theability to analyse the classroom situations and their practice withan emphasis on student learning. With in-depth reflection andfurther stimulation from lecturers and the school, the student-teachers are involved in continual attempts to construct andreconstruct a personal theory.

Table 1A summary of the campus-based and school-based contexts influencing the four cases and the three approaches adopted by the student-teachers in practicalising theoreticalknowledge.

Case Campus-based context School-based context Approach of practicalizingtheoretical knowledge

Scott Knowledge about pedagogicalapproaches or strategies from theteacher education programme

Demands of practice situations atclassroom and/or school levelstimulating testing out of pedagogies

ProceduralTrying out teaching strategies andcategorizing them as ‘workable’ or notMain concern is to find out ‘workable’teaching strategies

Seline and Sharon Knowledge about pedagogical approachesor strategies from the teachereducation programmeEncouragement from lecturers orsupervisors to try out different strategies

Demands of practice situations atclassroom and/or school levelstimulating changes in pedagogiesPeer supportFeedback and support fromsupporting teachers

Reflective-adaptiveTrying out alternative teaching strategiesand making modifications inrelation to classroom contextsReflection mainly focused on teachingstrategies with some considerationof student learning

Stanley Building knowledge aboutpedagogical approachesor strategies from the teacher educationprogramme and considering theapplication in light of student learning needsEngaging in critical analysisof the subject with the lecturersReceiving quality and detailedfeedback from lecturersDevelopment of lecturerestudent relationship

Demands of practice situations at classroomand/or school level stimulatingchanges in pedagogiesFeedback and support fromsupporting teachers

Reflective-theorizingTrying out alternative teachingstrategies and reflecting on themReflection focused mainly on student learningBuilding up personal schema or ‘theory’

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5. Conclusion and implications

With the small number of cases, the findings of this studycannot be generalised or applied to a range of teacher educationcontexts across the globe. Despite this, the findings generated fromthe present study do add to the literature by generating insightsabout the three approaches of practicalising theoretical knowledge,and may provide implications for teacher education programmes.

5.1. Maximising professional learning among student-teachers -implications for teacher education programmes

Drawing on the findings of the campus-based and school-basedcontextual influences acting on the four cases, the results can beinterpreted to suggest the contributions and the interactionsbetween these two components of the teacher education pro-gramme on the learning of the student-teachers. The campus-based influences suggest that knowledge of alternative pedagog-ical approaches or strategies in addressing the demands of differentclassroom contexts and student learning needs provide an impor-tant basis for practicalising theoretical knowledge. Student-teachers also need to be encouraged to persist in their trying outand adaptation of alternative approaches, and integrating feedbackand their own reflection into the adaptations.

The school-based component provides mentoring and peersupport as the student-teachers try out, refine and reflect on theirteaching strategies. Stanley’s case is characterised by the influenceof the faculty in the university on his professional learning, namelythrough critical analysis of theory, provision of feedback and thedevelopment of good teacherestudent relationships. This suggeststhe importance of peers, mentors and university supervisors insupporting student-teachers to go beyond a procedural approach.

Among the various influences from campus-based and school-based contexts, the findings suggest that the teacher educatorsthemselves play a predominantly important role in facilitating thedevelopment of attitudes and skills for reflection. The focus ofretheorising and reframing is one directed at improving studentlearning. The impact of providing feedback, encouragement andstimulating critical reflection by the lecturers in the campus-based

programme, and quality supervision during field experienceperiods as consistent with other research (Beck & Kosnik, 2002;Cheng et al., 2010) cannot be ignored. These findings imply thatteacher educators need to maximise the opportunities for thestudent-teachers to make their thinking and values explicit andprovide stimulation for reflection, for example, by eliciting student-teachers to respond to and/or provide feedback about the knowl-edge or content discussed in the modules. Teacher educators maycheck or assess formatively whether student-teachers attempt todevelop or have developed personal practical theories at variouspoints in the programme, for example during and after each blockof teaching practice. With information gathered through formativeassessments, teacher educators may provide better support tothosewho tend to be stuck in their professional learning. Taking thefindings together, the campus-based component and the faculty inthe university may both facilitate professional learning andincrease the likelihood of making a shift towards a reflective-theorising approach.

Although there are suggestions to promote the professionallearning of student-teachers, there is a lack of guarantee that a shifttowards a reflective-theorising approach will always be successful.Our findings suggest that there is a variation in the learningexperience and the ability to reflect on or integrate differentaspects of their learning among student-teachers. Moreover,professional learning may be extended after their graduation and itwould be interesting to track the professional learning of thestudent-teachers in their beginning teaching period.

The present study looks into student-teacher professionallearning in a four-year teacher education undergraduate pro-gramme in the Hong Kong context. In terms of structural andinstitutional parameters, the programme is characterised bya “concurrent”model of teacher education, with the campus-basedcomponent taking up a major portion of the programme housed inhigher education, and the school-based component organised in thelatter half of the programme. In other words, the differentapproaches of practicalising theoretical knowledge and suggestedways of maximising professional learning are derived from empir-ical findings in a programme which tends to put emphasis onprofessional learning in the higher education context as compared

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to the school-based context. It would be of interest to find out howstudent-teachers make sense of campus-based and school-basedprofessional learning in different programme settings in othercultural contexts, including the “consecutive” model of ITE pro-grammes (i.e. post-graduate programmes), programmes which putgreater emphasis on the school-based component, and programmeswith the school-based component preceding the campus-basedcomponent. Finally, comparisons of professional learning amongstudent-teachers in teacher education programmes e.g. under-graduate and postgraduate, or different models of ITE, may provideevidence and insights into ways to maximise professional learning.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the funding supportunder the Teaching Development Grant from the Hong KongInstitute of Education for completing this project.

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