Premodern Yoga Traditions and Ayurveda: Preliminary

History of Science in South AsiaA journal for the history of all forms of scientific thought and action ancient and modern in all regions of South Asia

Premodern Yoga Traditions and AyurvedaPreliminary Remarks on Shared TerminologyTheory and Praxis

Jason BirchSchool of Oriental and African Studies London University

MLA style citation form Jason Birch ldquoPremodern Yoga Traditions and Ayurveda Preliminary Remarkson Shared Terminology Theory and Praxisrdquo History of Science in South Asia 6 (2018) 1ndash83 doi1018732hssav6i025Online version available at httphssa-journalorg

HISTORY OF SCIENCE IN SOUTH ASIAA journal for the history of all forms of scientific thought and action ancient and modern in allregions of South Asia published online at httphssa-journalorg

ISSN 2369-775X

Editorial Board

bull Dominik Wujastyk University of Alberta Edmonton Canadabull Kim Plofker Union College Schenectady United Statesbull Dhruv Raina Jawaharlal Nehru University New Delhi Indiabull Sreeramula Rajeswara Sarma formerly Aligarh Muslim University Duumlsseldorf Germanybull Fabrizio Speziale Universiteacute Sorbonne Nouvelle ndash CNRS Paris Francebull Michio Yano Kyoto Sangyo University Kyoto Japan

PublisherHistory of Science in South Asia

Principal ContactDominik Wujastyk Editor University of AlbertaEmail ⟨wujastykualbertaca⟩

Mailing AddressHistory of Science in South AsiaDepartment of History and Classics2ndash81 HM Tory BuildingUniversity of AlbertaEdmonton AB T6G 2H4Canada

This journal provides immediate open access to its content on the principle that making researchfreely available to the public supports a greater global exchange of knowledge

Copyrights of all the articles rest with the respective authors and published under the provisionsof Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 40 License

The electronic versions were generated from sources marked up in LATEX in a computer runninggnulinux operating system pdf was typeset using XƎTEX from TEXLive The base font used forLatin script and oldstyle numerals was TEX Gyre Pagella developed by gust the Polish TEX UsersGroup

Premodern Yoga Traditions and AyurvedaPreliminary Remarks on Shared Terminology

Theory and Praxis

INTRODUCTION

In the contemporary global market for wellness the combining of Yoga andAyurveda is common More than a married couple Yoga and Ayurveda are

deemed to be sisters born of the same scriptural family the Vedas1 A recentexample of this seemingly familial relationship is found in the promotional ma-terial of theMoksha Festival which is one of themany Yoga events held annuallyin America It is billed as ldquoa celebration of wellness spiritual expansion and con-scious living through Yoga Health Ayurveda SacredMusic and Spiritual Artrdquoand the festivalrsquos website states

hellip Ayurveda is the sister science to yoga Together yoga and Ayur-veda work toward the goal of helping a person achieve health hap-piness and ultimately liberation According to Ayurveda and yogahealth can only be achieved by the balanced and dynamic integrationof body mind and spirit with the changing cycles of nature2

The idea that Yoga and Ayurveda are ldquosistersrdquo might seem somewhat unsur-prising to those who practise Yoga for health and wellbeing because ldquoNew Age

1 For example Lad (1984) wrote an articleentitled ldquoYogarsquos Sister Science An Intro-duction to Ayurvedardquo in Yoga Journal AlsoFrawley (2002 5) connected them both tothe Vedas ldquoYoga and Ayurveda are sis-

ter sciences that developed together and re-peatedly influenced each other throughouthistory They are integral parts of the greatsystem of Vedic knowledgehelliprdquo2 Moksha Festival 2015

history of science in south asia 6 (2018) 1ndash83

2 premodern yoga traditions and ayurveda

Ayurvedardquo is marketed as an alternative health therapy3 Furthermore thosewho have learnt Yoga in India are unlikely to question the compatibility of Yogawith Ayurveda for theywould be aware that some of themost prominent Indiangurus of Yoga in the twentieth centurywere knowledgeable aboutAyurveda Forexample Krishnamacharyarsquos son Desikachar has written that his father wouldrely on his ldquogreat knowledge of Ayurvedardquo to read the pulse of his students andprescribe changes in diet and medicines4 Also Swami Sivananda5 who foun-ded the Divine Life Society in 1936 after studyingWestern medicine and servingas a doctor in Malaysia for ten years believed that ldquoyogins have a sound prac-tical knowledge of Ayurvedardquo6 One of Krishnamacharyarsquos students B K S Iy-engar whose style of Yoga has become popular internationally likened Patantildejaliand Caraka to physicians the former treating the mind and the latter the body7From themedical side the Indian surgeon K N Udupa pubished two influentialbooks on yoga and mental health in the 1980s namely Stress and its Managementby Yoga and Promotion of ldquoHealth for Allrdquo by Ayurveda and Yoga8

In more recent decades some gurus have profited from combining Yogaand Ayurveda For example Baba Ramdev whose televised Yoga classes havebecome popular in India is the head of a prosperous business for Ayurvedicproducts known as the Patanjali Yogpeeth9 Similarly Maharishi Mahesh Yogi

3 Kenneth Zysk was among the first to cointhe phrase ldquoNewAge Ayurvedardquo in his 1995lecture at an IASTAMconference in Londonpublished in Zysk 2001 In a more recentpublication rdquoNewAge Ayurvedardquo has beendefined as ldquothe more recent trend of a glob-ally popularized and acculturated Ayur-veda which tends to emphasize and rein-terpret if not reinvent the philosophicaland spiritual aspects of Ayurvedardquo (Dag-marWujastyk and Smith 2008 2) For refer-ences to those scholars who have dismissedmodern Ayurveda as a New-age fad andhave critiqued its promoters for commodi-fying the tradition see Warrier 2011 874 Desikachar and Craven 1998 130ndash315 Sivananda 1997 100 first published 19386 Strauss 2005 36 In his book on Ayur-veda Sivananda goes so far as to say thatAyurveda ldquois even superior to the other Ve-das because it gives life which is the basis ofall enjoyments study meditation and YogaSadhanardquo (Sivananda 2006 20 first pub-lished in 1958)7 Iyengar 2006 142 Other students of

Krishnamacharya whose teachings areknown internationally have studied andtaught Ayurveda For example A GMohan has co-authored a book called YogaTherapy A Guide to the Therapeutic Use ofYoga and Ayurveda for Health and Fitness(Mohan 2004) In his book Yoga Mala Pat-tabhi Jois quotes an ldquoAyurvedic pramanardquoto support the assertion that vegetablesshould not be eaten (Jois 2002 24) I havenot been able to trace the Sanskrit sourceof his quotation Eddie Stern has informedme that ldquoafter retiring from the SanskritCollege [Pattabhi Jois] worked at and at-tended the Ayurvedic college in Mysore forthree years He was knowledgeable aboutAyurveda and learned pulse diagnosis (heread my pulse once) He recommendedherbal remedies only on occasion but feltthat food regulation was of paramountimportance to health and success in yogardquo(personal communication 1672015)8 Udupa 1985ab9 Chakrabarti 2012 151

jason birch 3

is known worldwide for his teachings on Transcendental Meditation (TM)Since 1985 this guru has promoted ldquoMaharishi Ayur-Vedrdquo which has beendescribed as ldquoamong the most successful models of a globalised Ayurvedardquo10In 2014 the Indian government established a separate ministry of AyurvedaYoga and Naturopathy Unani Siddha and Homoeopathy (AYUSH) whichpromotes Ayurveda and Yoga in tandem

The current interplay between Yoga and Ayurveda raises two questionsFirstly how old might this relationship be and secondly was it as intimatelyconnected in pre-modern times as it seems today The first question is relativelyeasy to answer because textual evidence from the classical period of Indiarsquoshistory suggests that some kind of relationship dates back to the beginning ofthe first millennium although not to the time of the composition of the Vedichymns as claimed by some11 One of the oldest and most authoritative texts ofAyurveda the Carakasaṃhitā that is generally ascribed to the first century ce hasa chapter on Yoga that contains a system with eight auxiliaries (aṣṭāṅga) Thisindicates that physicians (vaidya) of that time were willing to adopt Yoga AsDominik Wujastyk (2012 33ndash5) has observed Carakarsquos Aṣṭāṅgayoga predatesthe Pātantildejalayogaśāstra and it appears to have been influenced profoundly byBuddhism In addition there is evidence which suggests that Patantildejali himself

10 Jeannotat 2008 28611 The affiliation of Ayurveda with the Ve-das is mentioned in the classical texts them-selves For example Caraka says that aphysician should proclaim his own devo-tion in the Atharvaveda because the Athar-vaveda teaches therapy and therapy is taughtfor the benefit of longevity (CarakasaṃhitāSūtrathāna 3021 ndash तऽ िभषजा hellip आनोऽथव-वद भिराद या वदो ाथव णो hellip िचिका ाह िच-िका चायषो िहतायोपिदयत) Suśruta said thatBrahmā taught the eightfoldAyurveda as anauxiliary to the Vedas (Suśrutasaṃhitā Sū-trasthāna 348ab ndashा वदामामायवदमभाषत)and Vāgbhaṭa described it as an upavedaof the Atharvaveda (Aṣṭāṅgasaṅgraha Sūtra-sthāna 17cdndash18ab ndash ताव सहॐाो िनजगाद य-थागमम आयषः पालन वदमपवदमथव णः) Somescholars such as Jolly (1977) have noted afew correspondences between vedic medi-cine and the classical works of Ayurvedaparticularly in regard to their use of man-tras (Zysk 1998 10) However the schol-

arly consensus appears to be thatmost of thetheory of classical Ayurveda for examplethe tridoṣa theory is not found in the VedasSee for example Bronkhorst (2007 56ndash60)who argues that Ayurveda derives from theculture of Greater Magadha and not fromVedic Brahmanism and Dominik Wujastyk(2003b 394ndash5) who notes that the narrativecontext of Carakarsquos assertion underminesits interpretation as a historical claim Afurther problem with claims that Yoga andAyurveda derive from theVedas (eg Fraw-ley 2002 309) is that they frequently rely ona subjective identification of yoga-like ele-ments in vedic mantra and ritual practicesSeeing that the earliest layers of the Vedasdo not mention a system of Yoga and un-ambiguous references to Yoga do not ap-pear until the middle Upaniṣads such asthe Kaṭhopaniṣat and Śvetāśvataropaniṣat theVedic origin of the salient features of Yoga inthe Pātantildejalayogaśāstra and some chapters ofthe twelfth book of theMahābhārata is ratherunlikely in my opinion

had some knowledge of Ayurveda because his commentarial definition anddiscussion of disease (vyādhi) which is mentioned in sūtra 130 is similar to onegiven by Caraka After considering this as well as a list of bodily constituents(dhātu) and their relation to the humours (doṣa) in the PātantildejalayogaśāstraPhilipp Maas (2008 153) concludes

On the whole the system of medical knowledge with which Patantildejaliwas acquainted is clearly Āyurvedic and of an early classical style

The research for this article was prompted by the second question posedabove on the synthesis between Yoga and Ayurveda I will attempt to give a pre-liminary answer by assessing the shared terminology theory and praxis betweena reasonably large corpus of Yoga texts that date from the eleventh to nineteenthcentury and the foundational works of Ayurveda As such this article is struc-tured as follows

1 Corpus of Texts on Yoga and Ayurveda2 Shared Terminology

bull The Names of Diseasebull Humoral Diseases

3 Theorybull Fire Digestive Fire and Digestionbull Yogi-Physicians and Humoral Theory (tridoṣa)bull Vital Points (marman)

ndash The Early Corpusndash The Late Corpus

bull Herbs4 Praxis

bull Postures (āsana)bull The Six Therapeutic Actions (ṣaṭkarma) of Haṭhayogabull Yoga Therapy (yogacikitsā)

ndash A Vaidya-Yogi-Scholar

As far back as the Carakasaṃhitā methods have been incorporated into Ayur-veda for the attainment of the the three aims (eṣaṇā) of self-preservation (prāṇa)wealth (dhana) and the world beyond this one (paraloka)12It is not unreasonable

12 For a translation and commentaryon this passage in the Carakasaṃhitā

(Sūtrasthāna 113) see Dominik Wujastyk2003a 45 and 60

jason birch 5

to suppose that the authors of the yoga texts listed in section 1 might have had anextensive knowledge ofAyurveda andborrowedmaterial fromAyurvedicworksThe Yoga traditions in question aim at liberation (mokṣa) from transmigration bymeans of the practice of Yoga and generally speaking they regard disease as anobstacle to liberation insomuch as it can obstruct the practice of Yoga There-fore yogins desirous of liberation might have consulted Ayurvedic doctors tocure their illnesses Also one might surmise that longevity would provide a yo-gin with more time to achieve liberation This is implied in the Carakasaṃhitārsquosdiscussion of how a healthy person can attain the world beyond (paraloka) bypursuits which include absorption of the mind (manaḥsamādhi)13

Inmost cases health and healing is a salient theme of the Yoga texts consultedfor this article As I will argue the evidence suggests that yogins resorted to amore general knowledge of healing disease which is found in earlier Tantrasand Brahmanical texts without adopting in any significant way teachings fromclassical Ayurveda In some cases it is apparent that yogins developed distinctlyYogic modes of curing diseases

1 CORPUS OF TEXTS ON YOGA AND AYURVEDA

The yoga corpus examined in this article consists of texts that teach physicaltechniques and meditative absorption (samādhi14) either as auxiliaries

within a system of Yoga or as autonomous systems in themselves These workswere composed between the eleventh and the nineteenth century ce Generallyspeaking the physical techniques became known as Haṭhayoga and samādhi asRājayoga and the texts in which they appear posit the practice (abhyāsa) of Yogaas the chief means to liberation (mokṣa) In the following list of the early texts ofthese types of Yoga which I refer to as the ldquoearly corpusrdquo I have grouped eachwork according to the name of the Yoga it teaches Though these emic categoriesreveal some important commonalities between these works it should be notedthat there is no evidence for a premodern source that either categorizes them inthis way or recognizes them as a unified textual corpus15

13 See Carakasaṃhitā (Sūtrasthāna 1133)14 In these texts meditative absorption isreferred to by a variety of terms such assamādhi amanaska unmanī nirālamba layaetc In this article I will refer to it by thegeneric term samādhi15 For information on the dating of thesetexts see Birch 2011 528 More recent in-formation on the dating of some texts has

been cited in the footnotes of this articleOne might argue that there are at least twoAdvaitavedānta texts written before the six-teenth century that contain enough Haṭha-and Rājayoga in them to justify their inclu-sion among the early texts consulted for thispaper The first of these texts is theAparokṣā-nubhūti that teaches a system of Rājayoga

bull The Fourfold System of Mantra- Laya- Haṭha- and Rājayoga

The Dattātreyayogaśāstra (12ndash13th c)16The Yogabīja (14th c)The Amaraughaprabodha (14th c)17The Śivasaṃhitā (15th c)18

bull Rājayoga only

The Amanaska chapter two (11ndash12th c)

bull Haṭha- and Rājayoga only

The Yogatārāvalī (14th c)19

bull Ṣaḍaṅgayoga

The Vivekamārtaṇḍa (12ndash13th c) later known by other names (egGorakṣaśataka)20

bull AṣṭāṅgayogaThe Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitā (12ndash13th c)

with fifteen auxiliaries It would have beenwritten before the fourteenth century if acommentary on it called the Dīpikā werecomposed by the same Vidyāraṇya whowrote the Jīvanmuktiviveka However thisis unlikely because the Dīpikā does not be-gin with the maṅgala verse commonly usedby the author of the Jīvanmuktiviveka (Oliv-elle 1981 80) I wish to thank James Ma-daio for pointing out to me the importanceof the Dīpikārsquos maṅgala verse The secondtext is the Jīvanmuktiviveka by the sameVidyāraṇya who integratesAdvaitavedāntawith Pātantildejalayoga I have omitted thesetwo texts because they did not influence theHaṭhapradīpikā nor the works on Yoga (men-tioned in this article) which followed it Anexception to this is that the Aparokṣānubhūtiprovided verses for two Yoga Upaniṣadsthe Nādabindūpaniṣat and the Yogaśikhopani-ṣat (Bouy 1994 34 36)16 As part of this fourfold system ofYoga the Dattātreyayogaśāstra teaches asystem of Haṭhayoga with eight auxiliaries(aṣṭāṅga) which it says was first taught

by Yājntildeavalkya Seeing that the principalstructure of this text is that of the fourfoldYoga (and its Aṣṭāṅgayoga is one of twotypes of Haṭhayoga) it is more appropriateto include it in this category17 There are two redactions of the Amar-aughaprabodha a short and long one Thelong redaction has been published byMallik(1954a 48ndash55) The short one is preservedin two manuscripts (MS Chennai ARL70528 andMSChennai GOMLSR1448) In-ternal evidence suggests that the short re-daction antecedes the long one and it islikely that only the short redaction predatesthe Haṭhapradīpikā (Birch 2018a)18 The Śivasaṃhitā in its current form maynot predate the Haṭhapradīpikā It is a com-pilation and its fifth chapter appears to beunrelated to the first four For details onthis see Birch 2018b19 For a discussion on the date of the Yoga-tārāvalī see Birch 2015 5ndash820 For the different names of this text seeBouy 1994 18 andMallinson 2007a 166 n 9

jason birch 7

The Yogayājntildeavalkya (13ndash14th c)21

bull Others22

The Amṛtasiddhi (11th c)23The Gorakṣaśataka (14th c)24The Candrāvalokana (13ndash14th c)25The Khecarīvidyā (14th c)26

These texts can be considered ldquoearlyrdquo in so far as they were forerunners to thefifteenth-centuryHaṭhapradīpikā withwhich they share one ormore verses Svāt-mārāma the author of theHaṭhapradīpikā formulated a system ofHaṭhayoga thestructure and techniques of whichwere widely regarded as typical of Haṭhayogaafter the sixteenth-century This is evinced by Yoga texts such as theHaṭharatnā-valī which borrowed extensively from theHaṭhapradīpikā aswell as compilationssuch as the Yogacintāmaṇi which quote theHaṭhapradīpikā at length onmatters ofHaṭhayoga

In the centuries following the Haṭhapradīpikā the literature on Haṭha- andRājayoga changed significantly More extensive texts on the fourfold systemof Yoga and Aṣṭāṅgayoga were written as well as at least two expanded ver-sions of theHaṭhapradīpikā Also learned Brahmins attempted to integrate teach-ings on Haṭha- and Rājayoga with those of the Pātantildejalayogaśāstra and variousBrahmanical texts such as the Upaniṣads Epics Purāṇas and Dharmaśāstrasand this resulted in large eclectic compilations on Yoga As Bouy (1994) noted

21 The Yogayājntildeavalkya referred to in thisarticle is the one which is similar in styleand content to the Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitā For in-formation on an earlier and different Yogatext often referred to by the same name seeDominik Wujastyk 2017 160ndash6422 These ldquootherrdquo texts do not categorisethe Yoga they explain nor do they struc-ture their Yogas according to auxiliaries(aṅga) However they do teach methodswhich became important to later traditionsof Haṭha- and Rājayoga and contain verseswhich were borrowed by theHaṭhapradīpikā23 The Amṛtasiddhi teaches mahāmudrāmahābandha and mahāvedha (Mallinson2011 771) which include two types ofldquolockrdquo (ie yonibandha and kaṇṭhabandha)These techniques became Haṭhayogic

mudrās and were central to its practice ofprāṇāyāma24 This Gorakṣaśataka is a different workto the Vivekamārtaṇḍa (mentioned above)It includes four of the breath retentions(kumbhaka) of later Haṭhayoga traditionsas well as the practice of śakticālana (seeMallinson 2012)25 The Candrāvalokana teaches the tech-nique called śāmbhavī mudrā for dissolvingthe mind (laya) and several of its verseswere incorporated in the Haṭhapradīpikārsquosfourth chapter (see Bouy 1994)26 The Khecarīvidyā teaches khecarīmudrāand four of its verses on this technique wereincorporated into the Haṭhapradīpikā (seeMallinson 2007a)

most of the so-calledYogaUpaniṣads integratedHaṭha- andRājayogawith teach-ings on Advaitavedānta These texts which I shall call the ldquolate corpusrdquo in thispaper are as follows27

The Haṭharatnāvalī (17th c)28The Yogamārgaprakāśikā (16ndash18th c)29The Śivayogapradīpikā (late 15th c)30

bull Expanded versions of the Haṭhapradīpikā

The Siddhāntamuktāvalī (18th c)31The Haṭhapradīpikā (10 chapters) (18th c)32

27 I have not included a work by the nameof the Āyurvedasūtra in this corpus becauseas far as I am aware it is not cited and doesnot share textual parallels with the corpusesof yoga texts that I am examining There-fore for the purposes of my inquiry theĀyurvedasūtra is an eccentric work that isbeyond the scope of this article For inform-ation on it see HIML IIA 499ndash501 et passimand Slatofff 201728 For the date of the Haṭharatnāvalī seeBirch 2018a29 Sections of the Yogamārgaprakāśikā ap-pear to be redactions of earlier texts thatteach Haṭhayoga In particular it has manyparallel verses with the Haṭhapradīpikā andthe Śivasaṃhitā and some with the Yoga-yājntildeavalkya Other sections may be originalor derive from Yoga texts no longer extantThere are a few loose parallels with com-mentarial andunattributedpassages quotedin Brahmānandarsquos Haṭhapradīpikājyotsnā IfBrahmānanda borrowed from the Yogamār-gaprakāśikā then the latterrsquos terminus ad quemis the mid-nineteenth century30 For reliable information on the date au-thor and manuscripts of the Śivayogapra-dīpikā see Powell 2017 Powell will write hisdoctoral thesis on this text and will publishmore information on it in the coming years31 Birch 2018a32 The terminus a quo of the Haṭhapra-

dīpikā with ten chapters is the originalfifteenth-century Haṭhapradīpikā (withfour chapters) Its terminus ad quem iseither the Gorakṣasiddhāntasaṅgraha whichquotes verses from the tenth chapterof a Haṭhapradīpikā (haṭhapradīpikāyāṃdaśamopadeśe) or Bālakṛṣṇarsquos commen-tary (called the Yogaprakāśikā) on theHaṭhapradīpikā with ten chapters Thedate of the Gorakṣasiddhāntasaṅgraha isnot certain though it post-dates theSiddhasiddhāntapaddhati which might be aslate as the eighteenth century (Mallinson2014a 170ndash71) The date of BālakṛṣṇarsquosYogaprakāśikā is not known although thisBālakṛṣṇa does mention a lsquoMānasiṃhardquo(Gharote 2006 xxix) which would placehim in the nineteenth century if this isMan Singh II of Jodhpur who patronizedthe Nāths Bālakṛṣṇarsquos commentary alsoquotes the Siddhasiddhāntapaddhati (Gharote2006 xxix) which indicates that Bāla-kṛṣṇa lived sometime after the eighteenthcentury If the Gorakṣasiddhāntasaṅgrahaand Bālakṛṣṇa can be assigned to thenineteenth century then the Haṭhapradipikāwith ten chapters might have been writtenin the eighteenth century In its firstchapter (135) it mentions a yoga with sixauxiliaries (ṣaḍaṅgayoga) but this verse istaken from the Vivekamārtaṇḍa The text

jason birch 9

bull Aṣṭāṅgayoga

The Jogapradīpyakā (18th c)33

bull Compilations on Yoga

Godāvaramiśrarsquos Yogacintāmaṇi (16th c)34Śivānandarsquos Yogacintāmaṇi (17th c)35The Yuktabhavadeva (17th c)36The Haṭhatattvakaumudī (18th c)37The Haṭhasaṅketacandrikā (18th c)38Rāmacandrarsquos Tattvabinduyoga (17ndash18th c)39

bull Texts on Specific Techniques of Haṭhayoga

The Satkarmasaṅgraha (18th c)40The Kumbhakapaddhati (17th c)41

of the extended Haṭhapradīpikā does notlimit itself to six auxiliaries as it includesteachings on yama and niyama (155ndash58)and is structured largely on the contentsof the original Haṭhapradīpikā with manyadditional verses throughout the text andadditional chapters on pratyāhāra alongwith dhāraṇā and dhyāna kālajntildeāna andvidehamukti33 The Jogapradīpyakā was written by aRāmānandī named Jayatarāma (Mallinson2011a 774) A colophonic verse at the endof the text (957) gives the date as saṃvat1794 āśvinaśukla 10 which is 4101737ce Itdoes notmentionHaṭhayoga but teaches anaṣṭāṅgayoga (verse 18)which integrates vari-ous techniques of earlier Haṭha traditionssuch as the standard āsanas kumbhakasmudrās and ṣaṭkarmas with many otherāsanas and mudrās as well as some prac-tices not usually found in this corpus suchas prognostication based on nasal domin-ance (svarayoga) and how to enter anotherbody (parakāyapraveśa) The result is aneclectic Yoga that includes many practicaldetails which are absent in earlier Yogatexts At the end of the JogapradīpyakāJayatarāma cites the Haṭhapradīpikā and thePātantildejalayogaprakāśa among other texts

34 Godāvaramiśra can be dated to the reignof the king Pratāparudra (1497ndash1539ce) ofOrissa (Goudriaan and Gupta 1981 146)He was appointed as the kingrsquos Rājaguruin 1510ce (HIML IIA 563) so the Yogacintā-maṇi must have been written between 1510ndash1539ce For further details see Gode 195335 Birch 2013a 40336 A colophonic verse at the end of theYuktabhavadeva gives the year as 1545 (iṣu-yuga-śara-candra) in the Śaka era which is1623 ce (Gharote and V K Jha 2002a xvi)37 Birch 2018a38 For the date of the Haṭhasaṅketacandrikāand the Haṭhatattvakaumudī see below39 Birch 2013a 415 434 n 7140 For the date of the Satkarmasaṅgraha seebelow41 The Kumbhakapaddhatirsquos terminus ad quemis the eighteenth-century Sundaradevawho quotes the text with attribution in hisHaṭhatattvakaumudī (121 3812 399 4084637 4711 5180) Its terminus a quo isyet to be fixed though the fact that it is acompendium that describes more types ofbreath retention (kumbhaka) than any otherYoga text suggests that it is more recentthan the Haṭhapradīpikā

bull Upaniṣads with Haṭha- and Rājayoga (first half of the 18th c)42

The YogatattvopaniṣatThe DhyānabindūpaniṣatThe NādabindūpaniṣatThe ŚāṇḍilyopaniṣatThe YogacūḍāmaṇyupaniṣatThe YogakuṇḍalinyupaniṣatThe YogaśikhopaniṣatThe Darśanopaniṣat43The MaṇḍalabrāhmanopaniṣatThe SaubhāgyalakṣmyupaniṣatThe Varāhopaniṣat

bull OthersThe Amanaska chapter one (15ndash16th c)44The Haṭhābhyāsapaddhati (17ndash18th c)45The Gorakṣayogaśāstra (15ndash16th c)46The Gheraṇḍasaṃhitā (18th c)

42 These so-called Yoga Upaniṣads arepart of a recent recension compiled insouth-India in the first half of the eight-eenth century and commented on byUpaniṣadbrahmayogin Christian Bouyhas identified many earlier Yoga texts asthe sources of these Upaniṣads includingthe Haṭhapradīpikā (Bouy 1994 85ndash86) butalso other texts such as the Gītāsāra theUpāsanāsārasaṅgraha the Aparokṣānubhūtithe Uttaragītā the Pātantildejalayogaśāstra theGorakṣopaniṣat etc (Bouy 1994 86ndash110)43 This work is known as the Gorakṣo-paniṣat in north-India (Bouy 1994 42 106ndash7) It borrows many verses from theVasiṣṭhasaṃhitā (see pp 28 f of the 2005Kaivalyadhama edition edited by Mahe-shananda et al)44 Birch 2013c 32ndash3545 Birch 2018a46 MS Kathmandu NAK S 332 (microfilmA133320) I am not certain of the nameand date of this text which is called theGorakṣayogaśāstra on the manuscriptrsquos index

card and in the final colophon Howeverthe final colophon (इित गोरजोगशासमा)does not appear to be reliable evidence be-cause it was written in a hand that is dif-ferent to the rest of the manuscript Thecompound मलसारित follows the final versebut this does not seem like a proper colo-phon to me The manuscript is palm-leafundated and in Newari script Nils JacobLiersch is currently writing a masterrsquos thesison this text which will include a critical edi-tion and discussion of the textrsquos title datemanuscripts and authorship It will be sub-mitted at the South Asia Institute Heidel-berg University The text has some versesand content in common with the Amṛta-siddhi and teaches some of the Haṭhayogicbandhas (see footnote 75) which indicatesthat it postdates the eleventh century Ihave placed it in the late corpus becausemuch of its content is derived froman earliersource However it may be earlier than theHaṭhapradīpikā

jason birch 11

It should be noted that it has been easier to identify textual passages and con-tent from Ayurvedic sources in the late corpus for the simple reason that themajority of its texts cite and name their sources and tend to incorporate moretheory and doctrine from awide range of material as noted above In contrast tothis the early corpus is characterized by concise explanations of the practical de-tails of their systems of Yoga and rarely do the early works reveal their sourcesThe early texts give the impression that they were instruction manuals on Yogawritten by practitioners for practitioners whereas the late corpus contains textsthat were written by scholars who had expertise in several branches of knowl-edge One such example is the sixteenth-century Yogacintāmaṇi composed byGodāvaramiśra who wrote other works on various topics including Tantra Ad-vaitavedānta and an extensive treatise on politics andwarfare47 Therefore giventhatmany of the texts of the late corpus are compilations by learned authors whooften cited their sources it is easier to identify the content of Ayurvedic works inthis corpus than in the early one about which my comments are more speculat-ive and provisional

Most ofmy statements onAyurveda are based on the contents of the so-calledldquogreat triadrdquo (bṛhattrayī) of classical Ayurveda namely the Carakasaṃhitā theSuśrutasaṃhitā andVāgbhaṭarsquosAṣṭāṅgahṛdaya48 Where possible I have consultedother works on Ayurveda and Rasaśāstra However a more systematic searchoutside the bṛhattrayī would further enrich the points of discussion raised in thisarticle

2 SHARED TERMINOLOGY

names of disease

Even a cursory reading of the above-mentioned Yoga texts would reveal thatboth the early and late corpuses use terminology in discussions of the body

and disease that occurs in classical Ayurveda The Haṭhapradīpikā provides agood sample of this shared terminology because it is largely an anthology of the

47 I have inferred the first two topics fromthe titles of two of Godāvaramiśrarsquos worksthe Tantracintāmaṇi and the Advaitadarpaṇawhich are both quoted in his Yogacintāmaṇi(Gode 1953 474) The third work is calledthe Hariharacaturaṅga which has been ed-ited and published For details and a sum-mary of this textrsquos contents see Meulenbeld(HIML IIA 562ndash3)

48 Although the term bṛhattrayī appears inmodern publications on Ayurveda an elec-tronic search of the texts on Gretil Saritand Muktabodha does not reveal occur-rences of it The term could have beencoined in the nineteenth century as part ofan effort to create a medical canon I amgrateful to Dominik Wujastyk for suggest-ing this to me

early corpus49 and was regarded as an authority on Haṭhayoga in many worksof the late corpus In the Haṭhapradīpikā the Ayurvedic word for disorder (doṣa)and the three bodily humours of bile (pitta) phlegm (kaphaśleṣman) and wind(vāta) are used frequently There are also references to the bodily constituents(dhātu) and more specifically to fat (medas) as well as the names of various dis-eases such as swelling caused by tumours (gulma) abdominal diseases (udara)hiccup (hikkā) breathing difficulty (śvāsa) cough (kāsa) pain in the head earsand eyes (śiraḥkarṇākṣivedanā) enlargement of the spleen (plīha) skin diseases(kuṣṭha) obesity (sthaulya) problems caused byworms (kṛmidoṣa) sloth (ālasya)fever (jvara) poison (viṣa) consumption (kṣaya) constipation (gudāvarta)50 in-digestion (ajīrṇa) as well as more generally to vāta pitta and kapha diseases51 Infact theHaṭhapradīpikā (225) refers to a group of twenty phlegmatic diseases (क-फरोगा च वशितः) which appears to be an oblique reference to the group of twentyphlegmatic diseases that are enumerated in some Ayurvedic texts such as theCarakasaṃhitā (Sūtrasthāna 201017)

The frequency of many of the above terms in these Yoga texts is largely theresult of literary style Nearly all of the references to curing diseases and im-balances occur in the descriptions of Yoga techniques such as in the examplesof mahāmudrā and ujjāyīkumbhaka below Seeing that these works describe manytechniques the names of diseases tend to be repeated throughout each workThe particularity of attributing certain benefits to certain techniques suggeststhat some of this knowledge was derived from the practical experience of yo-gins Nonetheless these authors also seemed obliged to repeat many platitudesin praising the efficacy of Yoga

The mere presence of basic Ayurvedic terminology even if somewhat pro-fuse is not in itself sufficient proof that the author of a Yoga text had expertisein Ayurveda As I shall discuss below this terminology is part of a more gen-eral knowledge of disease and the three humours which pervades earlier Tan-tras Purāṇas and Dharmaśāstras However at times the authors of both theearly and late corpuses reveal their understanding of the body and knowledgeof medicines and some occasionally quote or borrow from Ayurvedic texts Inmy view the last two of the following four types of textual evidence are the mostcertain indicators of an authorrsquos knowledge of Ayurveda

49 Bouy 199450 On the meaning of gudāvarta in the Pāśu-patasūtrabhāṣya andMataṅgapārameśvara seeSanderson 1999 33 According to AlexisSandersonrsquos interpretation of these sourcesgudāvarta is ldquoa fundamental incapacity ofthe anus (pāyuḥ) as organ of excretionrdquo

This may well be a more serious condi-tion than indicated by my translation ofldquoconstipationrdquo51 See the Appendix p 65 below for a listof these and their references in theHaṭhapra-dīpikā

jason birch 13

1 Shared terminology2 Similar anatomical theory and medicines3 Textual parallels with Ayurvedic texts4 Citations of Ayurvedic texts

A good example of the complexities behind the shared terminology mentionedabove can be seen in the four earliest texts that teach the Haṭhayogic practicecalled mahāmudrā namely the Amṛtasiddhi (113ndash11) the Dattātreyayogaśāstra(132ndash34) the Vivekamārtaṇḍa (81ndash86) and the Amaraughaprabodha (29ndash32)These texts provide four separate accounts of mahāmudrā which were borrowedor modified in various ways by nearly all subsequent works on Yoga52 Thebenefits of this practice are described in the Vivekamārtaṇḍa as follows

Because [of the practice of mahāmudrā] no [food] should be[thought] wholesome or unwholesome Indeed all tastes becometasteless Even a terrible poison consumed is digested as if it werenectar Consumption (kṣaya) skin diseases (kuṣṭha) constipation(gudāvarta) swelling (gulma) indigestion (ajīrṇa) fever (jvara) andanxiety (vyathā) these disorders are destroyed for that [yogin] whopractises mahāmudrā This mahāmudrā is said to bring people greatsupernatural powers (mahāsiddhi) [such as minimization etc53] Itshould be kept secret and not given to just anyone54

These verses which were reproduced in the Haṭhapradīpikā55 demonstrate howpremodern Yoga texts enumerate the effects of a technique beginning with therelatively mundane ones of strong digestion and finishing with supernaturalpowers This passage is typical in that it only mentions the names of various

52 One exception is the section on mahā-mudrā in the Jogapradīpyakā (592ndash97)53 I have followed the interpretation ofBrahmānandarsquos commentary (ie the Jyot-snā) on this verse in the Haṭhapradīpikā(318ndash ) [hellip] मह ताः िसयािणमााा-सा करी कऽयम) However it is possible thatthe author of the Vivekamartāṇḍa intendedmahāsiddhi to refer to some greater achieve-ment than the eight Yogic siddhis This iscertainly the case in the Amṛtasiddhi whichuses the term mahāsiddhi in the third verseof its chapter on jīvanmuktilakṣaṇa to referto the attainment of the three states (avas-thā) which follow from the piercing of thethree knots (granthi) Thismahāsiddhi brings

liberation while alive (ऽयाणा च यदा िसिः का-यवािसभवात महािसिदा या जीविफल-दा) However there is no such statementlike this in the Vivekamartāṇḍa54 Vivekamārtaṇḍa 61ndash63 (MS Baroda Cent-ral Library 4110 f 3r ll 2ndash4) न िह पमपवा रसाः सवऽिप नीरसाः अिप भ िवष घोर पीयषिमवजीय ित ६१ यकगदावत गाजीण रथा त- दोषाः य याि महामिा त योऽसत ६२ क-िथतय महामिा महािसिकरी नणाम गोपनीया यनन दया य क िचत ६३ सव] emend साव Codex55 Vivekamārtaṇḍa 84ndash86 = Haṭhapradīpikā315ndash17

diseases and omits any specialized medical knowledge on how these illnesseswere diagnosed treated and managed Moreover the names of these diseasesappear in other genres of Sanskrit literature of the time such as Tantras Purāṇasand Epics that predate the tenth century56 Their occurrence in earlier Tantras isparticularly significant in this regard because of the influence of Tantra on theseYoga traditions57 The likelihood that the above list of diseases derives from aTantric source is somewhat indicated by the inclusion of gudāvarta which occursin three Tantric works that predate Haṭhayoga but it is not found in the classicaltexts of Ayurveda58

humoral diseasesNearly all of the Yoga texts in question mention categories of disease such asphlegm (kaphaśleṣman) bile (pitta) wind (vāta) disorders (doṣa) This termin-ology refers to concepts that are more sophisticated than merely the names ofdisease A good example of its usage in a Yoga text is seen in the description ofthe breath retention (kumbhaka) called ujjāyī which first appears in the Gorakṣa-śataka (36cdndash39) and the Yogabīja (96ndash98ab) The Gorakṣaśatakarsquos description isreproduced in the Haṭhapradīpikā as follows59

56 Electronic searching of the Sanskrittexts available on Gretil and Muktabodhareturns hundreds of examples of someof these terms in Tantras and Purāṇas Ishall provide only a few of each taken fromcontexts which indicate that the meaningis an illness kṣaya ndash Sarvajntildeānottara 196Kiraṇatantra 5110 Brahmayāmala 6166Agnipurāṇa 28221 etc kuṣṭha ndash Mālinī-vijayottaratantra 1656 Agnipurāṇa 3121Viṣṇudharmottara 33462 Mahābhārata122926 132414 etc gudāvarta ndash seefootnote 50 gulma ndash MṛgendratantravṛttiYogapāda 2 Sukṣmāgama 2723 Ahir-budhnyasamhitā 3853 Garuḍamahāpurāṇa115722 etc ajīrṇa ndash Īśānaśivagurudevapad-dhati 39156 Garuḍamahāpurāṇa 11618 etcjvara ndash Kubjikāmatatantra 949 Netratantra176 Bhagavadgītā 330 etc vyathā ndashSvacchandatantra 1295 Bhagavadgītā 1149etc etc57 Mallinson 2011 770 Birch 2015 8ndash1058 The term gudāvarta occurs in Pāśu-patasūtrabhāṣya 36ndash37 Mṛgendratantravṛtti

Yogapāda 2 and the MataṅgapārameśvaraVidyāpāda 1834ab (Sanderson 1999 33) Onthe meaning of gudāvarta see footnote 5059 Haṭhapradīpikā 251ndash53 (see footnote 61)= Gorakṣaśataka 36cdndash39 [= Yogakuṇḍaliny-upaniṣat 26cdndash29] (मख सय नाडीा आकपवनशनः ३६ यथा लगित कठ त दयाविध स-नम पव वयाण रचयिदडया ततः ३७शीष-ितानलहर गलहर पर सव रोगहर पय दहानल-िववध नम ३८ नाडीजलोदराधातगतदोषिवनाशनमगतितः काय माा च ककम ३९37a कठ] corr कणा त Codex 37b स-नम] emend सनम Codex 37d इडया]corr इया Codex 38a शीषिता- corr शीषिदता- Codex 38c सवरोगहर पय] emend[cf योगकडिलपिनषत 28cd] omitted Co-dex All corrections and emendations areby James Mallinson) Yogabīja 96ndash98ab [=Yogaśikhopaniṣat 193ndash95] (नाडीा वायमाककडाः पा योन रः धारयदर सोऽिप रचयिदडयासधीः ९६ कठ कफािददोष शरीराििववध नमिशराजालोदराधातगतरोगिवनाशनम ९७ गत-

jason birch 15

Now ujjāyī [is described] Having closed the mouth and taken in thebreath slowly through both nostrils so that it resonantly (sasvaram)touches from the throat as far down as the chest [the yogin] shouldhold it as previously taught and breathe out through the left nos-tril [Ujjāyī] cures disorders (doṣa) caused by phlegm (śleṣman) inthe throat and it increases fire in the body It cures imbalances in thenetwork of channels (nāḍījāla) abdomen and throughout the bod-ily constituents (dhātu)60 This breath retention called ujjāyī can bepractised by one while walking or sitting61

ितः काय माया त ककम97c िशराजालो-] conj िशरोजलो- Ed 97a कठ]emend कठ- Ed (unmetr) My reasonsfor conjecturing ldquonetwork of channelsrdquo areoutlined in footnote 61 The manuscriptsrsquoreading of ldquoheadrdquo (िशरस) is possible in so faras the headmight be a location for a diseaseBut this reading does not solve the problemof जल The redactor of the Yogaśikhopani-ṣat (194cd) who incorporated much of theYogabīja tried unsuccessfully in my opin-ion to solve this problem by changing thishemistich to नाडीजलापह धातगतदोषिवनाशनम)60 My translation of the part of the com-pound -udarādhātu- requires some explana-tion It can only be read as udara and ā dhātuThe compounding of ā seems strange andunnecessary However udaradhātu wouldbe unmetrical Brahmānanda explains itthis way ldquoā [means] wholly the bodily con-stituents existing in the body are [what ismeant by] throughout the bodily constitu-entsrdquo (आसमाहवत माना धातवआधातवः) Mytranslation reflects this explanation61 Haṭhapradīpikā 251ndash53 (1998 57ndash58) अ-थोायी मख सय नाडीामाक पवनशनः यथालगित कठा दयाविध सनम २५१ पव व-याण रचयिदडया तथा दोषहर कठ दहान-लिववध नम २५२ नाडीजालोदराधातगतदोषिवना-शनम गता ितता काय माा त ककम२५३53a नाडीजालोदरा- conj नाडीजलोदरा- EdThe majority of the manuscripts repor-ted in Kaivalyadhamarsquos critical edition ofthe Haṭhapradīpikā read नाडीजलो- instead of

नाडीजालो- When commenting on this verseBrahmānanda understood नाडीजलोदराधात asa dvandva compound of individual mem-bers (ie an itaretaradvandva) If one fol-lows this logic then one must understandthat the vitiated humours (doṣa) are locatedaccording to each of the members of thiscompound which is easy to comprehendin the case of ldquochannelsrdquo (nāḍī) the ldquoab-domenrdquo (udara) and the ldquobodily constitu-entsrdquo (dhātu) However the problem is howone might understand ldquowaterrdquo (jala) in thiscontext Brahmānanda glosses it as ldquowa-ter that has been drunkrdquo or ldquoyellow wa-terrdquo (जल पीतमदकम) In the same vein onecould interpret it as ldquofluidsrdquo in the bodybut I am yet to find this meaning of jala at-tested in another Yoga text in spite of thefact that the term jala is used loosely tomeanldquosweatrdquo and ldquonectarrdquo in two other verses ofthe Haṭhapradīpikā (213 370) Moreoverwhether one interprets jala as water urineor fluids this interpretation is unlikely be-cause neither is a part of the body that fitswell with the other members of the list Inthis regard it is helpful to consider thatseven manuscripts of the Yogabīja (see foot-note 59) have the reading śirojala- (lsquothe headand waterrsquo) in a verse which is parallel tothis passage Though this reading is alsoimplausible it points to a possible corrup-tion of śirājāla a variant spelling of sirājālawhich means ldquothe network of tubular ves-selsrdquo The compound śirājāla occurs in otherYoga texts eg Vivekamārtaṇḍa 66 Śivasaṃ-

References to the three humours in premodern yoga texts are frequent but theyare not a clear indication that yogins derived their knowledge of disease fromAyurveda because similar references occur in earlier Tantras and Purāṇas Togive but one example the nineteenth chapter of the Netratantra sets out the vari-ous illnesses among other calamities which a king might neutralize by havinga śānti rite performed for him The illnesses include

[hellip] the ill-effects of poison from snakes etc boils caused by wormsand so forth diseases (vikāra) of wind and bile (vātapitta) and all dis-orders of phlegm (śleṣmadoṣa) Piles eye diseases erysipelas andthousands of other diseases detrimental effects of injuries and thelike and internal illnesses that destroy the mind such as grief and soon62

In fact the humoral concept of disease would have been known to yogins whowere familiar with Brahmanical Sanskrit literature For example the basic ter-minology of disease and anatomy occurs in the Dharmaśāstras Awidely-knowntext of this genre the Yājntildeavalkyasmṛti contains a detailed passage on the cre-ation of the body which includes words such as rasa (nutrient fluid) dhātu (con-stituent) ojas (vital drop) sirā (tube) dhamani (pipes) śleṣman (phlegm) pitta(bile) and so on63 Lists of the seven bodily constituents (dhātu) appear in theMahābhārata and the Pātantildejalayogaśāstra as well as various Purāṇas Tantras andBuddhist works64 Furthermore the notion that disease was an imbalance inthe bodily constituents is mentioned in the Pātantildejalayogaśāstra65 As far as I amaware such a definition is absent in the Yoga corpus consulted for this article

hitā 460 Haṭhapradīpikā 370 Haṭharatnāvalī266 etc This compound is used to describethe body in the Parākhyatantra (see below)Furthermore in yogic works it was thoughtthat these channels could be blocked by im-purities (mala) which might explain thereference to a disorder (doṣa) in the chan-nels (see for example Vivekamārtaṇḍa 97Haṭhapradīpikā 139 24-6 etc)In the critical edition of the Haṭhapradīpikāthree manuscripts (क घ and प) read jāla in-stead of jala and this is metrically permiss-ible The reading of jala can be easily ex-plained as emanating from a scribal error62 Netratantra 19125cdndash27 (1939 [vol 2]174) नागािदिवषदोषा कीटिवोटकादयः १२५वातिपिवकारा दोषा सवतः अशािस चरो-गा तथा िवसप कादयः १२६ ारािण दोषा

तजााः सहॐशःआरा ाधय शोकााि-नाशकाः63 Yājntildeavalkyasmṛti 368ndash10964 For references in the Mahābhārata thePātantildejalayogaśāstra as well as Purāṇic andBuddhist literature see Maas 2008 144ndash46 Examples in Śaiva Tantras includethe Mataṅgapārameśvaratantra (Buddhitattva-prakaraṇa 1712) the Niśvāsakārikā 2543Kṣemarājarsquos commentary on the Svacchanda-tantra (4159) the Kubjikāmatatantra (1793)the Śāradātilika (133) the Īśānaśivagurudeva-paddhati (164) etc65 The definition of disease in the Pātantildejala-yogaśāstra occurs in the Bhāṣya on Sūtra 130Maas (2008 147ndash52) argues that the mostlikely reading for this is ािधधा तवषम

jason birch 17

with the exception of Brahmānandarsquos commentary (the Jyotsna) on Haṭhapra-dīpikā 338 This definition of disease made its way from the Pātantildejalayogaśāstrainto the Liṅgapurāṇa and Vāyavīyasaṃhitā66

Given that some of the content and the non-Pāṇinian register of Sanskrit inmuch of the Yoga corpus under consideration is similar to the Śaivāgamas oneshould think twice before readingmore complex Ayurvedic theory into passagesof theseworks that contain humoral terminology andmore recondite anatomicalterms especially if a simpler meaning is possible For example in the above de-scription of ujjāyī one might be tempted to understand the compound nāḍījālawhich is based on a conjecture according to Ayurvedic theory referring to thenetwork of blood vessels (sirājāla) which is one of four networks (jāla) men-tioned in the Suśrutasaṃhitā67 Apart from the fact that the word nāḍī is notused with this meaning in Ayurvedic works (Dominik Wujastyk 2003a 37) thiscompoundmore probably refers to the general system of channels (nāḍī) whichwere a salient feature of the subtle body in Tantra Similar references to a net-work (jāla) of channels can be found in Tantras predating Haṭhayoga such as theeighth or ninth-century Parākhyatantra68

Even Yoga cannot accomplish its fruits if it is devoid of a supportIts support is the body which is covered with a network of tubularvessels (sirājāla)69

Although the presence of humoral terminology is insufficient to prove that pre-modern yogins had expertise in Ayurveda the prominence of such terminologyin both the early and late corpuses indicates that yogins had a strong interestin the healing effects of many Yoga techniques Indeed the theme of healingdiseases was important in the transmission and promotion of the tradition Theparticularity of certain benefits suggests that some of this information had a prac-tical value for yogins and it may have derived from actual observations and testi-mony Nonetheless the frequency of grandiose rhetorical statements such as

which is similar to some statements in Ayur-vedic texts Cf Carakasaṃhitā Sūtrasthāna94a िवकारो धातवषम The definition धात-वष is also used as a standard examplein Mīmāṃsā and Nyāya texts It does notoriginate in the Pātantildejalayogaśāstra but inearly Ayurvedic literature I am grateful toDominik Wujastyk for this added informa-tion as well as for suggesting that a prehis-tory of this definition of disease is possiblein the Tripiṭaka66 Liṅgapurāṇa 194 Vāyavīyasaṃ-hitā 72383 p 406 I wish to thank Philipp

Maas and Christegravele Barois for pointing outthese two references to me67 In the Śārīrasthāna of the Suśrutasaṃ-hitā (512) four separate networks (jāla) arementioned in the muscle (māṃsa) channels(sirā) sinews (snāyu) and bones (asthi)68 On the date of the Parākhyatantra seeDominic Goodall 2004 xlviiindashlviii69 Parākhyatantra 1452 (आलबन वप िस-राजालावतािनत िनरालो न योगोऽिप भवलसा-धकः) Edition and translation by DominicGoodall (2004 367)

ldquothis Yoga will cure all diseasesrdquo indicates that the passages on benefits werealso written to promote the type of Yoga being taught70

3 THEORY

If the author of a yoga text incorporated descriptions of physiology that relyon Ayurvedic terminology and theories as seen in the Bṛhattrayī this might

provide more robust evidence for the use of specialized Ayurvedic knowledgein a Yoga tradition This type of evidence is rare in the early corpus and difficultto trace because these texts do not reveal their sources Furthermore althoughsome texts of the early corpus have descriptions of digestion and vital points(marman) that are conceptually similar to Ayurvedic physiology there are alsoenough significant differences to suggest a non-medical source as will be seenin the examples taken from the Yogayājntildeavalkya and the Amṛtasiddhi In contrastto this some texts of the late corpus such as the Yuktabhavadeva and the Haṭha-saṅketacandrikā quote Ayurvedic texts explicitly or contain passages which canbe proven to derive from them These instances provide more solid ground forassessing how and why these authors combined Ayurvedic theory with Yoga

fire digestive fire and digestionNearly all of the Yoga texts in the corpus refer frequently to a yoginrsquos inner fire(agni anala vahni etc) It is clear from expressions such as jaṭharāgni that thisfire is located in the abdomen71 Many Haṭhayogic practices are credited withincreasing the bodyrsquos heat72 and the fact that it can result in Rājayoga which isthe goal of Haṭhayoga73 signifies the important role of a yoginrsquos inner fire in thesoteriology of premodern Yoga traditions

Descriptions of digestion tend to occur in explanations of the mundane be-nefits afforded by the practice of Yoga A good example is found in the Amṛta-siddhi which is the earliest known text to teach the threemudrās (iemahāmudrāmahābandha and mahāvedha) that became central to the practice of Haṭhayoga74

70 Expressions such as ldquoit removes all dis-easesrdquo (sarvarogahara) ldquoit destroys all ill-nessrdquo (sarvavyādhivināśana) and so on arecommon in both the early and late corpuses71 Various Yoga texts of both the early andlate corpus describe the location of this fireegDattātreyayogaśāstra 139Vivekamārtaṇḍa135ab etc72 In the Haṭhapradīpikā alone the increas-ing of fire in the body is mentioned nearly

a dozen times and is expressed variouslyas follows jaṭharapradīpti 127 udayaṃjaṭharānalasya 129 janayati jaṭharāgniṃ131 analasya pradīpanam 220 dahanapra-dīptam 229 mandāgnisandīpana 235dehānalavivardhana 252 śarīrāgnivivardhana265 agnidīpana 278 atyantapradīptaḥ [hellip]jvalanaḥ 366 jaṭharāgnivivardhinī 37973 See Haṭhapradīpikā 11ndash2 67 276 etc74 See Mallinson 2016

jason birch 19

According to the Amṛtasiddhi the practice of these mudrās stimulates digestivefire which initiates a chain reaction of increasing nutrient fluid then bodily con-stituents (dhātu) and finally the foremost vital fluid which in this text is probablysemen75 This process leads to a number ofmundane benefits76 Amore detailed

75 The other possibility is ojas Howeverthe Amṛtasiddhi does not mention ojas else-where and semen (bindu) is important forboth its metaphysics and practice (ie se-men retention) Also the Gorakṣayogaśāstrawhich might have borrowed from the Amṛ-tasiddhi or an intermediary source (egGorakṣayogaśāstra (MS) 5 13ab = Amṛta-siddhi 31 611ab Gorakṣayogaśāstra (MS)43 ~Amṛtasiddhi 720) describes a similarprocess that ends in semen ldquoHaving con-tracted the root of the anus [placing] thechin on the chest closing the nine doorsfilling the lungs with the breath one causes[the breath] to move through all the chan-nels and the bodyrsquos fire to blaze Becauseof the constant blazing of the fire food andthe like are cooked The constant cooking ofthe food etc increases nutrient fluid Be-cause of its essence [nutrient fluid] is inonersquos seed It supports semen and nothingelserdquo (आक गडमल त िचबक दयोपिर नवा-रािण सय किमापय वायना १७ चारण सव नाडी-ना दहविः दीपनम वः दीपनािअादः पाचनभवत १८ अादः पाचनाि रसविः जायतभावाीज एवासौ िब िबभत नाथा १९19d िब] emend िबMS Kathmandu NAKS 332 (microfilm A133320))76 rdquoJust as treasure is pointless for thosewho are not inclined to use it the [three]mudrās are certainly so for those who haveabandoned their practice [of them] Havingrealised this wise men should always prac-tise [them] From the practice Yoga arisesand from Yoga everything is accomplishedHaving assumed the first mudrā and hav-ing applied the two locks very firmly [theyogin] should tap the three [main] chan-nels of the body Then remaining steadyhe should tap the hips with the penis sealHaving stopped the flow of the breathsand having performed inhalations and re-tentions the yogin should undertake [this]practice in order to increase all enjoyments

By this means of practising day and nightuninterruptedly every three hours in everyway the breath becomes tamed Becauseof taming the breath [thus] the fire in thebody increases every day When the fire isincreasing food is cooked easily By cook-ing the food nutrient fluid increases Whenthe nutrient fluid has constantly increasedthen the bodily constituents increase Ow-ing to the increase in the bodily constituentsthe foremost vital fluid increases Whenthere is an abundance of [this] foremostfluid because of the constant practice ofYoga the best of yogins becomes nourishedhas a firm body and great strength Becauseof strength the great practice ofmahābandhaarises Because of the great practice ofmahābandha nutrient fluid is digested andall humours (doṣa) whose waste productsare faeces and urine are removedrdquo (Amṛta-siddhi 143ndash12 यथायोगशीलाना िनिध िनःफलाभवत तथाासिवहीनाना त च िनल ीव एवबा सदाासः कत ः सािकन रः अासाजायत योगो योगाव िसित धा ाथिमक मिा काबौ महाढौ आालन ततः कया रीर िऽमा-ग तः पनराालन काः िरः पषमिया वायनागितमाव का परकककौअासमारभोगी स-वपभोगवय िदवारािऽमिविछ याम याम यथा तथाअननाासयोगन वायरिसतो भवत वायोरासतोविः ह वध त तनौ वौ िववध मान च सखम- पाकता अ पिरपाकन रसविः जायत रस विगत िन वध धातवदा धातोः सवध नादव -धानो वध त रसः धानरससपौ सतताासयोगतःपो भवित योगीो ढकायो महाबलः महाबमहा-ासो बलादव जायत महाबमहाासािस ज-रण भवत शि सवदोषा मलमऽकषायकाः) Inthis instance the term tattva refers to thethree mudrās In verse 142 the three mudrāsare referred to as tattvatraya The compoundpuruṣamudrā appears to be referring to thepenis seal (liṅgamudrā) which is mentionedin chapter 13 of the Amṛtasiddhi

description of digestion occurs in the Yogayājntildeavalkya Unlike the Haṭhapradīpikāand most of the other texts of the early corpus the Yogayājntildeavalkya contains ex-planatory passages onmetaphysical terms such as the breath (prāṇa) the bodyrsquosfire (mātariśva) kuṇḍalinī and so on After locating the fire at the centre of thebody and describing it as a triangular site of flames shining like molten gold77the process of digestion is then described as follows

Water food and its flavours are made wholesome in the stomachWhen prāṇa has moved into the stomach it separates them outagain78 Then it puts the water on the fire and the food etc abovethe water Having naturally reached [the place of] apāna prāṇa alongwith apāna then fans the fire in the middle of the body Graduallythe fire is further fanned by prāṇa and apāna [until] it then blazesin its abode in the middle of the body Blazing with flames thefire fuelled by the prāṇa there makes the water in the intestinesextremely hot By means of the hot water the fire thoroughly cooksthe food and the condiments [which were] placed on the water Thewater becomes sweat and urine the nutrient fluid (rasa) becomessemen (vīrya) and the food becomes faeces O Gārgī prāṇa makes[them so] one by one While prāṇa along with samāna distribute thenutrient fluid in all the channels prāṇa moves in the body by way ofthe breath All the winds in the body constantly expel faeces urineand other [waste matter] through the pores of the skin and nineorifices79

This passage contains the salient features of various accounts of digestion inAyurvedic works These include the role of the bodily winds in ingesting food

77 The centre of the body (dehamadhya)is defined in Yogayājntildeavalkya 414ab asldquotwo finger-breaths above the anus and twofinger-breadths below the penisrdquo (गदा -लाम अधो महा लात) The descriptionof the ldquoplace of flamesrsquo (śikhisthāna) is givenat Yogayājntildeavalkya 411cd-412a78 The location and functions of prāṇaapāna and samāna are mentioned in Yoga-yājntildeavalkya 447ndash58ab which precedes thedescription of digestion For further inform-ation on the bodily winds see Zysk 199379 Yogayājntildeavalkya 458cdndash66 (ed pp 34ndash5) त जलम च रसािन च समीकतम ५८ त-मगतः ाणािन कया थक पथक पनरौ जल

ा ादीिन जलोपिर ५९ य पान स ा- तनव सह मातः वाित लन तऽ दहमगतपनः ६०वायना वािततो विरपानन शनः शनः तदालित िव कल दहमम ६१ ालािभ-लनऽ ाणन िरततः जलममकरोोम-गत तदा ६२ अ नसय जलोपिर समप-तम ततः सपमकरोिः सवािरणा ६३ -दमऽ जलाता वीय प रसो भवत परीषमाागाणः कया थथक ६४समानवायना साध रसस-वा स नाडीष ापयवासपण दह चरित मातः६५ लोमर नविभः िवमऽािदिवसज नम कव िवायवः सव शरीर सिनररम ६६66a लोमरश] conj ोमरश Ed 66d शरीरसिनररम] conj शरीरष िनररम Ed

jason birch 21

fanning the digestive fire distributing the nutrient fluid and excreting wasteas well as the cooking of food in the stomach to produce both nutrient fluidand waste However a closer comparison with Ayurvedic descriptions of diges-tion reveals that the Yogayājntildeavalkyarsquos is a rather simplified and even somewhatcrude account For example the early seventh-centuryAṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā nar-rates how food is transformed as it is cooked first becoming sweet then acidicand pungent The cooking process produces phlegm bile and wind at differentstages Also five elemental fires which correspond to the five elemental aspectsof food cook the food to nourish the bodyrsquos five elements The resulting nutri-ent fluid is further cooked by seven fires in sequence one for each of the sevenbodily constituents (dhātu) which are nourished in turn And each bodily con-stituent produces its own type of waste80 This level of sophistication is absentin descriptions of digestion in the early corpus

However unlike the Amṛtasiddhi the Yogayājntildeavalkya explains digestionwithout directly connecting it to the practice of Yoga The Yogayājntildeavalkya is acompilation and much of it is based on the Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitā In fact the formerborrowed over two hundred and fifty verses from the latter81 By followingthe parallel verses in both texts it is clear that the Yogayājntildeavalkyarsquos passage ondigestion has been inserted into a large block of text taken verbatim from theVasiṣṭhasaṃhitā as shown in Table 1

One might ask why the redactor of the Yogayājntildeavalkya inserted a descrip-tion of digestion towards the end of this chapter which culminates in teaching amethod for purifying the channels (nāḍīśuddhi) Both theVaṣiṣṭhasaṃhitā and theYogayājntildeavalkya claim that nāḍīśuddhi ignites the fire situated in the abdomen82and both teach it as a preliminary practice to holding the breath (prāṇāyāma)As a preparatory practice it results in only mundane benefits whereas the prac-tice of prāṇāyāma raises kuṇḍalinī and takes the yogin to the goal of liberation83Therefore as was the case with the Amṛtasiddhi the redactor of the Yogayājntildeaval-kya provided a theoretical explanation for the mundane benefits of nāḍīśuddhiwhich is generally consistent with the Ayurvedic notion that digestive fire is es-

80 See the Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā Śā354ndash64 Sanderson (1999 38ndash42) has producedan annotated translation of this passagewhich he says partly reproduces and partlyparaphrases Carakasaṃhitā Ci155ndash19 Healso translates the description of diges-tion in the Bhāvaprakāśa (2193ndash213) whichadds further detail to the Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayarsquosaccount

81 See p 28 of the introduction to theVasiṣṭhasaṃhitā edition82 It is worth noting the slight variationbetween their readings Vasiṣṭhasaṃ-hitā 268cd [hellip] दीिज ठराििववध नम CfYogayājntildeavalkya 521 [hellip] दीिव ज ठरवतनः83 Vaṣiṣṭhasaṃhitā 349ndash56 and Yogayājntildea-valkya 669ndash82

Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitā Yogayājntildeavalkyaverse numbers verse numbers Topic

26ndash7 49ndash10 The length of the body and the sphere ofprāṇa

28ndash10 411ndash15 Description and location of the fire in thebody

211ndash18 416ndash24 The kanda mūlacakra and kuṇḍalinī219ndash41 425ndash46 Suṣumnā and fourteen other channels (nāḍī)242ndash49 447ndash57 The five principal bodily winds (vāyu)omitted 458ndash66 Digestion250ndash54 467ndash71 The five secondary bodily winds255ndash69 471ndash72 53ndash22 Purification of the channels (nāḍīśuddhi)

Table 1 A comparison of passages from the Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitā and the Yogayājntildeavalkya

sential for the optimal functioning of the body84 The compilatory nature of theYogayājntildeavalkya indicates that its passage on digestion was probably borrowedfrom somewhere However the simplicity of it in relation to descriptions of di-gestion in Ayurvedic texts suggests that the source was probably not a work onAyurveda

yogi-physicians and humoral theoryA possible source of the Yogayājntildeavalkyarsquos passage on digestion is hinted at in itseighth chapter The topic of this chapter is concentration (dhāraṇā) on the fiveelements the description of which is similar to dhāraṇā in some earlier Tantras85In addition to its own teachings on this topic the Yogayājntildeavalkya mentions an-other group of yogins who claimed to unite the self (ātman) with the supreme

84 For example Suśrutasaṃhitā Sūtrasthāna1541 ldquoOne whose humours digestive fireand the functioning of the bodily constitu-ents and impurities are [all] in equilib-rium whose self sense organs and mindare serene is called healthyrdquo (समदोषः स-माि समधातमलिबयः साियमनाः -ा इिभधीयत) Various foods drugs andtreatments that increase digestive fire (ag-nidīpana) are mentioned throughout Ayur-vedic works (eg Carakasaṃhitā Cikitsā-

sthāna 3151 8123ndash33 15141ndash215) For fur-ther information on digestion in Ayurvedicworks see Jolly 1977 Das 2003 DominikWujastyk 2003a etc85 The Tantric practice of dhāraṇā is de-scribed in Svacchandatantra 7299cdndash302abwhich is adapted from the Niśvāsarsquos Nay-asūtra 4114ndash115 (Dominic Goodall et al2015 394) There is a more sophisticatedpractice of dhāraṇā in the Mālinīvijayottara-tantra (Vasudeva 2004 297 307ndash29)

jason birch 23

deity by a practice that combined dhāraṇā and prāṇāyāma with humoral theoryThese yogins were considered the best physicians (bhiṣagvara) and they believedthat their practice derived from the twoAśvins the divine physicians to the godsOne must wonder whether these yogi-physicians composed texts that have beenlost and whether the Yogayājntildeavalkyarsquos passage on digestion was taken from oneof their works All that remains of their teachings is the following brief reportin the Yogayājntildeavalkya It is a rare example from a premodern Yoga text of a truesynthesis between the practice of Yoga and humoral theory

However in regard to this goal [of seeing the supreme lord] otheryogins who are the best knowers of Brahma the best physicians andhighly skilled in [various]Yogas teach that the body certainly consistsof the five elements (ie earth water fire etc) Therefore OGārgī itconsists of [the humours]wind bile and phlegm For all thosewhosenature is wind and are engaged in all [types of] Yoga the body be-comes dry because of prāṇāyāma However for those whose natureis bile the body does not dry quickly And for those whose nature isphlegm the body soon becomes sturdy For one who concentrateson the fire element [in the body] all [diseases] arising from viti-ated wind disappear For one who always concentrates on part earthand part water phlegmatic and wind diseases soon disappear Forone who always concentrates on part space and part wind diseasesarising fromdisorders in [all] three humours are certain to disappearFor this purpose the two Aśvins [who were] the best of physicianstaught people how to cure disorders of the three humours simplyby prāṇāyāma Therefore Gārgī you should always do this practiceWhile abiding by the [other auxiliaries of Yoga] such as the generalobservances (yama) practise concentration according to the [above]rules86

It is possible that some yogins were seen as physicians who attempted to healpeoplersquos diseases by combining Yoga techniques with a basic understanding of

86 Yogayājntildeavalkya 832ndash40ab (edition 78ndash9) अिथ वद योिगनो िवराः िभष-वरा वरारोह योगष पिरिनिताः शरीर तावदव त प-भताक ख तदत वरारोह वातिपकफाकमवाताकाना सवषा योगिभरतानाम ाणसयमन-नव शोष याित कलवरम िपाकाना िचरा श-ित कलवरम कफाकाना काय सण िचरा-वत धारण कव तौ सव नयि वातजाः पा-थवाश जलाश च धारण कव तः सदा नयि -

जा रोगा वातजाािचराथा ोमाश माताश चधारण कव तः सदा िऽदोषजिनता रोगा िवनयि नसशयः अिथ जथातामिनौ च िभषवरौ ा-णसयमननव िऽदोषशमन नणाम ता च वरारोहिन कम समाचर यमािदिभ सया िविधवारणक Yogayājntildeavalkya 833ndash35 are quoted inthe Yogasārasaṅgraha 33ndash34 and attributedto the Yogasāramantildejarī

humoral theory and disease If these yogins remained outside the professionof Ayurveda they may have rivalled Ayurvedic physicians (vaidya) in treatingpeople Moreover such rivalry was probably inevitable because of the claimsthat Yoga cures every disease and results in immortality87 Such claims musthave rendered Ayurveda and rasāyana largely superfluous to those yogins whobelieved them In light of the curative powers of Yoga it is no surprise that twotexts of the early corpus present the guru as a physician whose healing capabil-ities extended to curing transmigration (saṃsāra) One of these the Amṛtasiddhibegins with the verse

Salutations to the guru the physician who cures the ignorance ofthose who are asleep because of the poison [of Saṃsāra] by meansof the flow of nectar in the form of knowledge88

The above verse bears some resemblance to the opening one of VāgbhaṭarsquosAṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā which pays homage to the physician who can cure alldiseases including the passions that give rise to delusion89 Therefore anyrivalry between gurus of Yoga and physicians in healing mundane diseasesappears to have extended to curing the obstacles to liberation It would seemthat premodern Yoga and Ayurveda were distinguished not so much by themaladies they attempted to cure but by the methods with which the cure waseffected

vital points (marman)The Early Corpus

The seventh chapter of the Yogayājntildeavalkya describes two methods of sensorywithdrawal (pratyāhāra) which incorporate vital points90 The first is taken ver-

87 Such rivalry is also evinced in the Amar-aughaprabodha which questions the claimsof vaidyas and asserts that samādhi cures alldiseases See footnote 14188 Amṛtasiddhi 12 अान िवषिनिाणा ानपी-यषधारया िनहत यन वन त ौीगरव नमः CfYogatārāvalī 1 in which the guru is likenedto a toxicologist who can cure the poison ofSaṃsāra For a translation of this verse seeBirch 2015 4 n 289 Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā Sū11 ldquoSaluta-tions to the extraordinary physicianwhohas

cured all diseases such as passion whichare innate spread throughout the wholebody and give rise to desire delusion andrestlessnessrdquo (रागािदरोगाततानषानशषकाय-सतान अशषान औमोहारितदा जघान योऽपव -वाय नमोऽ त) There is evidence thatthe ldquoextraordinary physicianrdquo here shouldbe understood to be the Buddha (HIML 1A604ndash6)90 A translation of this practice in the Yoga-yājntildeavalkya is found in Birch andHargreaves2015 23

jason birch 25

batim from the Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitā91 which probably borrowed it from the Vimānār-canākalpa a Vaikhānasa text that could date to the ninth century92 All threetexts contain the same list of eighteen vital points (marman) enumerated belowand the samemeasurements in finger-breadths (aṅgula) of the distances betweeneach of these points Themethod is very simple and is described in a single verse

[The yogin] should make the breath go into these points and hold[it in each one] by means of the mind By moving [the breath] frompoint to point he performs pratyāhāra93

Comparing the eighteen vital points of the Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitā et al with those ofearlier Ayurvedic works does not yield a positive result The Suśrutasamḥitā(Śā6) and the Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā (Śā4) describe one hundred and sevenvital points but as seen in Table 2 only half correspond with the Yogic ones interms of location94 The main problem in determining further correspondencesis that the locations of the vital points in theVasiṣṭhasaṃhitā et al are less specificthan the more detailed descriptions of vital points in the Ayurvedic texts Forexample the Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitā et al simply mention the big toes (pādāṅguṣṭha)but the closest point in Ayurveda is called kṣipra which is situated between thefirst and second toe of each foot95 In the case of the neck the Yogic sourcesrefer to the pit of the throat (kaṇṭhakūpa) but Suśruta mentions four vital pointscalled dhamanī on either side of the trachea (kaṇṭhanāḍī) and eight called mātṛkāon either side of the neck96 If one takes these differences into account then

91 Yogayājntildeavalkya 71ndash21ab = Vasiṣṭha-saṃhitā 357ndash74 The apparent discrepancyin the number of verses is caused by thenumbering in the edition of the Vasiṣṭha-saṃhitā which in this section has severalverses with six pādas92 Geacuterard Colas considers the Vimānār-canākalpa to be one of the earliest texts ofthe Vaikhānasa Saṃhitā corpus which hedates between the 9th and 13thndash14th cen-turies (Colas 2012 158) There is no firmterminus a quo for the Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitā al-though the editors of the text argue for apost-12th century date based on the ab-sence of citations in earlier works in whichthey expected to find it The Vasiṣṭha-saṃhitārsquos terminus ad quem is the Yogayājntildea-valkya which predates the Haṭhapradīpikā(15th century) Therefore one might tent-atively date the Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitā between the12th-13th centuries and thus it is possible

that the Vimānārcanākalpa is older than theVasiṣṭhasaṃhitā and a source text for it93 Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitā 374 = Yogayājntildeaval-kya 720cdndash21cd (edition 76) ानतष म-नसा वायमारो धारयत ७२०ानाानामा-क ाहार कव तः94 The Carakasaṃhitā Śā714 mentionsthat there are one hundred and sevenvital points but does not enumerate themThe entire chapter on marmans in theAṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā has been translatedand discussed in Dominik Wujastyk2003a 201 f 236ndash4495 Suśrutasaṃhitā Śā624 (पादाा-ोम ि)96 Suśrutasaṃhitā Śā627 (तऽ कठनाडीम-भयततॐो धमो नील च म ासन[hellip] मीवायामभयततॐः िसरा मातकाः) In 66 itstates that there are four dhamanī and eightmātṛkā ([hellip] चतॐो धमोऽौ मातका [hellip])

only nine of the vital points in the Suśrutasaṃhitā and Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā haveidentical locations to those in the Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitā et al

The most telling evidence that the vital points of the Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitā et alwere not derived from Ayurvedic sources is that they do not adopt the specialnames of Ayurvedic points like indravasti or sthapanī If Ayurveda were the in-spiration behind Yogic points one must wonder why only eighteen of the onehundred and seven known to Ayurvedic doctors were included There is noqualifying statement that these eighteen Yogic points are more important thanthe others in Ayurveda Furthermore the Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitā et al omit much ofthe sophisticated details of the vital points in Ayurvedic texts For example theSuśrutasamḥitā provides the measurements of the width of each point most arehalf a finger breadth but others are up to four finger breadths97 Also the Ayur-vedic texts divide the vital points into groups depending on their relation to thebodyrsquos anatomy For example the Suśrutasaṃhitā divides its vital points intofive groups points in the flesh (māṃsamarman) the blood vessels (sirāmarman)the sinews (snāyumarman) the bones (asthimarman) and the joints (sandhimar-man)98 One would expect some of this information to have found its way intothe Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitā et al had their authors consulted Ayurvedic works

In light of the above discrepancies between the Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitā et al andAyurvedic sources and given the contents of the former derive from tantricand ascetic traditions it is more likely that the list of vital points in theVasiṣṭhasaṃhitā et al derives from such traditions rather than an Ayurvedicone The ascetic background is attested by the fact that this practice is foundin the Vimānārcanākalpa which was written by the Vaikhānasas a communityof hermits who performed the domestic rites of the Vaikhānasa Vedic school99Other possible sources include earlier Tantric traditions which taught methodsof concentration (dhāraṇā) and meditation (dhyāna) that required a practitionerto hold the breath or mind on points in the body which are sometimes calledsupports (ādhāra) The eleventh-century Kashmiri exegete Kṣemarāja providedtwo lists of supports in his commentary (uddyota) on the Netratantra (71) in asection on meditation on the subtle body (sūkṣmadhyāna) which is the secondof three methods for cheating death As seen in Table 2 twelve of the supportsin the first list are almost identical with vital points in the Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitā etal100 A similar list of bodily locations is given for the practice of concentration

97 Suśrutasaṃhitā Śā628ndash2998 Suśrutasaṃhitā Śā6499 Colas 2012 158100 Kṣemarāja introduces the second listby stating that it is a Kaula practice (ku-

laprakriyā) In a subsequent comment (Net-ratantra 716) he distinguishes a medita-tion on the subtle body (sūkṣmadhyāna)which utilizes the supports (ādhāra) taughtin the Kaula practice from a meditation on

jason birch 27

(dhāraṇā) in the chapter on Yoga in the Śāradātilakatantra (2523ndash25) which wasprobably composed in Orissa in the twelfth-century This list appears to bederived from a similar one in the Prapantildecasāratantra another Orissan work thathas been dated to the same century101

A Yoga text which is unlikely to predate the Vimānārcanākalpa and Vasiṣṭha-saṃhitā but is nonetheless important to consider here is the Kṣurikopaniṣat a so-called Yoga Upaniṣad that was written before the fourteenth century because itis cited in Śaṅkarānandarsquos Ātmapurāṇa102 It describes a practice of sensory with-drawal (pratyāhāra) in which ten bodily locations are mentioned103 The tech-nique resembles that of the Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitā et al in so far as the yogin is instruc-ted to focus the mind and hold the breath on ten bodily locations which corres-pond to ten of the eighteen vital points in the Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitā et al However theKṣurikopaniṣat does not call these locations either vital points (marman) or sup-ports (ādhāra) and its practice of sensory withdrawal goes no higher than thethroat104

Various premodern Yoga texts contain references to the sixteen supports(ādhāra)105 Table 2 includes those of the sixteenth-century Śivayogapradīpikā(317ndash32) whose passage on meditation on the supports was quoted in theYogacintāmaṇi (pp 112ndash14) andwas the basis for further descriptions in the morerecent Siddhasiddhāntapaddhati (211ndash25) Yogataraṅgiṇī (13) and RāmacandrarsquosTattvabinduyoga (ff 13vndash15v)

the subtle body with supports taught forTantric practice ([hellip] कौिलकिबयोाधारािदभ-दन सानमालयिबमण तिबयोाधा-रािदभदन [hellip] सान वमपबमत) This sug-gests that the first list (included in Table 2)is from a Tantric tradition101 Sanderson 2007 230ndash33102 Bouy 1994 31 n 118103 Kṣurikopaniṣat 6ndash11ab104 The Kṣurikopaniṣat 11cdndash20 also de-scribes concentration (dhāraṇā) on three vi-tal points (marman) and various channels(nāḍī) The locations of the three vitalpoints are somewhat obscure the excep-tion being one in the middle of the shank(jaṅghā) the cutting of which is called In-dravajra It is possible that this name wasinspired by the name of the Ayurvedic vi-tal point Indravasti which is also located in

the middle of the shank However beyondthis there is no evidence to suggest that theKṣurikopaniṣat was inspired by Ayurvedictheory or praxis105 For example Haṭhapradīpikā 372Gheraṇḍasaṃhitā 312 Yogacūḍāmaṇy-upaniṣat 3106 The points inserted in square brack-ets are from the Prapantildecasāratantra whichwas the source for the list in the Śāradā-tilakatantra The verse in the Śāradātilaka-tantra is very similar to two verses on thesixteen supports quoted without attributionby Brahmānanda in his commentary (iethe Jyotsnā) on Haṭhapradīpikā 373 (अ-गजानसीवनीिलनाभयः ीवा कठदश ल-िका नािसका तथा म च ललाट च मधा च -रकम एत िह षोडशाधाराः किथता योिगपवः)

YogayājntildeavalkyaVasiṣṭhasaṃhitā ampVimānārcanākalpa(marman)

Suśruta-saṃhitāampAṣṭāṅga-hṛdaya(Śārīra-sthāna)(marman)

Netroddyota(ādhāra)

Śāradā-tilaka106

Śivayoga-pradīpikā(ādhāra)

Kṣurikopa-niṣat

1 Big Toes (pādāṅguṣṭha) anguṣṭha aṅguṣṭha padāṅguṣṭha aṅguṣṭha2 Ankles (gulpha) gulpha gulpha gulpha gulpha3 Middle of the Shanks

(jaṅghāmadhya)indravasti jaṅghā

4 Base of the [Tibial]mass (citimūla)

5 Middle of the Knees(jānumadhya)

jānu jānu jānu jānu

6 Middle of the Thighs(ūrumadhya)

urvī ūru ūru

7 Root of the Anus(pāyumūla)

guda pāyu [guda] guda107 guda

8 Middle of the body(dehamadhya)

9 Penis (meḍhra) meḍhra liṅga[meḍhra]

meḍhra śiśna

10 Navel (nābhi) nābhi jaṭhara nābhi nābhi nābhi11 Heart (hṛdaya) hṛdaya hṛd hṛdaya hṛd hṛdaya12 Pit of the throat

(kaṇṭhakūpa)kaṇṭha kaṇṭha kaṇṭha kaṇtha

13 Root of the Palate(tālumūla)

tālu tālumūla

14 Base of the Nose(nāsāmūla)

nasi [nāsā] ghrāṇamūla108

15 Eyeballs (akṣimaṇḍala) netra16 Middle of the Brow

(bhrūmadhya)sthapanī bhrūmadhya bhrūmadhya bhruva

17 Forehead (lalāṭa) lalāṭa [lalāṭāgra] lalāṭa18 [Crown of] the Head

(mūrdhan)adhipati brahma-

randhramūrdhan

Table 2 Comparison of Lists of Vital Points

107 I have adopted the reading gudād-hāraṃ from the edition of the Yogacintā-maṇi (p 112) rather than the edition of theŚivayogapradīpikā which has tathādhāraṃ

108 The reading ghrāṇamūlaṃ is from theYogacintāmaṇi (p 113) The edition of theŚivayogapradīpikā has prāṇamūlaṃ

jason birch 29

The vital points of the Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitā et al correspond to as many if not moreof the supports in Tantric and Yogic sources than to the vital points of AyurvedaThere are certain points such as the abdomen (nābhi) heart (hṛdaya) middleof the brows (bhrūmadhya) and crown of the head (mūrdhan) which are prob-ably universal to south-Asian conceptions of the human body Other points suchas the big toes (padāṅguṣṭha) penis (meḍhra) throat (kaṇṭha) palate (tālu) andforehead (lalāṭa) are prominent in the bodily conceptions and practices of Yogatraditions However there are two points that distinguish the list of the Vasiṣṭha-saṃhitā et al the base of the tibial mass (citimūla)109 and the middle of the body(dehamadhya) which are shown in red in Table 2110 The absence of these points

109 According to Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitā 366cdndash67ab the citimūla is located eleven fingerbreadths from the middle of the shank andonly two and a half finger breadths fromthe knee (जमाितम ल यदकादशालम िच-ितमलान मिनौ जान साधा लयम) Yogayājntildea-valkya 713 is almost the same except fora slight variation in the fourth pāda whichcould be a corruption (जानः ादिलयम)The Vimānārcanākalpa provides measure-ments between the points but the text is cor-rupt because it omits the knee thigh andanus which yields the implausible state-ment that the citimūla is three and half fin-ger breadths from the middle of the bodyततो दशाल जाम ततो दशाल िचितमल तदधा -िधक ल दहम [hellip]िचितमल] corr िचिदमल Ed) Therefore thereadings of theVasiṣṭhasaṃhitā and theYoga-yājntildeavalkya are more reliable According tothem citimūla is on the upper shank butthis does not indicate whether it is the an-terior or posterior side I am yet to find theterm citimūla in the context of the bodyrsquosanatomy in another Sanskrit work with theexception of a verse in the Gheraṇḍasaṃ-hitā 214ndash15 ldquoThe two ankles are crossedand upturned beneath the scrotum bothcitimūla are on the ground and the handsare on the knees With mouth open and theJalandhara [lock in place the yogin] shouldlook at the tip of the nose This is the lionrsquospose the destroyer of all diseasesrdquo (गौ चवषणाधो मणोता गतौ िचितमलौ भिमसौ

करौ च जाननोपिर ावो जलरण नासाममव-लोकयत सहासन भवदतवािधिवनाशकम) InSiṃhāsana the ankles are crossed thus rais-ing the shank of one leg from the ground Ifcitimūla is below the knee it must be the up-per anterior part of both shanks that touchthe ground Seeing that the term citi canmean a ldquomassrdquo or perhaps in this case abony protrusion on the upper shank it ispossible that citimūla refers to the anteriorregion of the upper shank known in mod-ern anatomy as the tibial tuberosity110 Both the Yogayājntildeavalkya (715) andthe Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitā (368cdndash69ab) locate themiddle of the body (dehamadhya) as twoand a half finger breadths from the anusand two and a half finger breadths fromthe penis (दहम तथा पायोम लादध लयम द-हमाथा मह ताधा लयम) This meas-urement is missing in the VimānārcanākalpaThis point is distinct from the navel whichis generally said to be the middle of thebody in other Sanskrit works eg Sarva-jntildeānottaratantra 3010 (तऽ शरीरम नािभः)The same precise location of the middleof the body in the Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitā et al isfound in other Sanskrit works such as Ahir-budhnyasaṃhitā 325 (ौयता पायदशा ला-रतः परम महदशादधा ला उत)and Sureśvarācāryarsquos Mānasollāsa 512 (दह- मम ान मलाधार इतीय त गदा लामहा लादधः) The middle of the body isincluded as a vital point in somemore recent

in Ayurvedic and Tantric literature suggests that they derive from an undocu-mented tradition perhaps of ascetic or even martial origin111

The Late CorpusThe most extensive account of vital points (marman) in the context of Yogaoccurs in one of the texts of the late corpus The Yuktabhavadeva by theseventeenth-century Bhavadevamiśra is a digest (nibandha) that integratedteachings of Rāja and Haṭhayoga with those of the Pātantildejalayogaśāstra andvarious Upaniṣads Purāṇas Tantras Dharmaśāstras and the Epics Apart fromthe fact that Bhavadeva cited a wide range of Sanskrit works the breadth of hislearning is attested by the commentaries attributed to him on various śāstras112

The third chapter of the Yuktabhavadeva begins by stating that the preserva-tion of the body is useful for Yoga and that what belongs to the body (śārīra) isfor the sake of cultivating detachment (vairāgya) and attaining knowledge of cre-ation (sṛṣṭi) and so on113 A general discussion on the body ensues drawing onĪśvarakṛṣṇarsquos Sāṅkhyakārikā114 SureśvarācāryarsquosMānasollāsa115 theMahābhāratarsquosMokṣadharma the Vaiśeṣikasūtra116 the Yājntildeavalkyasmṛti and Yāskarsquos Nirukta117Having quoted a passage from the Yājntildeavalkyasmṛti which describes the variousprocesses that give rise to a foetus (garbha) in eight months Bhavadeva quotes

works For example the Praṇavacintāmaṇi(quoted with attribution in the Yogasārasaṅ-graha p 32) has a slightly shorter list thatprobably derives from theVasiṣṭhasaṃhitā etal (ममानािन सवा िण शरीर योगमोयोः वहतािन सवा िण यथा िवायत तथा पादागौ च गौ चमचोयच पाय िगिरज पादह म-हकम नािभ दयचव कठकपमनमम तामल चनासायाः मलमो मडल वोम ललाट च मधा सव सराचत नासायाः] corr नासाया ed)111 I am also aware that not all Ayurvedicvital points are mentioned in the main listsof the Suśrutasaṃhitā and theAṣṭāṅgahṛdayaIn fact both Caraka and Suśruta alludeto others when discussing certain diseases(Das 2003 568) For information on the useof marman points in martial traditions seeZarrilli 1998112 Bibliographic information in colophonsindicates that Bhavadevamiśra authoredcommentaries on the Pātantildejalayogaśāstra(NCC 16 172) the Brahmasūtra (NCC 1512) the Kāvyaprakāśa (NCC 4 98) and theVājasaneyīsaṃhitā (NCC 28 60) as well as

a work on Dharmaśāstra called the Dān-adharmaprakriyā (NCC 9 6) and another onwhat appears to be Vaiśeṣika philosophythe Vaiśeṣikaratnamālā (NCC 32 64)113 Yuktabhavadeva 31 (अथ योगोपयोिगशरी-ररा ndash वरायसािदानाथ शारीरमत [hellip])114 Yuktabhavadeva 38ndash9 (त सा[hellip]) Verses 40 and 42 of ĪśvarakṛṣṇarsquosSāṅkhyakārikā are quoted115 At Yuktabhavadeva 314ndash18 Mānasol-lāsa 327ndash31 is quoted This is the only ref-erence I have found to the kośas in a premod-ern yoga text and it is based on informationfrom an Advaitavedānta text116 At Yuktabhavadeva 330 33ndash37 Mahā-bhārata 122471ab 3ndash8 is quoted At Yukta-bhavadeva 332 a portion of Vaiśeṣika-sūtra 114 is quoted117 At Yuktabhavadeva 338 46ndash50 52ndash53(तऽ यावः [hellip]) Yājntildeavalkyasmṛti 37176 80ndash83 79 are quoted and at Yukta-bhavadeva 339ndash44 sections of YāskarsquosNirukta 146 are quoted

jason birch 31

a verse on the bodyrsquos vital fluid (ojas) from a source that he designates only asldquotraditionrdquo (smṛti) It so happens that this verse is from the Carakasaṃhitā whichis the first clear proof in the third chapter that the author had consulted an Ayur-vedic work118

After describing the characteristics of the bodies of various species begin-ning with snakes Bhavadeva commences his detailed discussion of the humanbodyrsquos anatomy The basis of his knowledge on this is the Suśrutasaṃhitā asdemonstrated by the fact that his very first comment which is on the six sec-tions (ṣaḍaṅga) and the subsections (pratyaṅga) of the body is almost identicalto that of Suśrutarsquos The following comparison demonstrates the way in whichBhavadeva redacts sections of the Suśrutasaṃhitā omitting much detail but cov-ering the salient points of Suśrutarsquos discourse119

Yuktabhavadeva 359ndash63 Suśrutasaṃhitā Śā53ndash6 8 10ndash12

त शरीर षडम शाखाश चतॐः मम प-म ष च िशर इित ५९

[hellip] त षड ndash शाखाश चतॐो म पम षिशर इित ३

अतः ािन मकोदरपनािभलला-टनासािचबकबिमीवा एककाः कणन-ऽोगडकानवषणपा िजानबा-भतयो एव चः कला धातवो मलादोषा यकीहानौ फफसोडकौ दयमाशयाःअािण वौ ॐोतािस कडरा जालािन कचा रवः सीवः साताः सीमा अीिन सयःायवः प यो िसरा धमो ममा िण चित ६०

अतः पर ािन व ndash मकोदरपनािभ-ललाटनासािचबकबिमीवा इता एककाः क-ण नऽशासगडकनवषणपा िग- जा-नबाभतयो वशितरलयः ॐोतािस व-माणािन एष िवभाग उः ४ तपनः सान ndash चः कला धातवो मला दोषा यक-ीहानौ फस उडको दयमाशया अािण व-ौ ॐोतािस कडरा जालािन कचा रवः सवःसाताः सीमा अीिन सयः ायवः प योममा िण िसरा धमो योगवहािन ॐोतािस च ५

तऽ चः स कलाः सआशयाः स धा-तवः स ऽयो मलाः ऽयो दोषाः यकदा-ककम उम

चः स कलाः स आशयाः स धातवः स- स िसराशतािन प पशीशतािन नव ाय-शतािन ऽीयिशतािन दशोर सिधशत स-ोर मम शत चतर-वशितध मः ऽयो दोषाःऽयो मलाः नव ॐोतािस [hellip] चित समासः ६

118 Yuktabhavadeva 351 (which is in-troduced with ओजःप ो र) =Carakasaṃhitā Sū1774

119 The colour red indicates an exact paral-lel and blue indicates a parallel with slightdeviations

आशयाः स वाताशयिपाशयाशय- र-ाशयामाशयपाशयमऽाशयभ दात ीणा ग-भा शयोऽमः ६१

[hellip]आशयास त ndash वाताशयः िपाशयः ा-शयो राशय आमाशयः पाशयो मऽाशयःीणा गभा शयोऽम इित ८

ौवणनयनयाणोदरमहािण नव ॐोतािस नराणाऽीय अपरायिप नयोरक रसवहम

[hellip] ौवणनयनवदनयाणगदमहािण नव ॐोतािसनराणा बिहम खािन एताव ीणाम अपरािण चऽीिण नयोरधािवह च १०

षोडश कडराः हपादमीवापष क चत-ॐः ६२ तऽ हपादकडराणा नखा अम-रोहाः मीवाकडराणा मह पकडराणा िनत-ः

षोडश कडराः ndash तासा चतॐः पाद-योः तावो हमीवापष तऽ ह-पादगताना कडराणा नखा अमरोहाःमीवादयिनबिनीनामधोभागगताना महौोिणपिनबिनीनाम अधोभागगताना िबमधवोऽसिपडादीना च ११

जालािन षोडश मासिसराािष क च-ािर तािन मिणबगसिौतािन ६३

मासिसराािजालािन क चािर च-ािरतािन मिणबगसिौतािन पररनोब-ािन पररसिािन पररगवाितािन चितयग वाितिमद शरीरम १२

Bhavadeva presents a reasonably accurate synopsis of Suśrutarsquos anatomy al-though not all of his attempts at truncation are successful120 He covers most ofSuśrutarsquos fifth chapter in the Śārīrasthāna on the enumeration of the bodyrsquos con-tents (śarīrasaṅkhyā) the seventh chapter on the seven hundred ducts (sirā) in

120 For example Suśrutasaṃhitā Śā510enumerates nine apertures (srotas) in thehuman body and states that there arethree additional ones for women two onthe breasts and one below (ie the va-gina) that emits blood Bhavadevarsquos listof nine apertures in Yuktabhavadeva 362appears to be defective The omissionof the mouth (vadana) and subsitution ofthe stomach (udara) for the anus (guda)may be textual corruptions Althoughthe apparatus of the Lonavla Yoga Insti-tutersquos edition (Yuktabhavadeva 65) indic-ates that all four manuscripts upon which

it was based support this reading it ispossible that a scribe omitted accident-ally the word vadana and the change of-ghrāṇagudameḍhrāṇi to -ghrāṇodarameḍhrāṇimay have emanated from some initial trans-position of ligatures (ie ṇaguda rarr ṇad-agu rarr ṇodara) Nonetheless Bhavadevarsquosdeliberate attempt to simplify this passageby omitting the mention of women and at-tributing the three aditional apertures tomen the third one conveying nutrient fluid(rasa) rather than blood is a rather clumsyredaction

jason birch 33

the body and the ninth chapter on the twenty-four tubes (dhamanī) before be-ginning with the vital points which are based on the sixth chapter The textualparallels are unmistakable although Bhavadevarsquos tacit borrowing of Suśrutarsquosvital points is a more intricate work of bricolage than his earlier passages on ana-tomy This is demonstrated by the example in Table 3

Yuktabhavadeva 398ndash100 Suśrutasaṃhitā Corres-ponding passages in theŚārīrasthāna

[hellip] तऽ सःाणहरायायािन ९८ = 616अिगणाश ीणष पयि asymp 616तािन च कठधमिनमातकााटकापाफिणकान-मलनरोिहत

(an interpolation)

अिधपितशगददयबिनािभममा िण asymp 69कालाराणहरािण सौायािन ९९ = 616अिगणाश ीणष बमण सोमगणष कालारण पय-ि तािन च ndash

वोममा िण सीमालािमहबयः ६१०द asymp 610cdकटीकतण सिपा जो बहतीयमिनतािवित चतािनकालारहरािण त १००

Table 4 Comparison of parallel passages in the Yuktabhava-deva and Suśrutasaṃhitā

Throughout the Yuktabhavadeva Bhavadeva quotes his sources with attribu-tion and uses his own commentary to bind the quotations together in a narra-tive It is therefore rather peculiar that he redacted so much of Suśrutarsquos ana-tomy without explicitly acknowledging his source In fact later in the chapterBhavadeva does attribute a quotation to Suśruta which proves beyond doubtthat he was using the Suśrutasaṃhitā and not an intermediary source Howeverthe irony here is that he cites Suśruta not on the topic of anatomy but on theactivities that pregnant women should avoid121 On the one hand this mightsuggest that he was not as eager to flaunt his use of Ayurvedic texts as he wasother Brahmanical and Yogic sources His use of Ayurvedic sources may have

121 Yuktabhavadeva 3129ndash130 (= Suśruta- saṃhitā Śā316 and 13)

demonstrated the breadth of his erudition but he was not compelled it seemsto cite them as authorities in a compilation on Brahmanical Yoga However onthe other hand it may also be the case that Bhavadeva assumed that his audi-ence would know the source of this anatomical information seeing that the topicwas specific to Ayurveda and his borrowing so extensive The truth of this pro-position would depend on how widely known the Suśrutasaṃhitā was amongeducated Brahmins of Maithilā in the seventeenth century

It should also be noted that Bhavadevarsquos own commentary on Suśrutarsquos ana-tomy is conspicuously sparse Nonetheless he anticipated the question of howthis material might relate to Yoga Apart from his introductory remarks at thebeginning of the chapter122 he states close to the beginning of the section onvital points that yogins should restrain their bodily winds (ie prāṇa etc) ineach point123 Be this as it may the level of detail on anatomy provided byBhavadeva seems unnecessary for a yogin Unlike the Suśrutasaṃhitā which con-tains detailed anatomy for surgical procedures124 Bhavadeva does not integratedetailed anatomy in the Yuktabhavadevarsquos chapters on Yoga praxis This is partic-ularly notable in the chapter on pratyāhāra because Bhavadeva was aware of theYogayājntildeavalkyarsquos technique of sensory withdrawal involving the vital points125Rather than refer to Suśrutarsquos vital points or the earlier chapter on anatomy in theYuktabhavadeva Bhavadeva quotes the Yogayājntildeavalkyarsquos verses on the vital pointswhich as demonstrated above are only superficially related to Ayurveda

Therefore Bhavadeva juxtaposed knowledge of Ayurveda and Yoga some-what awkwardly in the Yuktabhavadeva Indeed his inclusion of Ayurvedic ma-terial in a literary digest on Yoga (yoganibandha) reveals more about his audiencethan his practical knowledge of these subjects It appears that he was writing fora learned audience who could appreciate a synthesis of scholarly Brahmanicalworks with the praxis-orientated literature of Haṭha- and Rājayoga

122 See footnote 113123 Yuktabhavadeva 397 Bhavadevamakes the inital statement which is foundin the Suśrutasaṃhitā 615 ldquoBecause [thevital points] are conjunctions of flesh ductsligaments bones and joints the bodilywinds in particular converge naturallyin themrdquo (मासिसराािसिसिपातः तष भावत एव िवशषण ाणािि) He thencomments ldquoTherefore yogins shouldrestrain their [bodily winds] in these[points]rdquo (ताोिगिभष त िनयाः)124 This is stated explicitly by Suśruta (Su-śrutasaṃhitā Śā633) in the chapter that

deals with vital points ldquo[The experts] teachthat the vital points are half the science ofsurgery because those harmed in regard tothe vital points die instantlyrdquo (ममा िण शिव-षयाध मदाहरि या ममस हता न भवि सः)In addition to naming and locating the vitalpoints in the body Suśruta outlines the vari-ous consequences of harming each one (eginstant death severe pain trembling etc)and the dimensions of each point This in-formation would be essential for a surgeonwhomight kill a patient by damaging a vitalpoint125 Yuktabhavadeva 817ndash40

jason birch 35

herbsIn addition to vital points the Yuktabhavadeva contains a chapter on herbal pre-parations (kalpa) The use of herbs is mentioned in only a few texts of both theearly and late corpuses In the early corpus there is a substantial passage onherbal recipes and their effects in the Khecarīvidyā and though this passage mayhave been added to the Khecarīvidyā sometime after the first three chapters of thetext were composed126 it is likely to predate the Yuktabhavadeva Similar recipesto some of those in the Khecarīvidyā are found in the eighteenth-century Jogapra-dīpyakā and a nineteenth-century unnamed compilation on Yoga which will bediscussed below However these are the only significant sources for the use ofherbs in the Yoga corpus consulted for this article Therefore the role of herbsin these Yoga texts is marginal at most Most of the works do not mention herbsand those and those that do mention them only in passing without details ofrecipes and their specific benefits for yogins

Moreover even in those texts which describe herbal preparations such as theKhecarīvidyā and the Yuktabhavadeva the information on herbs appears to be un-connected to the system of Yoga practice taught in the same texts This suggeststhat the use of herbs was at most an inessential supplement for some yoginsIn fact even as Haṭhayoga became more sophisticated after the fifteenth centurywith the integration of more elaborate techniques metaphysics and doctrinesthe Jogapradīpyakā is the only text among those consulted for this paper that ex-plains how the practice of Yoga might be combined with taking medicinal herbsfor a period of time

The emphasis on attaining liberation in premodern systems of Yoga maypartly explain the paucity of information on herbs because the use of herbs ismainly advocated for the attainment of siddhis A striking example of this occursin the Yogabīja which includes some general remarks on siddhis It distinguishestwo types of siddhis the effected (kalpita) and spontaneous (akalpita) Those thatare effected are accomplished by means of mercury herbs rites auspicious mo-

126 Mallinson (2007a 13) notes that thischapter was added to the text at a later timeTherefore it may not predate the Haṭhapra-dīpikā because the only evidence for its ter-

minus ad quem is the year of the Khecarī-vidyārsquos oldest dated manuscript which is1683 ce (Mallinson 2007a 47)

ments127 mantras the body128 and so forth129 These methods for attaining sid-dhis are attested in earlier Tantras130 Also the Pātantildejalayogaśāstra affirms at leasttwo of these methods in attributing siddhis to births herbs mantras asceticismand samādhi131 Patantildejalirsquos commentary (bhāṣya) clarifies the reference to herbs inthis sūtra by indicating that a potion (rasāyana) is to be understood132 ŚaṅkararsquosVivaraṇa glosses rasāyanena as ldquoby eating soma āmalaka and so onrdquo133 Both thesesubstances are mentioned in the rasāyana sections of classical Ayurvedic texts134Bhojadeva mentions mercury (pārada) as an ingredient of this potion Mercuryappeared in medical works that date from the seventh century onwards135 Pat-antildejalirsquos statement is largely corroborated by a verse in the Bhāgavatapurāṇa thatemphasizes the power of Yoga by claiming that one attains all the siddhis that

127 It is possible that kriyākāla should beread as a compound in which case it couldbe understood as ldquothe auspicious time ofa riterdquo This compound is used severaltimes in the Brahmayāmala (eg paṭala 96)with this meaning (personal communica-tion from Shaman Hatley 31122015) Itis also used in classical Ayurveda whereit refers to the opportune times for initiat-ing treatment six of which are describedin the Suśrutasaṃhitā (Meulenbeld 2011 38)However it is highly unlikely that thismeaning which is peculiar to Ayurvedawas intended here128 The term kṣetra canmean the ldquobodyrdquo asseen for example in the compound kṣetra-jntildea (lsquoknowing the bodyrsquo) which occursin the Yogabīja 135 This meaning wouldmake sense in the context of Haṭhayoga inwhich physical techniques give rise to sid-dhis However kṣetra can also mean a sacredplace and it is not inconceivable that a sac-red placemight give rise to siddhis althoughI am yet to find any evidence for this and inthe context of Yoga it seems less likely129 Yogabīja 154cdndash155 (ििवधाः िसयो लोककिताकिताः िशव रसौषिधिबयाकालमऽािद-साधनात िसि िसयो याकितााः कीत-ताः155a रसौ-] MS Jodhpur RORI 16329 वनौ-Ed)130 For different substances includingherbs that cause siddhis see Hatley

2018 74ndash5 n 131 Also see Kṣemarājarsquoscommentary introducing the Sva-cchandatantra 10825 as well as Mat-syendrasaṃhitā 281 For references invarious Tantras on the proverb that statesthat the power of herbs is inconceivable seeDominic Goodall 1998 273 n 340131 Pātantildejalayogaśāstra 41132 Pātantildejalayogaśāstra 41 ldquoBy herbs is[meant] such things as a potion [served] inthe homes of the Asurasrdquo (ओषिधिभरसरभवनष रसायननवमािदः) On the meaning of asura-bhavana see Dominik Wujastyk 2014133 Vivaraṇa p 318 सोमामलकािदभणन Fora more detailed discussion of Pātantildejalayoga-śāstra 41 and the commentaries see Maas2017134 Soma is included as a divine drug(divyauṣadhi) in the rasāyana section ofthe Carakasaṃhitā and the Suśrutasaṃhitā(see Dagmar Wujastyk 2015 58 62ndash63)On Emblic myrobalan Dagmar Wu-jastyk (2015 57 f) observes ldquoThe emblicmyrobalan or Indian gooseberry (Sktāmalaka Hindi āmlā) seems to be the mostimportant ingredient in Carakarsquos manyrasāyana recipes followed by the othermyrobalans ndash the chebulic and bellericmyrobalansrdquo135 The firstmention ofmercury in rasāyanais in the seventh-century Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃ-hitā (Dagmar Wujastyk 2015 104)

jason birch 37

arise from births herbs asceticism and mantras through the practice of Yogaalone136

TheYogabīja goes on to say that spontaneous siddhis which are brought aboutbyYoga aremore powerful and last longer than those deliberately effected Non-etheless as is the case with other texts of the early corpus137 the importance ofsiddhis is overshadowed by the goal of liberation

However just as various sacred places pointing the way to Varanasiare seen by pilgrims traveling on the path so [various] siddhis [areseen by yogins on the path to] liberation138

Although the use of herbs is most often associated with siddhis in Yoga texts animportant exception is the Amaraughaprabodha for it states that there are some-times two types of Rājayoga herbal (auṣadha) and spiritual (adhyātmaka)139 Asfar as I am aware this is the only Yoga text containing the claim that one mightachieve samādhi by taking herbs140 Unfortunately the Amaraughaprabodha doesnot provide more information on the herbal preparations used by yogins Non-etheless a subsequent verse questions the efficacy of Ayurveda by asking howdiseases could be cured without samādhi

Those who are skilful in following [the teachings of] Caraka and aredesirous of hearing [those of] Suśruta have unsteady minds How

136 Bhāgavatapurāṇa 111534 जौषिधतपो-मया वतीिरह िसयः योगनाोित ताः सवा नाय-गगत ोजत This verse is quoted by Brahmā-nanda in his Jyotsnā 243137 For example Amanaska 175 ldquoThoseexceptional persons who desire to becomeabsorbed in the state of the supremeBrahma for them all the Siddhis becomethe cause of their ruinrdquo (गिमि यकिचरपद लयम भवि िसयः सवा षा िव-सकािरकाः) and Dattātreyayogaśāstra 101ldquoThese [Siddhis] are obstacles to the greatSiddhi (ie liberation) The wise personshould not delight in them and he shouldnever show his power to anyonerdquo (एतिवा महािसन रमष बिमान न दशय किचसाम िह सव दा)138 Yogabīja 160 edition p 42 यथा काश सम-िय गिः पिथकः पिथ नानातीथा िन य तथा

मो त िसयःमो त] emend मोष Ed)139 Amaraughaprabodha 5ab (औषधोऽा-कित राजयोगो िधा िचतऔषधो] MS Chennai ARL 70528 ओषोMSChennai ARL 75278 औषो Ed ऽाकश]Ed ापनश MSChennaiARL 70528 ऽिकMS Chennai ARL 75278 (unmetrical) रा-जयोगो] MS Chennai ARL 75278 Ed लय-योगोMS Chennai ARL 70528) As indicatedby MS Chennai ARL 70528 it is possiblethat this statement refers to Layayoga andnot Rājayoga Nonetheless even if Layayogais read the implication is that herbs can beused to dissolve the mind for the attainmentof a meditative state140 In the Amaraughaprabodha 4dRājayoga is a synonym for samādhi andis defined as ldquofree from mental activityrdquo(यिविरिहतः स त राजयोगः)

can all people be indestructible without the medicine of the no-mindstate141

The fourth chapter of the Khecarīvidyā has seventeen verses on herbal pre-parations that bring about siddhis The recipes include over a dozen herbs thenames of which are muṇḍī142 vārāhī guggulu triphalā aśvagandhā viśvasarpikākuṣṭha kunaṣṭi bhṛṅga āmalaka nirguṇḍī rudralocana and śālmaliniryāsa as well aselements such as gold mercury and sulphur Generally speaking these herbsare mixed with other foods like milk ghee sesame seeds sugar or honey Theresults (ie siddhi) are mundane benefits such as youthful looks (ie the lossof grey hair and wrinkles) freedom from disease greater strength and healthlongevity and freedom from old age and death Most of the ingredients canbe found in both the Carakasaṃhitā and the Suśrutasaṃhitā and those absent inthese two works occur in rasāyana texts143 Some of the Khecarīvidyārsquos recipes arenot unlike those of classical Ayurveda the main difference being that the latterprovide more details on the accompanying diet and regime For example thecompound based on the herb vārāhī is described in the Khecarīvidyā as follows

[If the yogin] should eat powdered bulb of vārāhī with ghee and un-refined cane-sugar [there arise] health and growth144

And in the Suśrutasaṃhitā Ci2711

Having made a powder of a [certain] weight of the vārāhī root oneshould drink a measure of it combined with honey and mixed with

141 Amaraughaprabodha 12 edition p 49चरकानचरणचतराटलिधयः सौतौवणलोलाः अ-मनौषिधव कथमिखलजगदय भवित चरका-नचरणचतराश] MS Chennai ARL 75278 Ed िचरकालचारलचरणा MS Chennai ARL 70528चटलिधयः] MS Chennai ARL 75278 Ed चरणिधयस MS Chennai ARL 70528 सौत-] MS Chennai ARL 75278 Ed सṁौत-MS Chennai ARL 70528 -वज] MS ChennaiARL 70528 वाhellipा Ed वाा MS Chen-nai ARL 75278 अिखलजगदयय] diagnosticconj Goodall अिखलगदय MS ChennaiARL70528 अिखलगदयोMSChennaiARL75278 अिखलत तयो Ed The edition ofMallik (1954a 48ndash71) is a transcription ofMS Chennai GOML D4339 which is nolonger available at the library In the metreof the second hemistich I am assuming

that kṣa can be read as a separate heavysyllable which constitutes the 6th foot Iwould like to thank those who attendedthe Haṭha Yoga Projectrsquos workshop at theEcole franccedilaise drsquoExtrecircme-Orient Pondich-erry (January 15ndash26 2018) for their com-ments on this verse and Viswanatha Guptaat the EFEO Pondicherry for his help withreading MSS MS Chennai ARL 75278 andMS Chennai ARL 70528142 This is referred to as bhikṣūttamāṅga-parikalpita in Khecarīvidyā 42143 The exceptions are viśvasarpikā and kun-aṣṭi144 Khecarīvidyā 44a edition p 111वाराहीकचण घतगडसिहत भयिवी (transMallinson 2007a 135)

jason birch 39

milk When it is digested [one should take] food such as milkclarified butter boiled rice and so on and [follow] the prohibitions(pratiṣedha) described earlier in this text One who takes this treat-ment lives for one hundred years and does not tire when [having sexwith] women145

The results of the Khecarīvidyārsquos recipes appear to be the standard clicheacutes thatare found in the works of Ayurveda and Rasaśāstra Therefore it is entirely con-ceivable that the Khecarīvidyārsquos recipes were taken or adapted from such worksalthoughmy research has yet to find textual parallels thatmight prove this Non-etheless two of the recipes appear to have been intended as treatments AsMallinson (2007a 240 n 466) has observed the grammar of the verses onmuṇḍīand vārāhī indicate that both recipes were to be administered to the yogin bysome unspecified person possibly a physician or guru

A post fifteenth-century commentary on the Khecarīvidyā by the name ofthe Bṛhatkhecarīprakāśa146 refers to three of the Khecarīvidyārsquos recipes as herbalcompounds (kalpa)147 The term kalpa is used with this meaning in sections onrasāyana in various Sanskrit works such as the Kalyāṇakāraka the Ānandakandathe Kākacaṇḍīśvarakalpatantra the Gaurīkāntildecalikātantra the Rasaratnākara theRasārṇavakalpa etc These works teach many different kalpas the Kākacaṇḍīśvara-kalpatantra alone having fifty-one The names of two of the kalpas mentioned inthe Bṛhatkhecarīprakāśa are found in some of these texts but the recipes differ148However textual parallels and identical recipes are found between these worksand a chapter on twelve kalpas in Bhavadevarsquos Yuktabhavadeva

It is likely that Bhavadeva was aware of the Khecarīvidyārsquos chapter on herbsbecause he included one of the latterrsquos verses onmuṇḍīkalpa149 Bhavadeva states

145 Suśrutasaṃhitā 42711 वाराहीमलतलाचणका ततो माऽा मधया पयसालो िपबत जीण पयःसपरोदन इाहारः ितषधोऽऽ पव वत योगिमममप-सवमानो वष शतमायरवाोित ीष चायताम [hellip]146 The Bṛhatkhecarīprakāśa mentions byname the Haṭhapradīpikā and Śivasaṃhitā soit postdates the fifteenth century For thereferences to these citations see Mallinson2007a 160ndash61147 Mallinson (2007a 240 n 463)notes muṇḍīkalpa and vārāhīkalpa Alsoindrāṇīkalpa is mentioned (Bṛhatkhecarī-prakāśa f 111v l 12) and in other placesBallāla simply says ldquoNow he teaches

anotherrdquo (अथादाह)148 For example muṇḍīkalpa is mentionedin the Ānandakanda 11560ndash70ab theKākacaṇḍīśvarakalpatantra 92ndash93 theGaurīkāntildecalikātantra 10 and the Rasa-ratnākara 464ndash66 Indrāṇīkalpa ndash otherwiseknown as nirguṇḍīkalpa ndash is mentionedin the Ānandakanda 115111ndash120ab theKākacaṇḍīśvarakalpatantra pp 73ndash93and the Rasaratnākara 484ndash91 Vārāhī iscommonly used in Āyurvedic recipes but avārāhīkalpa does not figure among the kalpasof the works I have consulted149 Yuktabhavadeva 2113 = Khecarī-vidyā 42

that Śiva taught these kalpas to Pārvatī150 which is consistent with the dialo-gistic framework of the Khecarīvidyā However Bhavadevarsquos exposition on herbsis much more extensive than the Khecarīvidyārsquos He sometimes quotes severalsources on one kalpa thus documenting various recipes for the same herb anda more comprehensive array of its siddhis I have not been able to identify withcertainty a particular source(s) on kalpas quoted by Bhavadeva However thereare many textual parallels with the Rasārṇavakalpa151 and a few with the Kāka-caṇḍīśvarakalpatantra152 Also some of theYuktabhavadevarsquos prose sections containthe same content as other verses in both of these texts on rasāyana153 These par-allels strongly suggest that Bhavadevawas borrowing from Rasaśāstra which heexplicitly quotes but without naming any particular text

Aswas the case in theKhecarīvidyā the chapter on kalpas in theYuktabhavadevais somewhat disconnected from the rest of the text Bhavadeva does not explainhow nor why a yogin might integrate the taking of kalpas with the practice ofYoga The end of the preceding chapter finishes with a short section on methodsfor attaining health (arogyopāya) in which Bhavadeva quotes without attributionnine verses from the Śivasaṃhitā (380ndash87) on several breathing techniques (vāy-usādhana) involving the tongue It is possible that Bhavadeva included the kalpas

150 Yuktabhavadeva 21 ldquoNow the herbalpreparations [are taught] Śiva taught[them] to Pārvatī because of his compas-sion for practitioners in this regard Thepreparation of the [herb called] Īśvarī is[first] narratedrdquo (अथ काः ndash तऽ साधका-ना कपया ौीमहशवरण पाव ोम[] ईरीकोिलत) This is affirmed by Yuktabhava-deva 2111ab ldquoThese kalpas which were[first] taught by Śiva have been briefly ex-plainedrdquo (इित सपतः ोाः काः ौीसरोिद-ताः)151 In the Yuktabhavadevarsquos section on aśvag-andhakalpa Yuktabhavadeva 269ndash70 75 ~Rasārṇavakalpa 245cdndash47ab 249cdndash250abOn śvetārkakalpa Yuktabhavadeva 2103= Rasārṇavakalpa 316 On īśvarīkalpaYuktabhavadeva 28ndash18 19 21ndash23ab 24ab29b 29cd ~ Rasārṇavakalpa 462cdndash73 475481cd-83ab 484ab 486b 489a 490d 491aband Yuktabhavadeva 224cdndash25c 27b =Rasārṇavakalpa 486cdndash487c 486b Onrudantīkalpa (which is called rudravantīkalpain the Rasārṇavakalpa) Yuktabhava-deva 2109 ~ Rasārṇavakalpa 596cdndash597ab and Yuktabhavadeva 2110bcd =

Rasārṇavakalpa 599bcd152 In the Yuktabhavadevarsquos sectionon īśvarīkalpa Yuktabhavadeva 246andashc 28cdndash29 = Kākacaṇḍīśvarakal-patantra pp 7ndash12 (in the section onnāgadamanīkalpa) 14cdndash15 16ac 30cdndash31On muṇḍīkalpa Yuktabhavadeva 113a 113c= Kākacaṇḍīśvarakalpatantra p 92 1a 1c153 The content of the Yuktabhavadevarsquossections on jyotiṣmatīkalpa somarājīkalpamayūraśikhā and śrīphalakalpa closelyfollows Rasārṇavakalpa 261ndash98 604ndash610618ndash629 (on mayūragirakalpa) and 783ndash89(on śrīvṛkṣakalpa) The Yuktabhavadevarsquossections on īśvarīkalpa (and nāgadamanī212ndash29) follows some sections of theKākacaṇḍīśvarakalpatantra (in particular cfYuktabhavadeva 22 3 to Kākacaṇḍīśvara-kalpatantra pp 7ndash12 2 5a 6cd 7abc8cd-9ab 12ab) Also the Yuktabhavadevarsquossections on kākajaṅghākalpa closely followsKākacaṇḍīśvarakalpatantra (in particularcf Yuktabhavadeva 282ndash86 to Kāka-caṇḍīśvarakalpatantra pp 64ndash69 9ndash10ab12ab 13ndash17ab 19cd)

jason birch 41

simply because of the many health benefits attributed to them However whenhis text is read as a whole the effects of the kalpas seem unexceptional whenjuxtaposed with the numerous health benefits and supernatural effects of Yogatechniques In fact it begs the question as to why a yogin would resort to herbswhen Yoga itself promised longevity health and so much more

As to how herbs might have been combined with the practice of Yoga themost elaborate and compelling account of this is found in the eighteenth-centuryJogapradīpyakā written in Brajbhāṣā At the end of its section on khecarīmudrāwhich is the practice of inserting the tongue into the nasopharyngeal cavity theJogapradīpyakā explains in detail six auxiliaries (aṅga) of khecarīmudrā (ie cut-ting the frenum moving milking inserting and churning the tongue as well asmantra recitation) and how they can be combined with the ingestion of medi-cinal herbs The four recipes closely resemble those in the fourth chapter of theKhecarīvidyā154 However the Jogapradīpyakā goes on to explain how these herbswere taken during the practice of khecarīmudrā

Next I will describe herbs and explain [them] exceptionally clearlyWithout herbs one does not obtain siddhis Therefore the yoginshould always take herbs Collect [the herb called] bhṛṅga155 alongwith its root and having dried it make a powder of it Take blacksesame Emblic myrobalan and curd and having mixed [them]with three sweeteners156 one should take the whole [mixture] Itwill remove all ailments and diseases and old age and death willdisappear157 Jayatarāma will speak of [other] herbs which havethese qualities One who consumes a single leaf of the nirguḍī[plant]158 three times every day for a year this will be the resultone destroys both old age and death159 One should seek and obtain

154 Mallinson 2007a 240 n 462155 I am aware of the difficulties in identi-fying plant names in premodern Sanskritworks by referring to international Latin tax-onomies (see Dominik Wujastyk 2003a 23ndash26) Nonetheless I have supplied the botan-ical names in Nadkarni 1954 Kirtikar Basuand an ICS 1987 etc to give the readersome idea but my research on these San-skrit terms has not gone beyond this Theterm bhṛṅga is the equivalent of bhṛṅgarājawhich is Eclipta alba Linn (Kirtikar Basuand an ICS 1987 2 1361ndash63) Eclipta erecta

alba or prostrata (Nadkarni 1954 316) orWedelia calendulacea Less (Dutt 1877 181 fHIML 537)156 The words ldquomadha triyardquo may be refer-ring to trimadhura in Sanskrit which is gheehoney and sugar (MW sv) I wish to thankNirajan Kafle for pointing this out to me157 Cf Khecarīvidyā 410158 nirguḍī = nirguṇḍī in Sanskrit which isVitex negundo Linn (Kirtikar Basu and anICS 1987 3 1937ndash40 Nadkarni 1954 889)159 Cf Khecarīvidyā 411

the [herbs called] nirguḍī nalanī 160 and mūṇḍī 161 from the forest inequal quantities Then combine them with sugar and ghee andhaving taken them for a year one obtains siddhi162 For six monthsone should treat sulphur make equal amounts of sesame and bitterorpiment163 and having combined [them] with three sweetenersmake a powder [By taking this powder] one obtains the state ofyouth and immortality Thus the [section on] herbsNow the [yoginrsquos] manner of living [while undertaking the prac-tice of khecarīmudrā] First build a solitary hut in a forest or [in thegrounds of] a hermitage where it pleases the mind For six monthsone should hold a steady posture and not talk with any people Oneshould repeat mantras day and night consume rice water and avoidsalt One should not eat dry ginger the [fruit of the] wood-appletree nor radish164 [However] one can eat a little sweet food Havingdone the practice one should take those herbs which were describedpreviously When every seventh day [which is] Sunday comes oneshould cut [the fraenum] every fortnight milk [the tongue] and dayand night churn it with the mind focused165 When one does this forsixmonths one obtains a strong khecarīmudrā The tongue grows fourfinger-breadths [in length] and one obtains two fruits devotion andliberation That man who has done what has to be done washes offthe impurities of birth and death O Jayatarāma having held onedrop [of semen] in the body it dissolves in copper which [then] be-comes gold This is the special quality of khecarīmudrā166

160 nalanī = nalinī in Sanskrit I havenot been able to find a botanical name forthis Sanskrit word Callewaert 2009 1038defines it as ldquoa lotus (of the night-bloomingvariety and always white)rdquo161 mūṇḍī is spelt muṇḍī in Sanskrit worksIt is also known as mahāmuṇḍī and tapo-dhanā and its botanical name is Sphaeranthusindicus Linn (Kirtikar Basu and an ICS1987 2 1347 f) or Sphaeranthus Microceph-alus Willd (Nadkarni 1954 814)162 Cf Khecarīvidyā 412 The Khecarī-vidyārsquos recipe contains amala instead ofnalanī163 The term golocana is gorocanā inSanskrit164 Callewaert (2009 1727) definesmulī as

any root used medicinally I thank NirājanKafle for pointing out to me the more prob-ablemeaning ofmulī here as radish the con-sumption of which is sometimes prohibitedin ritual contexts165 The cutting milking and churning thatare spoken of here are described in detailearlier in the text (ie Jogapradīpyakā 623ndash52)166 Jogapradīpyakā 665ndash76 editionpp 318ndash20 बिर औषिद वरिन सनाउ िद िदकट किह गाऊ औषिद िवना िसिध नही लह तात जोगी अवषिद िनत गह ६६५ भ समल समहआन तािह सकाय चरण ठान िबितलआमल दिधलव मध िऽय सािध सकल कौ सव ६६६ दोहा ndashरोग ािध सब ही कट जराम िमिट जाय जयतराम

jason birch 43

The above passage is such a striking example of herbal Yoga so to speak be-cause it demonstrates precisely how the practice of Yoga and the taking of herbsmight have been integrated Yet one must wonder why similar accounts arenot found in earlier Sanskrit Yoga texts had the taking of herbs been commonamongst practitioners of this type of Yoga Like the Jogapradīpyakā earlier textsprovide details on the yoginrsquos hut (maṭhī) postures (āsana) and dietary restric-tions However in the Jogapradīpyakā the inclusion of these details as a prelim-inary practice for six months followed by the ingestion of herbal compoundsand promises of youthfulness and immortality are all redolent of rejuvenationpractices in Ayurveda

The only Sanskrit text consulted for this study that touches on details of howa yogin should use herbs is an unnamed compilation on Yoga which was prob-ably composed in the nineteenth century167 It draws heavily on the Khecarī-vidyā but also tacitly includes verses from a diverse array of texts notably theHaṭhapradīpikā the Śivasaṃhitā the Amṛtasiddhi the Yogarahasya the Yogavāsiṣṭhathe Pātantildejalayogaśāstra the Bhagavadgītā and Śivānandarsquos Yogacintāmaṇi It con-tains a concise section on herbs (auṣadhikalpasamāsa) with descriptions of fivekalpas168 two of which closely parallel recipes in the Khecarīvidyā169 After thedescription of the fourth kalpa this brief statement follows

अवषध भष तो य ता गण थाय ६६७ चौपाई ndash एकएक िनग डी पात िदन ित तीन वर जो षात वरस वारह ऐसौ होव जराम दोन सो षोव ६६८ िनग डीनलनी अ मडी सम किर वन त ाव ढढी बिरसक रा घत ज िमलाव वरस िदवस साा िसिध पाव६६९ षट मास गक सो धर ितल क गोलोचनसमकर मध ऽय जि चण कर षाव अजर अमर पदवीसो पाव ६७० इित औषध अथ रहन िवधान चौपाई- थम एका मठी इक ठान वन मह मािह जहा मिनमान षट मास आसन ििढ धर ाणी माऽ स बात नकर ६७१ मजाप िनसिदन ही उचार चावल पयभिष ण िनवार नागर बल मिल निह षाव ककमीठो भोजन पाव ६७२ परव अवषध वरनी जोईसाधन कर तास कौ सोई िदवस सातव रिविदन आवता ता िदन छदन ज कराव ६७३ पािष पािष ितदोहन कर मथन अहो िनिस ही मन धर ऐस करत मासषट जाव व खचरी पाव तव ६७४ अर ािरजीभ बिढ आव भि मि दोउ फल पाव क कसोई नर होय ज म मल डार धोय ६७५ दोहा- गरयौ ज तावा उपर ब एक धिर दह जयतराम सोकनक होय खचरी का गण यह ६७६ इित खचरी666d मध (MS ba)] emend मिध Ed 674bवि (MS a)] emend वि Ed I would like

to thank Nirājan Kafle for his helpful com-ments on this passage One might consideras Nirājan has suggested emending bhaktito bhukti (ldquoenjoymentrdquo) in 675b I haveretained bhakti because the Rāmānandīs areknown for their devotion However bhuktialso seems to fit the context well167 It is transmitted in MS Jodhpur RORI34946 and has the siglum ldquoOrdquo in Mallin-son 2007a 54ndash5 This date is based on thiscompilationrsquos citation with attribution (f 8rl 5) of Sundaradevarsquos Haṭhasaṅketacandrikā(MSS) which can be approximately datedto the eighteenth century (see below)168 MS Jodhpur RORI 34946 f 8rndash10v Thefirst three are muṇḍī vārāhī and nirguṇḍīThe name of the fourth is not clear and thefifth is called dhātrīmahākalpa This sectionends with ity auṣadhakalpaḥ169 Khecarīvidyā 44 ~ MS Jodhpur RORI34946 f 8v l 7ndashf 9r l 3 and Khecarī-vidyā 411 = MS Jodhpur RORI 34946 f 9rll 4ndash5

According to the rule of entering a hut in a solitary place freefrom wind taking those [herbal preparations the yogin] should gowithout drink and food not socialize andmaintain celibacy Becauseof the power of this herbal preparation his hair and teeth fall outHaving shed his skin like a snake [even] an old man becomes [like]a sixteen-year old170

It is worth noting that the term used for hut in the above passage is kuṭī whichis found in Ayurvedic texts such as the Carakasaṃhitā171 whereas Yoga texts tendto use the term maṭha or maṭhikā Although many Yoga texts mention the loc-ation dimensions and materials for a yoginrsquos hut the distinguishing featuresof the above passage is the use of herbs and the subsequent loss of the yoginrsquoshair teeth and skin Such details are found in accounts of rasāyana treatment inAyurvedic texts For example in the Suśrutasaṃhitārsquos description of a soma ritewhich rejuvenates the patient in four months172 the treatment is administeredin a dwelling (āgāra) with three walls Within the first week the patient becomesemaciated and on the eighth day the skin cracks and the teeth nails and bodyhair fall out173 On the seventeenth day the teeth grow back then the nails hairand skin and by the end of the treatment one has a new body for ten thousandyears Such a process of bodily decay and renewal is not seen in other premodernYoga texts and its inclusion in a section on herbs in this nineteenth-century un-named compilation on Yoga strongly suggests that the author knew of rasāyanatherapy

The literaturersquos ambivalence as it were towards the taking of herbs suggeststhat yogins neither condemned nor promoted their use as an integral part oftheir Yoga practice Passing references to herbs and the inclusion of some recipesin a few Yoga texts indicate that some yogins must have taken them for theirsupernatural effects This is unsurprising given the shared emphasis on healingand rejuvenation in both premodern Yoga and rasāyana Nonetheless there is noevidence to suggest that the taking of herbs was ever an essential component ofHaṭha- and Rājayoga traditions

170 MS Jodhpur RORI 34946 f 9v l 6ndashf 10rl 2 (कटीवशिविधना िनवा तौ िवजनल तज-पानाो िनःसो चय वान ६२ का भा-वन कशा दाः पति च अहिरव च िहा वःाोडशािकः-िविधना ] emend िविध ना Codex च ]corrचCodex) It appears that a scribe hassplit -िविधना with a daṇḍa possibly with the

intention of making a heading171 Carakasaṃhitā Ci123 etc172 Suśrutasaṃhitā Ci2910ndash19 For atranslation of this passage see DominikWujastyk 2003a 171ndash77173 Suśrutasaṃhitā Ci2912 (ततोऽमऽहिन[hellip] ावदलित दनखरोमािण चा पति[hellip])

jason birch 45

4 PRAXIS

postures (āsana)

I would now like to turn my attention to Yoga techniques that were singledout in some texts as being particularly effective in healing diseases Their

curative role raises questions such as whether they were modelled on Ayur-vedic techniques or therapies and whether the yogins who practised them werepresented as physicians There are several accounts of Yoga therapy (yogacikitsā)in the corpus consulted for this article and one of these therapies was written byan Ayurvedic doctor who composed large compendiums on Yoga

The role of āsanas in healing disease was acknowledged in one of the oldesttexts of the early corpus In defining the six auxiliaries (aṅga) of its Yoga theVivekamārtaṇḍa says the following

The best of yogins cures diseases by Yogic posture (āsana) sin bybreath retentions (prāṇāyāma) and mental problems by withdraw-ing [his mind from sense objects] (pratyāhāra) He obtains stabilityof mind by concentration (dhāraṇā) wondrous power by meditation(dhyāna) and liberation by samādhi after having abandoned [all] ac-tion good and bad174

Similarly the Yogayājntildeavalkya adds the following general remark after describingthe last of its eight āsanas ldquoAll internal diseases and poisons are curedrdquo175 TheHaṭhapradīpikā which teaches the most āsanas of the works in the early corpusgoes further than any of the yoga texts known to predate it in enumerating thecurative benefits of āsana After stating that āsana is the first auxiliary of Haṭha-yoga and results in steadiness freedom from disease and lightness of limbs176Svātmārāma notes two traditions of āsanas those from sages (muni) such asVasiṣṭha and those from yogins such Matsyendra177 The āsanas of Vasiṣṭha arethose described in the Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitā which Svātmārāma borrowed verbatim(Mallinson 2013b 227 f) These postures and their descriptions contain only a

174 Vivekamārtaṇḍa 92ndash93 (MS BarodaCentral Library 4110 f 4r ll 2ndash4) आसननजो हि ाणायामन पातकम ाहारण योगीोिवकार हि मानसम धारणया मनोधय ाना-दय मतम समाधमम आोित ा कमशभाशभम 175 Yogayājntildeavalkya 317ab सव चारारोगा िवनयि िवषािण च This comment isnot found in theVasiṣṭhasaṃhitā fromwhich

the Yogayājntildeavalkya borrowed its verses onāsana Therefore one can assume that thisis a general comment added by the re-dactor of the Yogayājntildeavalkya which reflectsits stronger theme of curative aims176 Haṭhapradīpikā 117177 Haṭhapradīpikā 118 For a translationof this verse see Birch 2018a

couple of clicheacutes about healing For instance bhadrāsana is said to cure all dis-eases (sarvavyādhivināśana)178 However the other āsanas which appear to de-rive from Matsyendrarsquos tradition and are yet to be traced to an earlier textualwork are thosewith elaborate curative effects A good example ismatsyendrāsana

By means of practice Matsyendrarsquos seat which is a lethal weaponagainst a range of terrible diseases stimulates digestive fire awakensKuṇḍalinī and stabilizes the moon in people179

One might also assume that verses on the healing power of paścimatānāsanaśavāsana and mayūrāsana also derive from Matsyendrarsquos tradition Even thoughmayūrāsana is taught in the Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitā the verse on its curative effects doesnot derive from there In fact it is worth noting that theVimānārcanākalpa whichis probably the source of the Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitārsquos āsanas180 contains no statementson the diseases cured by āsanas Therefore Svātmārāmarsquos textual borrowing sug-gests that the Vaikhānasa tradition was not the source of observations on thecurative effects of āsana noted in Haṭhayoga texts but rather a Śaiva traditionconnected to Matsyendranātha

Some yoga texts of the late corpus teach a considerably larger number ofāsanas than the Haṭhapradīpikā181 Among these the Jogapradīpyakā adopted thesystematic approach of mentioning the healing benefits of each āsana after itsdescription like the works of modern authors such as Swami Sivanandarsquos YogaAsanas (1934) Swami Kuvalayanandarsquos Asanas (1931) and BKS Iyengarrsquos Lighton Yoga (1966) The Jogapradīpyakārsquos observations on the healing effects of āsanarange from the usual clicheacutes such as curing all diseases stimulating digestive fireand rejuvenation to specific statements on curing particular diseases Across theeighty-four āsanas an impressive range of diseases are cured including tuber-culous (rājaroga) leprosy (kuṣṭa) tumours (gulama golā182) fever (jura) con-stipation (gudāvarta) indigestion (ajīrṇa) hiccup (hiḍakī 183) pain in the headand eyes (siranetra dūṣai) blindness (andha) knee pain (goḍā pīḍa) deafness (ba-harāpaṇa) sinus diseases (nāsā roga) dropsy (jalandhara roga184) counteracting

178 Haṭhapradīpikā 154dCf Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitā 179f (सवािधिव-षापह)179 Haṭhapradīpikā 127 edition p 1a) म-पीठ जठरदी चडमडलखडनामअासतः कडिलनीबोध चिर च ददाित प -साम 180 Mallinson 2013b 227 f See alsoDominik Wujastyk 2017181 On the proliferation of āsana see Birch2018a

182 The literal meaning of golā is lump183 I am assuming that this is an alternativespelling for hicakī184 See Jogapradīpyakā 146 and 269 Asfar as I am aware a disease by the namejalandhara does not occur in another textHowever one wonders whether the authorof the Jogapradīpyakā is referring to diseasesof the jālandharā which is one of the tubes(sirā) in the body (see HIML 1A 524)

jason birch 47

the cold (joḍo) reducing body heat (tapata tana) and so on It should also benoted that certain āsanas accomplish the more important aims of Yoga suchas purifying the channels (nāḍī) body and mind raising kuṇḍalinī inducingsamādhi retaining semen experiencing gnosis of the gurursquos teachings (sabada-jntildeāna) and so on

Nonetheless those āsanas which heal diseases are not presented within a re-gime of treatment whichmight involve specialmodifications of diet and lifestyleas well as taking medicines and other remedies for the sake of curing a diseaseAlthough dietary recommendations are given by various Yoga texts in the con-text of practising āsana such advice is often said to be important only at the be-ginning of onersquos practice185 Therefore in the context of Yoga dietary advice isaimed more towards facilitating the practice rather than for curing ailments asseen in Ayurveda

the six therapeutic actions (ṣaṭkarma) of haṭhayogaUnlike the role of Yogic āsanas which were integral to the practice of prāṇāyāmaand meditation the ṣaṭkarma appear to have been incorporated into Haṭhayogasolely for their curative effects The earliest textual evidence for the ṣaṭkarma isthe Haṭhapradīpikā The fact that this text is an anthology suggests that these sixpractices derive from an earlier source which may no longer be extant Svāt-mārāma included the ṣaṭkarma in the Haṭhapradīpikārsquos chapter on prāṇāyāma as apreliminary practice for the eight breath retentions (kumbhaka) However theverse which introduces the ṣaṭkarma stipulates their specific role in the practiceof Yoga

One who has excess fat or phlegm should first practise the ṣaṭkarmaHowever other [people] should not practise them when their hu-mours (ie phlegm wind and bile186 ) are in a balanced state [inrelation to one another]187

This verse indicates that the ṣaṭkarma are preliminary practices only for thosewho are not healthy Therefore they are more like therapeutic interventions thatare dispensed with as soon as the practitioner regains health The therapeuticrole of the ṣaṭkarma is further implied by the fact that Svātmārāma places them

185 For example Haṭhapradīpikā 214Śivasaṃhitā 342 Gheraṇḍasaṃhitā 532etc There is also the idea that master-ing certain techniques such as mahā-mudrā enable one to eat anything (egVivekamārtaṇḍa 60ndash61)

186 This reading is supported by Brahmā-nandarsquos Jyotsnā (दोषाणा वातिपकफानाम)187 Haṭhapradīpikā 221 edition p 44 मद-ािधकः पव षमा िण समाचरत अ नाचर-ािन दोषाणा समभावतः

immediately after two verses on the types of diseases caused by the improperpractice of prāṇāyāma such as hiccups dyspnoea coughing and pain in the headears and eyes188 However as is often the case in theHaṭhapradīpikā Svātmārāmaalso presents the alternative view that all impurities and diseases can be cured byprāṇāyāma alone Therefore he says some teachers (ācārya) do not teach otherpractices such as the ṣaṭkarma189

The ṣaṭkarma consists of cleansing the stomach with cloth (vastradhauti)emesis (gajakaraṇī) a water enema (jalabasti) cleansing the sinuses with thread(sūtraneti) gazing at a fixed point (trāṭaka) churning the abdomen (nauli) andrapid breathing (kapālabhāti) Although this list contains seven practices itappears that gajakaraṇī was considered a variation of dhauti190 The inclusion ofemesis and enema in the ṣaṭkarma raises the question of whether these practiceswere inspired by Ayurveda because similar treatments figure among therapiesin the Carakasaṃhitā and Suśrutasaṃhitā The obvious difference between thesetwo practices in Haṭhayoga and Ayurveda is that the former uses only waterwhereas the latter administers herbal treatments for inducing emesis and forpreparing the enematic fluid191

However there is a more significant difference between the Haṭhapradīpikārsquosṣaṭkarma and Āyurvedic therapies Generally speaking the Haṭhapradīpikārsquos de-scriptions of the ṣaṭkarma indicate that they were fashioned by and specificallyfor yogins to heal themselves For example gajakaraṇī (literally ldquothe elephantrsquosactionrdquo192) requires that the yogin raise abdominal vitality (ie apānavāyu) to

188 Haṭhapradīpikā 216cdndash17 Theseverses were probably borrowed from theVivekamārtaṇḍa 121cdndash22189 Haṭhapradīpikā 238 This view is sup-ported elsewhere in the Haṭhapradīpikā withstatements that prāṇāyāma can cure all dis-eases (eg 216ab)190 All the reported manuscripts of theHaṭhapradīpikā in Kaivalyadhamarsquos criticaledition place gajakaraṇī directly after dhautiwhich is the first of the ṣaṭkarmas How-ever in Brahmānandarsquos Jyotsnā gajakaraṇīis placed as the last ṣaṭkarma The close asso-ciation of gajakaraṇī with dhauti is affirmedby a more recent text the Gheraṇḍasaṃ-hitā 138ndash39 in which both vastradhauti andemesis (vamana) are two variations of dhautifor the heart (hṛddhauti)

191 The drugs to be used for emesis are lis-ted at Carakasaṃhitā Sū27 and Si335ndash71and a detailed account of how the drugsare administered and the mode of treat-ment is given at Carakasaṃhitā Sū156ndash16Cf Suśrutasaṃhitā Ci33 On enemas thedrugs to be used are listed at Carakasaṃ-hitā Vi8137ndash150 and details on preparingthe drugs administering them etc aregiven in Carakasaṃhitā Si10 Cf Suśruta-saṃhitā Ci35ndash36192 Some manuscripts have jalakaraṇīinstead of gajakaraṇī (see Haṭhapra-dīpikā edition p 46 n 60) The namegajakaraṇī may have come about becausethe practitioner emits a stream of waterfrom the mouth as an elephant would fromits trunk

jason birch 49

the throat and then control all the channels of the body (nāḍicakra193) throughgradual practice in order to vomit the contents (padārtha) of his stomach194 InAyurveda such a treatment would be impracticable because it could not be pre-scribed by a physician for a patientwhohadnot undergone the training to controltheir body in this way The same might be said for the Haṭhayogic water enemawhich requires that the yogin assume a half-squatting posture (called utkaṭāsana)in a river195 and create an internal abdominal vacuum to draw in the water196Also both nauli and kapālabhāti depend on a high degree of abdominal controlthat might only be possible after a period of sustained practice Therefore themain difference between Ayurvedic remedies and the ṣaṭkarma is that the formerwas designed to be administered by a physician on a patient whereas the latterwas intended to be self-administered by the yogin

In the centuries following the Haṭhapradīpikā the increasing importance ofthe ṣaṭkarma in Haṭhayoga is reflected by the prevalence and proliferation of theirtechniques in texts of the late corpus For example the Haṭharatnāvalī 126ndash58teaches eight techniques (aṣṭakarma) and a few variations197 and the Gheraṇḍa-saṃhitā 112ndash59 teaches over twenty by integrating many additional practices asvariations of each of the Haṭhapradīpikārsquos ṣaṭkarma198 However the most ambi-tious attempt to extend the ṣaṭkarma is found in a text called the Satkarmasaṅgrahawhich incorporated some additional Ayurvedic practices to build a repertoireof thirty-seven therapeutic techniques for Yoga practitioners The authorrsquos un-abashed efforts to transform a set of six techniques into a collection (saṅgraha) of

193 It is not entirely clear what nāḍicakra(spelt elsewhere as nāḍīcakra) refers to inHaṭhapradīpikā 226 Brahmānanda doesnot gloss it for this verse but does so whenit appears in verse 25 where he says it isthe totality of nāḍīs (नाडीना चब समहः) Themeaning of this compound in earlier Tan-tric sources varies from the totality of thechannels in the body (Rastelli and DominicGoodall 2013 268) to a particular nexusof channels sometimes consisting of theten main channels in the body (Agnipurāṇa2141ndash5) Also some sources locate it inthe abdomen and others in the heart or themūlādhāra region (see Rastelli and DominicGoodall 2013 268 f)194 Haṭhapradīpikā 226195 Haṭhapradīpikā 227 Brahmānandaadds the detail that the water is that of aldquoriver etcrdquo (nadyāditoya) One would ex-

pect the yogin to be squatting in flowingwater196 This internal vacuum is not mentionedin Haṭhapradīpikā 227 However it en-ables the yogin to suck the water throughthe tube that is inserted into the colon SeeKuvalayānanda et al 1924ndash1925 Bernard1950 38 Rosmarynowski 1981197 The eight include the seven techniquesof the Haṭhapradīpikā (ie both dhauti andgajakaraṇī) and cakrikarma The Haṭharatnā-valī also teaches two types of nauli twotypes of enema (ie air and water) and anadditional way of practising gajakaraṇī andkapālabhastrikā (otherwise known a kapāla-bhāti)198 The verse which lists the ṣaṭkarma in theGheraṇḍasaṃhitā 112 is almost the same asthat in the Haṭhapradīpikā 222

several dozen appears to have resulted in the unexpected name ldquoA Collectionof Good Practicesrdquo (satkarmasaṅgraha) rather than a collection of verses on theṣaṭkarma (ie ṣaṭkarmasaṅgraha)

The Satkarmasaṅgraharsquos date of composition and the name of its author arenot clear One manuscript is dated in the bhūtasaṅkhyā system as 881 whichis probably 1881 (ie 1824 ce)199 If this holds true the Satkarmasaṅgraha waslikely composed in the eighteenth century200 At the beginning of the text theauthor states his name as Cidghanānandanātha and then Raghuvīra at the endThe ānandanātha suffix of the first name suggests that that person was a kaulainitiate belonging to the Dakṣiṇāmnāya201 His Śaiva affiliation is further sup-ported by the invocation to Śiva in the opening verse of the Satkarmasaṅgraha202Also many of this textrsquos techniques including the water enema are attributed toŚiva203 His guru was named Gaganānandanātha whom he says taught him the

199 The scribal comment is reported in theKaivalyadhama edition of the Satkarmasaṅ-graha 50 n 126 वकिमतऽऽिशपो-मासक which can be understood as the brighthalf of the month Kārttika in the year 881If one assumes that the intended year was1881 (ie ekavasvaṣṭaika) one can then as-sume that it must be the vikramasaṃvat erabecause the library acquired themanuscriptbetween 1884 and 1895 ce (Harshe (Sat-karmasaṅgraha iv)) Therefore the date ofthis manuscript would be 1824 ce200 As far as I am aware verses of the Sat-karmasaṅgraha have not been borrowed orcited in any other Yoga text which leadsme to suspect that it is a more recent workHowever I am yet to establish a firm ter-minus a quo for it Reddy 1982a 37 arguesthat the practice of cakrikarma was inven-ted by the seventeenth-century Śrīnivāsabecause Śrīnivāsa states this in his Haṭha-ratnāvalī at 131ab (सवषा कम णा चिबसाधन ो-त मया) Be this as it may I have not foundany textual parallels between the Satkarma-saṅgraha and the Haṭharatnāvalī Further-more the former teaches three types of cakrī(ūrdhva madhya and adhaḥ) and only thelast of them corresponds in some way withŚrīnivāsarsquos cakrikarma though the word-ing is different and some significant de-tails are added Furthermore the Satkarma-saṅgraha 40ab says that Dhūrjaṭi who is

not mentioned by Śrīnivāsa is the sourceof its teachings on adhaścakrī (see footnote206) In dating the Satkarmasaṅgraha Meu-lenbeld (HIML IIA 299) follows Reddy(1982a) and reports (HIML IIA 761) thatCidghanānandanātharsquos guru was Gahanān-andanātha whereas Harshersquos edition (Sat-karmasaṅgraha 2) has Gaganānandanāthawith no variants reported201 Mallinson 2007a 166 n 6202 Satkarmasaṅgraha 1 ldquoI bow to lordĀdinātha who wrote the scripture [called]the Mahākālajaya because of his compas-sion for his own devoteesrdquo (य आिदनाथो भ-गवािजभानकया महाकालजय शा कतवा- नमाहम) The claim that Śiva wrotea scripture possibly called the Mahākāla-jaya is intriguing It may refer to theMahākālayogaśāstra (an unknown text towhich the Khecarīvidyā has been ascribed)or the Mahākālasaṃhitā to which variousother works have been ascribed (Mallinson2007a 12 Kiss 2009 44 f)203 In the Satkarmasaṅgraharsquos descrip-tions of vamana vireka śālākya raktasrāvakaraṇāpyāyanāni āścyotana jaladhārā theseven auxiliaries of vajroli the auxiliariesand mantras of khecarīmudrā kaśākarmabhrāntibhastra antarbhastrā nālanaulīsnehana and jalabasti these techniques areascribed to Śiva

jason birch 51

texts of Lords (nātha) Sages (muni) and great Siddhas such as Gorakṣanātha204However the concluding verses (148ndash9) of the Satkarmasaṅgraha state that itwas composed by Raghuvīra who may have done so for a royal family relatedto north-Indian Brahmins (dvijodīcya)205 Also these verses refer to the work asa manual (paddhati) rather than a collection (saṅgraha) Although I am yet tofind parallel verses with other texts there is evidence in the Satkarmasaṅgrahawhich indicates that it is a poorly redacted compilation206 Therefore the confu-sion over authorship may have been the result of poor redacting in the processof combining two different texts (ie Cidghanānandanātharsquos Satkarmasaṅgrahawith Raghuvīrarsquos Karmapaddhati)207

The Satkarmasaṅgraha is undoubtedly a text written for Yoga practitionersAs the following passage demonstrates it addresses yogins and their practice ofYoga

When people suppress their senses208 by restraining their breaths orwhen they practise khecarī or the attaining of vajroli diseases arise

204 Satkarmasaṅgraha 2ndash3 (भगवगनान-नाथपादाजयम यसादाताथऽि त मा णमाहम २ गोरािदमहािसना थम िनवररिपमष यो त ला गतोऽिखलम)205 Satkarmasaṅgraha 148ndash9 ldquo[This]excellent collection of [therapeutic] tech-niques has been briefly taught thus bythe learned Raghuvīra because of thefavour of the venerable lord It is theremover of obstacles in the [practice of]breath retentions and [Haṭhayogic] mudrāsThe venerable family of the king whoserelatives are northern Brahmins named thisexcellent guidebook of techniques whichpurifies the bodyrdquo (इित सपतः ोः कमणासहः परः िवषा रघवीरण ौीमाथसादतःककिप मिास हिविनवारकः इित ौीमिजो-दीाितराजकलोऽधात दहशिकरामता कम णापत पराम-कलोऽधात] conj -कलािभधात Codex)206 The Satkarmasaṅgraha 14 states thatits techniques have been taught by Dhūr-jaṭi in order to directly enhance the wel-fare of people (अथ वािम कमा िण योिगना यो-गिसय यााह धज िटः सााोकानमहहतव) andthe verses on adhaścakrī (37cdndash40ab)may bequoted (iti) from an unkown text called ldquoIn-structions on Yogardquo (yogaśāsana) by Dhūr-

jaṭi Also the author states that the practicesof smoking (dhūma) snuffs (nasya) hold-ing amouthful of solution (kavalagraha) andenemas (basti) have been taught in somecases more extensively in another text bythe same author called the Miśraka207 Harshe (Satkarmasaṅgraha iv)proposes that the authorrsquos pre-initiationname was Raghuvīra and post-initiationCidghanānandanātha However in myview the corruption in the last verse of theSatkarmasaṅgraha (ie -कलािभधात) as well asthe fact that several passages of the text areclearly unrelated to its topic (eg 46ndash47ab59cdndash66 and 69ndash71ab) suggest that theSatkarmasaṅgraha as we now have it waspoorly redacted and this has produced theconfusion over the authorrsquos name208 The term karaṇa usually means ldquoac-tionsrdquo and could be understood as suchhere (ie when people restrain their ac-tions) However seeing that this ldquorestraintrdquoor ldquosuppressionrdquo is being caused by hold-ing the breath and that more generallyspeaking prāṇāyāma often precedes sens-ory withdrawal (pratyāhāra) I suspect thatkaraṇa means ldquothe sensesrdquo here Further-more karaṇa is used to mean ldquosensesrdquo in

[even] for a sage because of negligence in [following] what is whole-some and [avoiding] what is unwholesome (pathyāpathya) careless-ness in regard to the [proper] time and place [of practice] or becauseof chance obstacles in the world These [diseases] can be cured bypractising āsanas and by divine medicines209 In the case that he isunsuccessful the best of yogins should drive [them] away with thedivine [therapeutic] techniques [taught in this text]210

In the above passage the Satkarmasaṅgraha presents its techniques as treatmentsthat one should resort to when other methods notably including the practice ofāsana have failed Other texts also abandon the preliminary role of the ṣaṭkarmawhich was stipulated in the Haṭhapradīpikā For example in the Haṭhābhyāsa-paddhati six sequences of āsanas are taught to make the yogin fit for the prac-tice of the ṣaṭkarma211 However the Satkarmasaṅgraha goes on to say that thetherapeutic role of its techniques is not only for yogins who fall sick because ofnegligence or chance obstacles but also for those who injure themselves in thepractice of Yoga

A wise person who has knowledge of the body skill in the practiceof [holding] the breath and has obtained [this] expertise with thefavour of good teachers should practise [these] divine techniquesfor healing harm [that arises] in the practice of kumbhakas āsanasandmudrās [Owing to the practice of these techniques] purification

other passages of this text For example Sat-karmasaṅgraha 101cdndash102 105cd (अथ कर-णाायनािन गोघत कसरोिौ नासाायनमत१०१ आ शक रया य रसनाायन त धा-ािवततलन नयनाायन परम १०२ [hellip] करणत दव सरऽ िसिदम)209 These divine medicines (divyab-heṣaja) might be referring to divine herbs(divyauṣadhi) which are listed and dis-cussed in the Carakasaṃhitā Ci146ndash26Divine herbs are alluded to in the Suśru-tasaṃhitā Ci30 I would like to thankDagmar Wujastyk for these references210 Satkarmasaṅgraha 5ndash7 edition p 3 वा-यना रोधननािप करणाना िविनमह खचरीसाधन नणावळोिलिसिसाधन पापमादवा दशकालमा-दतः दविवन वा लोक जाय ाधयो मनः तासािनवारण काय म आसनदभषजः तऽािसो योगी-ो चालयिकमिभः

211 Haṭhābhyāsapaddhati f 2v ldquoNow thepostures are described for the sake of attain-ing the ability [to do] the ṣaṭkarmardquo (अथ ष-म योयताितपादनायासनािन िल) Also afterthe descriptions of the āsanas the text says(f 23r) ldquoWhen bodily strength has beenachieved through the practice of posturesone should do the ṣaṭkarmardquo (आसनाासनशारीरदा सित षमा िण कया त) This eighteeth-century text teaches more than the usualsix techniques found in the HaṭhapradīpikāIt adds bhrāmaṇakriyā the eating of whole-some food as prescribed in Ayurvedic texts(vaidyagrantha) and āghāraśuddhikriyā Atthe end of the section on the ṣaṭkarma it says(f 24v) ldquoAfter the practice of the ṣaṭkarmaone should do the eight breath retentions forsuccess in the ten mudrārdquo (कमषाासानरदशमिािसय अिवधककान कया त)

jason birch 53

of the channels quickly occurs and even the prevention of [further]harm212

The Satkarmasaṅgraharsquos intended audience of yogins is again affirmed at the endof the text when its entire collection of techniques is described as a remover ofobstacles in the practice of kumbhakas and Haṭhayogic mudrās213

The special Yogic abilities required by a practitioner of the Haṭhapradīpikārsquosṣaṭkarma give way in the Satkarmasaṅgraha to the use of medicinal herbs oilssnuffs mouthwashes and even a surgical instrument (śalākā) Ayurvedicmethods in the Satkarmasaṅgraha are distinctly apparent Although the Sat-karmasaṅgraha does not mention or allude to an Ayurvedic text it does mentionthe celestial physicians several times Dhanvantari is said to be lord of surgeryand his favour (prasāda) is necessary for the success of a water treatment(jaladhārā) for wounds Also the yogin is advised to meditate on the two Aśvinswhen cleaning the sinuses with a thread (netī)214 The Satkarmasaṅgraharsquosmedically inspired techniques include massage with oils (mardana)215 surgery(śālākya)216 vomiting with emetics (vamana)217 purgation with purgativedrugs (virecana)218 bloodletting (raktaśrava)219 herbal eye drops (āścyotana)220gargling with herbal waters (gaṇḍūṣa) 221 oleation (snehana)222 sudation usingsalts sand or medicaments (svedana)223 sudation using burning charcoal in a

212 Satkarmasaṅgraha 8cdndash10 edition p 4शारीरानसपः कशलो वायसाधन सणा सादनािवो महामितः कानामासनाना च करणाना चसाधन िनवय ापदा वा िदकमा िण साधयत शीयनाडीिवशिः ाापदामनवः213 Satkarmasaṅgraha 149ab See footnote205214 Satkarmasaṅgraha 67 84 and 107ndash8215 Cf Carakasaṃhitā Sū585ndash92 (हा-) Suśrutasaṃhitā Ci585ndash92 (saṃvāhana)216 In the Satkarmasaṅgraha 81ndash6 śālākyainvolves the use of a sharp iron instru-ment (tīkṣṇalohaśalākā) for removing impur-ities (mala) in the eyes earwax (karṇagūtha)and for cleaning wounds (vraṇa) Variousinstruments (śalākāyantra) are discussed in

Suśrutasaṃhitā Sū75 14217 See footnote 191218 Cf Carakasaṃhitā Sū4 15 Ka7 etcSuśrutasaṃhitā Sū44 etc219 The term in Ayurvedic sources isusually raktaviśrāvaṇa See Suśrutasaṃ-hitā Sū1423ndash38220 Cf SuśrutasaṃhitāUtt911cdndash13ab1844ndash48 etc221 Cf Carakasaṃhitā Sū578ndash80 Suśru-tasaṃhitā Ci2414 4058ndash71222 Cf Carakasaṃhitā Sū22 etc Suśruta-saṃhitā Ci3138ndash57223 On sudation in general see Caraka-saṃhitā Sū14

pot (vārāha)224 medicinal smoking (dhūma)225 errhines (nasya)226 medicatedmouthwashes (kavala)227 and enemas for the eyes ears head penis and bowelssome of which use medicated oils228 Integrated with these are distinctly Yogicṣaṭkarma (as seen in the Haṭhapradīpikā ) which have been extended beyondthose of earlier texts with the addition of many new practices and variations Agood example of this divarication of the basic ṣaṭkarma can be seen in the threevarieties of nauli described in the Satkarmasaṅgraha The first called bāhyanaulicorresponds to the Haṭhapradīpikārsquos nauli but the two following it namelynālanauli and āntranauli have no antecedents as far as I am aware

Now nauli [is taught] One should move the abdomen left and rightat the speed of a rapid whirlpool It was taught by Śiva [but] herethe tutelary deity is Lakṣmī This is the external nauli (bāhyanauli)It stimulates the digestive fire increases [the bodyrsquos] fire advancesbreath retentions and cooks consumed food229

Having united and correctly isolated both tube-like muscles(nalau)230 according to the gurursquos teachings [the yogin] shoulddraw them upwards Thus nālanauli has been taught by Śiva Thissupreme secret should not be given to just anyone

224 Vārāhakarma (the ldquoboarrsquos therapyrsquo)involves placing an earthen pot in whichthere is burning charcoal (ulmuka) onthe supine yoginrsquos abdomen which hasbeen smeared with oil (Satkarmasaṅ-graha 79ab) It may well have beeninspired by the Ayurvedic practice of su-dation called tāpasveda which is describedin the Suśrutasaṃhitā Ci324 as ldquoOf[these four kinds of sudation] sudationwith heat (tāspasveda) is applied by handsbell metal a pan a bowl (kapāla) sandor cloth The heating of the body of thesupine [patient] is [done] repeatedly withAcacia wood charcoalrdquo (तऽ तापदः पािण-काकककपालवाकावः यत शयानचातापो बशः खािदराारर इित) I wish to thankDagmar Wujastyk for this reference and hertranslation of it225 Cf Carakasaṃhitā Sū520cdndash56abetc Suśrutasaṃhitā Ci40226 Cf Suśrutasaṃhitā Ci4020ndash43227 See footnote 221

228 See footnote 191229 Cf Haṭhapradīpikā 234ndash35 ldquoNownauli [is taught] With shoulders bent for-ward [the yogin] should rotate the ab-domen left and right with the speed of arapid whirlpool This nauli is taught bythe Siddhas It is effective for stimulating aweak digestive fire cooking [ingested food]and so on It always produces bliss and re-moves all faults and diseases Nauli is thecrown of Haṭhayogic practicesrdquo (अथ नौिलःअमावत वगन त सापसतः नतासो ामय-दषा नौिलः िसः चत मािसीपनपाचनािद-साियकानकरी सदव अशषदोषामयशोषणी च ह-ठिबयामौिलिरय च नौिलः)230 I am not entirely sure of the meaning ofnala here It appears to be referring to therectus abdominis muscles which protrudewhen nauli is performed The fact that nala isin the dual case would suggest that the au-thor knew that the the rectus abdominis is apaired muscle

jason birch 55

Having sat on a three-legged stool [the yogin] should rub the lowerabdomen and stomach This is the internal nauli (āntranauli) whichbrings success in maṇibandha231

In addition to nauli the Satkarmasaṅgraharsquos expanded repertoire of the ṣaṭ-karma include three types of cakrī232 bhastrā (ie kapālabhāti)233 troṭana234 twotypes of siddhikāraṇī235 and netī236 as well as the practices of kaśā237 netrī238 kas-

231 Satkarmasaṅgraha 110ndash114 editionpp 39ndash40 अथ नौिलः अमावत वगन जठरदवामयोः ११० चालयभना ो तऽ लिध-दवता बानौिलिरय ोा जठरानलदीिपनी १११अिसधायका कभकरी भापािचनी एकीक नलौसगा गमाग तः ११२ ऊमाकष यननालनौिलः िशवोिदता इद रह परम न दय य किचत ११३ िऽपदासनक बा बितौ िवघष यतआनौिलिरय ोा मिणबिसिदा ११४नौिलः] corr नौली Ed 113b नालनौिलः] corr नालनौली Ed बितौ िवघष यत] diagnosticconj बितिवघष णात Ed The meaningof maṇibandhaprasiddhidā is not clear tome The term maṇibandha usually refersto the wrist One wonders whether it is acorruption of the clicheacute aṇimādiprasiddhidā(ie it bestows the supernatural powersbeginning with minimization)232 Ūrdhvacakrī is cleaning the palate (tālu)with the thumb (Satkarmasaṅgraha 32ab-35ab) madhyacakrī is cleaning the tongueand back of the throat with a finger (35cdndash37ab) and adhaścakrī is cleaning the anuswith the forefinger (37cdndash40ab)233 Rapid breathing (like a bellows) withthe head held steady is called sthirabhastrāwith the heading moving is bhrāntibhastrāand internally (ie with the tip of thenose closed) is antarbhrastrā (Satkarmasaṅ-graha 50cdndash54 )234 Ūrdhvatroṭana seems to be some sort ofthreatening movement of the hands to theleft and right while visualizing the windrsquoswife (Satkarmasaṅgraha 71cdndash72ab वामद-

िनतो हौ तज यायवभाम सिोऽोटक क-म ौीशतोिदतम I am not sure of the mean-ing of this verse but suspect that one shouldread सिो- and ौीशनोिदतम) Whendone on the hips (kaṭi) it is cakratroṭanaandwith the feet and hands sarvāṅgatroṭana(Satkarmasaṅgraha 72cdndash73ab)235 Ūrdhvasiddhikāriṇī begins with drink-ing water then performing nauli andexpelling the water through the anusAdhaḥsiddhikāriṇī is the opposite wateris taken in through the anus nauli isperformed and then it is expelled throughthe oesophogus (kaṇṭhanāla) It resultsin more siddhis than most of the othertechniques The author adds that thisdivine purification was taught by Rāghavaafter he saw the ancient texts whosedoctrine was of the Nāthas (मााानााथमागा न शिदा राघवण णीता) SeeSatkarmasaṅgraha 87ndash92ab236 The two types of netī are distinguishedby whether the thread (sūtra) is turnedabout or not (vartitāvartita) during the prac-tice (Satkarmasaṅgraha 67ndash68)237 Kaśā is similar to neti The differ-ence seems to be that the string is tobe rubbed (gharṣayet) when it has beeninserted through the nose (Satkarmasaṅ-graha 42cd-43)238 Netrī is threading a string into the leftnostril and pulling it out the right (Sat-karmasaṅgraha 44ab-45)

ana239 ṣṭhīvana240 nāsādanti241 udgāra242 śirāsantildecālana243 karaṇāpyāyana244 andjaladhāra245 Other practices of Haṭhayoga such as khecarī and vajroli mudrās arementioned but not described in any detail

The Satkarmasaṅgraha does not mention whether a physician is needed to ad-minister the Ayurvedic techniques it incorporated Instead the work presents it-self as a collection of self-administered therapeutic interventions for yogins whowere ill or had injured themselves through the practice of Yoga

premodern yoga therapy (yogacikitsā)Apart from the ṣaṭkarma there is evidence for one other significant developmentof a distinctly Yogic therapy which was called such (ie cikitsā) This therapyis described in a chapter appended to the Haṭhapradīpikārsquos four chapters in twomanuscripts The colophons of both manuscripts mistakenly entitle it as a sec-tion on herbs246 It was undoubtedly added to theHaṭhapradīpikā at amore recenttime most probably at the beginning of the eighteenth century judging by thedate of one of these two manuscripts247 Seeing that very few catalogue entriesreport of a Haṭhapradīpikā with five chapters it is probable that the chapter ontherapy had only a brief association with this Haṭha text The chapter has beentaken from a Śaiva text called theDharmaputrikā which teaches a system of Yoga

239 Kasana is coughing forcefully (Sat-karmasaṅgraha 47cdndash48)240 Ṣṭhīvana is expectoration using udānain which case phlegm is emitted from thethroat or palate and prāṇa which drawsphlegm from the abdomen (Satkarmasaṅ-graha 49ndash50ab)241 Nāsādanti is drinking water throughthe right and left nostrils and expellingit through the mouth (Satkarmasaṅ-graha 55)242 Udgāra is forceful eructation (Sat-karmasaṅgraha 74)243 Śirāsantildecālana is moving the breaththrough all the bodyrsquos tubes (Satkarmasaṅ-graha 75)244 Karaṇāpyāyana is the taking of vari-ous concoctions mostly consisting of gheesugar milk etc to revive the sensory or-gans (ie the nose eyes ears skin and gen-itals) See Satkarmasaṅgraha 101cdndash104245 Jaladhārā is a water treatment in which

a pot is placed on the abdomen and waterpoured from above Cold water is used forfever and hot water for pain (Satkarmasaṅ-graha 106cdndash107)246 This chapter has been edited andpublished (as the fifth chapter) inKaivalyadhamarsquos edition of the Haṭhapra-dīpikā (first published in 1970) Theyused two manuscripts for this chapterThe first is from the Pune UniversityLibrary (Mahajan 1986 1 2402) and theeditors report the following colophonइित ौीाारामयोगिवरिचताया हठदीिपकायाऔषधयो[ग] नाम पमोपदशः And the secondis from the Sārvajanik Vācanālaya Nāsik(no catalogue number) and its colophonइित ौीाारामयोगिवरिचताया हठदीिपकायाऔषधकथन नाम पमोपदशः247 The manuscript at the SārvajanikVācanālaya Nāsik is dated śaka 1628 whichis approximately 1706 ce

jason birch 57

with six auxiliaries (ṣaḍaṅga) for the Śaiva laity248 The Dharmaputrikā is some-times included in bundles of manuscripts of the Śivadharma corpus and it musthave been composed earlier than the mid-eleventh century on the basis of twodated manuscripts249 The fact that its chapter on therapy was attached to atleast two manuscripts of the Haṭhapradīpikā suggests that it had some currencyamongst yogins from the sixteenth to eighteenth century possibly because oftheir interest in the practical application of its therapy for curing illness

The aim of this therapy is to cure imbalances of the humours in relation toone another caused by a yoginrsquos negligence (pramāda)250 Negligencewhile prac-tising Yoga may make the breath stray from its normal path in the body causinga blockage (granthi) and then various diseases which are obstacles to Yoga251The method of treatment proposed is very simple

In whatever place pain arises because of disease one should medit-ate with the mind on the breath in that place Havingmeditated on it

248 I wish to thank Christegravele Barois for in-forming me that the Dharmaputrikā has achapter on therapy (cikitsā) She is workingon this text for the AyurYog Project and willpublish an article called ldquoMedical Practicesof Yogins in Medieval India The Testimonyof the Dharmaputrikārdquo that will contain amore detailed discussion on its content andplace in the Śivadharma corpus (personalcommunication 31102015)249 One manuscript MS KathmanduNAK 3393 (NGMPP A 10823) is dated[Nepal] Saṃvat 189 (1069 ce) and theother MS Calcutta AS G4077 is datedto [Nepal] Saṃvat 156 (1035ndash1036 ce)Shastri (1928 718ndash23) I wish to thank PeterBisschop for these references (personalcommunication 2532016)250 Haṭhapradīpikā 51 ldquoFor [the yogin]who is negligent when practising [an im-balance in] wind [bile or phlegm] arisesHe should ascertain the flow of the breathfor the treatment of that imbalancerdquo (मादीयत य वातािद जायत तोष िचिकाथगत वायोनपयतिनपयत] Dharmaputrikā िनतEd)251 Haṭhapradīpikā 55 ldquoBecause of negli-gence the yoginrsquos breath [might] have pro-

ceeded along the wrong path When it hasnot taken the [right] path it becomes ablockage and remains [there] Then arisevarious diseases which cause obstaclesrdquo (-मादाोिगनो वायागण वततः यदा माग मनासामीभावितत तदा नानािवधा रोगा जाय िवका-रकाःयदा] Dharmaputrikā तदा Ed)Negligence (pramāda) is not properly ex-plained in the Haṭhapradīpikā However inearlier chapters the Dharmaputrikā explainsthat negligence gives rise to one of fourtypes of obstacle (pramādajānatarāya) Thistype of obstacle seems to relate to a concen-tration practice (dhāraṇā) explained in thethird chapter It involves moving the vi-tal breaths (prāṇa) through a series of joints(parvan) starting at the big toes moving upthrough the body to the eighteenth joint atthe top of the head and thenmoving beyondthat to the twenty-eighth joint which is theworld of Brahma (brahmaloka) The seventhchapter asserts that if a yogin happens tobe negligent while practising this sequenceof concentration the breath may settle ina place that has not been mastered (ajita)and this causes diseases to arise in the bodywhich gives rise to hindrances (vighna)

with a one-pointedmind [the yogin] should breathe in and out com-pletely carefully [and] according to his capacity Having performedmany exhalations and inhalations again and again he should drawout the breath that has accumulated [there] as one [would draw outaccumulated] fluid from the ear with water252

This method is distinctly Yogic insofar as it relies on the yoginrsquos ability to med-itate and manipulate the breath Other verses in the chapter provide furtheradvice on diet the practice of kumbhaka prāṇāyāma in a supine position and thevarious diseases that can be cured by this therapy A significant comment on thistherapyrsquos relation to Ayurveda is made towards the end of the chapter when theyogin is advised to perform this Yogic therapy (yogacikitsā) in addition to takingthe treatments prescribed in Ayurvedic texts (vaidyaśāstra) Therefore it appearsthat the author of theDharmaputrikā understood its Yogic therapy as distinct frombut complementary to Ayurveda253

The art of healing diseases through meditation has another antecedentin Tantra For example the treatment of diseases (rogacikitsā) using con-centration (dhāraṇā) on the elements and meditation can be found in theMatysendrasaṃhitā254 which was composed at the time when early Haṭha-and Rājayoga systems were being formulated255 There are even traces of thisconception in the Pātantildejalayogaśāstra 132 in which the hindrances (antarāyavikṣepa) including disease (vyādhi) are said to be prevented by focusing themind on one object (ekatattvābhyāsa)

A Vaidya-Yogi-ScholarThe treatment (cikitsā) of diseases was also mentioned by Sundaradeva in hisworks on Yoga called the Haṭhasaṅketacandrikā and the Haṭhatattvakaumudī

252 Haṭhapradīpikā 59ndash11 editionpp 183 f) यििन समश जा बाधाजायत तिश ित वाय मनसा पिरिचयतएकिचन त ाा परयरकण त िनःशष रचककया थाशा यतः बधा रचक का परियापनः पनः कष योित वाय कण तोयिमवानासमश] Dharmaputrikā यदा Ed तDharmapu-trikā तद Ed िनःशष] Dharmaputrikā िनःशषEd ोित] Dharmaputrikā ाित Ed253 Haṭhapradīpikā 522 ldquo[The yogin]should carefully take treatment in themanner taught in the medical texts andhe should perform Yogic therapy [Thus]he quickly cures [his illnesses]rdquo (वशाो-

िविधना िबया कवत यतः कया ोगिचा चशीयमव शाित)254 Matsyendrasaṃhitā 425ndash28abldquoTherefore now listen O Goddess tothe proper treatment of diseases Havingdrunk rich and very hot rice-gruel heshould practice fixation (dhārayet) thenHe should visualize nectar (amṛta) in hisbody that would remove all diseases Heshould visualize (dhyāyet) the Fixation ofFire [and] the Wind [Fixation and] theFluid [Fixation] [hellip]rdquo (translation by Kiss(2009 250))255 Kiss 2009 47ndash48

jason birch 59

Sundaradeva was a Brahmin who lived in Varanasi most probably in the eight-eenth century256 The colophons of his works identify him as a doctor (vaidya)who was the son of Govindadeva and pupil of Viśvarūpatīrtha He is alsoreported to have written various works on Ayurveda such as the Bhūpālavallabha(or the Bhūpacaryā ) the Cikitsāsundara the Līlāvatī the Yogoktivivekacandraand the Yogoktyupadeśāṃrta257 His knowledge was quite wide-ranging Forexample the Bhūpālavallabha which is a treatise on dietetics and pathologyincludes a section on wrestling (mallavidyā) from the Mallapurāṇa (HIML IIA479) Both the Haṭhasaṅketacandrikā and the Haṭhatattvakaumudī are erudite andvoluminous They are written in a variety of metres and prose Their contentis largely derived from earlier sources the main ones being texts of the earlyYoga corpus Tantras the Pātantildejalayogaśāstra and various Brahmanical worksincluding the early Upaniṣads Purāṇas and the Mahābhārata258 He quotes withattribution many of these sources but more frequently rewrites earlier materialin his own style without acknowledging the source

In both the Haṭhasaṅketacaṅdrikā and the Haṭhatattvakaumudī Sundaradevamentions therapy (cikitsā) in the context of illnesses that arise when the yogin iscareless (pramāda) in practising Yoga at the wrong place or time (deśakāla) Thisdiscussion occurs towards the beginning of both works because Sundaradeva isaddressing the commencement of Yoga (yogopakrama) He says that if an illnessarises at this time the yogin should resort to treatment

Loss of memory stupidity complete muteness259 deafness blind-ness severe cough and fever these [all] arise because of unsteadinessand anger in the body of one who is practising Yoga in the wrongplace or at an [inappropriate] time Also mental disorders arisesuch as these desire fear sleepiness and excessive greed Havingfirst overcome [these] impediments to Yoga along with anger one

256 Sundaradevarsquos terminus a quo is theYogacintāmaṇi of Śivānandasarasvatī whichwas composed in the early seventeenth-century and his terminus ad quem is 1832CE which is the date of an incomplete man-uscript of the Haṭhasaṅketacandrikā in theCambridge University Library (MS Cam-bridge CUL Add 2145) He quotes theKumbhakapaddhati which is an undatedcompendium of breath-retentions that wasprobably compiled in the seventeenth orearly-eighteenth century257 These works are reported by Meu-

lenbeld (HIML IIA 479) and the cata-logues upon which this information isbased are given in HIML IIB 490ndash91258 For a list of the works quoted bySundaradeva in his Haṭhatattvakaumudī seeGharotersquos edition of this work (Haṭhatattva-kaumudī vndashvi)259 I have not been able to find a referencein another work to aṅgavimūkatā (literallyldquomuteness of bodyrdquo) I have assumed thatit is the inability to communicate with anybodily gesture including by mouth facialgestures hands etc

who is dedicated and very focused should practise Yoga with asteadymind [hellip] After that the good practitioner who is careful andhas not developed [these] severe faults should practise prāṇāyāmawith a focused mind and [proper] knowledge If diseases arisebecause of negligence listen to the treatment (cikitsā) for them Itis as follows One should spread oily and warm rice-gruel on thechest to cure abdominal swelling caused by wind (vātagulma) Justso one [should put] thick sour milk (dadhi) on piles and [take]rice gruel for tumours and diseases arising because of [vitiated]wind In this system when thirsty one should visualize unripe fruiton the tongue when deaf a dagger[sound]dagger in the ears when one hasa speech impediment a mountain and when one has chest painone should hold [in mind] a rasāṅka260 When shaking one shouldvisualize the Himālaya in onersquos heart or one should place a verylarge rock [on onersquos chest] When intense pain in the head arisesshortly [after] stopping [the breath one should put] warm rice gruelsaturated with ghee [on the chest] When a practitioner holds hisconcentration on whatever place supports it [then] in a hot [place]it has a cooling effect and in a cold [place] a heating one Havingplaced a nail on onersquos head one should duly strike [one piece of]wood with another Because of this a sagersquos memory returns evenif he has amnesia261

260 I am not certain of the meaning ofrasāṅka This compound occurs in theSarvadarśanasaṃgraha 207 in its sectionon Rasaśāstra (रसामयमागो जीवमोोथात न) In his Sanskrit commentary calledthe Darśanāṅkura on the Sarvadarśanasaṅ-graha Vāsudevaśāstrī Abhyankar (1863ndash1942) glosses rasāṅka as rasaśāstra (तदाह -- रसाित रसशाोमागा नसारणव जीव स-भवित नाथा) However this meaning ofrasāṅka does not seem to fit the context inHaṭhasaṅketacandrikā (MSS) 222261 Haṭhasaṅketacandrikā (MSS) 218ndash1921ndash25 ितलयो जडतािवमकता बिधरतामहा-कसनराः किवषयऽसमय पिरयतो वपिष योगममीचलरोषतः १८ मानसा अिप दोषाि त यथाकामो भय मतीवलोभः ायोगदोषान अिप कोपय-ान िवहाय यः ससमािहताा यीत योग मनसािरण १९ [hellip] अमोऽनवाोऽितदोषानतःाणसरोधन सावधानाना ानयन साधकः

साधयमादादाििका ण २१ सा यथािधा कोा यवाग िद पिरिबभयाातगशातशिस ािदित पवनभवमिरोग यवागमायदाम फल व रसन इह तिष ौोऽयोः daggerावदdaggerएवबािधय वािवघात नगमथ िबभयाघात रसा२२ क नग िद िचया सापयलतरतथोपलम घतता कोयवागका िागायामजमकशल उण २३ यि यदा दश तपकािरधारणा िबभयात उ शीता शीत िवदािहनसाधकः करण २४ कील िशरिस ा च काकान ताडयक नतरिप मनः रण सजायत तन २५C=MS Cambridge CUL Add 2145 G =MSMadras GOML R3239 and J = MS JodhpurMansingh PPL 224418c ऽसमय पिरयतो] Haṭhatattvakau-mudī 318 समव यतो G (unmetrical) ऽसम पिरयतो C J (unmetrical) 19b अिप] Gइित C J कोपयान] C J कोिपयान G 21a

jason birch 61

The striking feature of Sundaradevarsquos treatments is their lack of sophisticationAlthough medical practice and literature of the Early Modern period suggestthat vaidyas did not use the complex materials of Caraka and Suśruta buttheory-free compendia of recipes262 Sundaradevarsquos above treatments appearmore like home remedies One might speculate that Sundaradeva believedthat yogins would not have access to expensive medicines or doctors and soprescribed remedies with common ingredients However it is more likely thatSundaradevarsquos choice of treatments here has been determined by the genre ofthe text he was writing In other words in writing a Yoga text he relied uponthe curative power of visualization and concentration techniques Thereforeunlike Bhavadevamiśra who was willing to insert Ayurvedic material intohis compilation on Yoga when opportunities arose Sundaradeva appears tohave refrained from doing so In fact towards the end of this same chapter heacknowledges the limitations of medicines and advises one to resort to Yogashould they fail

There are various diseases in which there is a predominant excess ofwind Having diagnosed the cause it is removed and treated in thissystem [with the treatments mentioned in this chapter] Howeverwhen a disease does not come to an end [even] with hundreds ofmedicines one should cure it with the [Haṭhayogic] mudrās āsanasand prāṇāyāmas263

In his works on Yoga Sundaradeva does not contradict Yogarsquos default positionthat the practice of its techniques can cure all diseases His treatments are foryogins who are new to the practice and have become sick because they did notabide by the requisite rules He provided little more than simple remedies for

ऽनवाो] G न चाो C J 21c साधकः] G J याधकः C 22a कोा] एम को G कोाC कोा J 22a -शा] C J -शा G22b -रोग] C J -राग G 22b यवागम ] C G यवागम J 22c आम] C J आम G 22cरसन ]J रसन G रसन C 22c ावद एव] C J ादवG 22d वघात] conj Dominik Wujastykवघात C G J 23 तथोपलम] C J तथोफलG 23 कोयवागका] C J कोयवागक G 23िागायामज ] C J िागायामचG 23 मकशल] J मकशलाC मशलG 24 uṣṇe] C J उोG 25a ा च] C J सा G 25b कान]C काछन J 25d सजायत तन] G J जायत तन C(unmetrical - Āryā metre) This passage

is similar to one quoted by Śivānanda(Yogacintāmaṇi p 97) and attributed toDattātreya262 See eg the period characterizationsby Bose Sen and B V Subbarayappa(1971 263 f) Jolly (1977 sect2ndash3) and P VSharma (1992 498)263 Haṭhasaṅketacandrikā (MSS) 229 वा-तधानबला बधा गदाः िचिकितिमह िव-चाय काय म नो यापबमशत यदा गदोऽ मिा-सनािनलिनरोधनतो जयम29a बधा] C G बध J 29a गदाः द] CJ गदाः द G 29b त] J त C तच G29c ऽ] G J अर J

these neophytes who could not rely on an effective practice of Yoga to cure them-selves Although Sundaradeva quotes from Ayurvedic texts in both the Haṭha-tattvakaumudī and the Haṭhasaṅketacandrikā264 he does so only on the topic offood His quotation of Ayurvedic sources in these two works is very sparse andalmost insignificant in relation to their size Although Sundaradeva consulted awide variety of texts he did not borrow Ayurvedic material to supplement hisdiscussions of anatomy as Bhavadevamiśra did nor did he incorporate herbalpreparations to bolster the therapeutic arsenal of Yoga In this sense he appearsto have kept his knowledge of Ayurveda and Yoga relatively separate by writingworks dedicated to one or the other

5 CONCLUDING REMARKS

If yogins took medicines and if vaidyas appropriated some Yoga techniques thefindings of this study suggest that such interaction had little influence overall

on the texts of the Yoga traditions that have been consulted The authors of theearly corpus tend to confine themselves strictly to the topic of Yoga One couldargue that this alone is why so little information on Ayurveda is found in theseworks However this could not be said of the late corpus because many of itsauthors were willing to integrate information from various traditions on topicsrelated to Yoga Nonetheless like Sundaradeva the majority of these authorsappear to have lacked the will to combine Yoga and Ayurveda in any significantway The instances in which they do so such as discussions on disease food oranatomy prove that it could have been achieved on a much grander scale hadthey pursued it fully In cases such as the Khecarīvidyā and the Yuktabhavadeva inwhich significant sections on herbs appear and in the latter Ayurvedic anatomythe borrowing seems somewhat contrived because it is not integrated with dis-course on Yoga

Health and healing were undoubtedly important aims of premodern YogaThey were primarily achieved through the practice of Yoga and a basic under-standing of anatomy and disease whichmost probably derived from earlier Tan-tric ascetic and Brahmanical traditions Yoga traditions developed distinctly Yo-gic therapeutic interventions such as the ṣaṭkarma and in this sense they appear

264 Haṭhatattvakaumudī 447 (त वा-टन आयवद) = Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā Sū39This hemistich about wind is also found inthe Suśrutasaṃhitā Sū46490cd) Haṭha-saṅketacandrikā (MSS) 326 in G and 325in J (तथा चोमायवद मडतद शगण िसोयिसकः मडो माही लघः शीतो दीपनो धातसा-कत ॐोतोमाद वकिरौमापह इित

26b िसस] em िसिस G िसघस J 26cमडो] J मड G 26c लघः] G लघः J26d दीपनो धातसाकत] J दीपतो धानस-कत G 26e -माद व-] G -मादव- J 26e िप-] J िप G) I am yet to trace the firstquotation but the second is Haṭhasaṅketa-candrikā (MSS) 326 =Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃ-hitā Sū626cd 27ab

jason birch 63

to have made a unique contribution to premodern medicinal traditions of SouthAsia265 The Satkarmasaṅgraha is a true synthesis of Ayurveda and Haṭhayogarsquosṣaṭkarma for the treatment of yogins Nonetheless the allusions to a group ofvaidya-yogins in the Yogayājntildeavalkya and the vaidya-guru in the Amṛtasiddhi ap-pear to point to yogins who might have healed others through Yoga rather thanto yogins who had obtained the specialized knowledge of Ayurveda Moreoverthe metaphor ofmokṣa as the ultimate healing of all suffering appears to have de-marcated the battleground between the disciplines of Yoga and Ayurveda ratherthan common ground for their integration The strong emphasis on healing inYoga traditions and their distinct curative methods were the outcome of thisrivalry

Nearly all premodern Yoga texts claim frequently that their practices cureeach and every disease In fact the curative powers of Yoga are declared soemphatically that one wonders how their proponents might have sought med-ical help without the embarrassment of having to admit that their Yoga practicehad failed Furthermore there are instances where yogins claim that the prac-tice of Yoga results in alchemical powers such as the ability to turn iron andother metals into gold by smearing them with onersquos own urine and faeces266The proponents of these Yoga traditions were accustomed to competing withother soteriologies and it is likely that they did sowith Ayurveda and RasaśāstraThis would explain why their texts promoted their own methods and remainedlargely silent on those of other traditionswhichwere vying for the same rewardsAs noted above the claims of doctors are questioned in the Amaraughaprabodhaand in theDattātreyayogaśāstra (52) alchemy (dhātuvāda) is said to be an obstacle(vighna)

The conclusive remarks of this study should be understood within the limit-ations of the evidence on which they rely Yoga texts are prescriptive267 and thusreveal very little about the actual behaviour of yogins when they were not prac-tising Yoga Travellersrsquo accounts which mention yogins can provide informationthat might not be in a Yoga text Several of these accounts report of yogins takingmedicines For example in the thirteenth century Marco Polo observed ldquoyogisrdquo(ciugi) taking alchemical cocktails of mercury and sulphur twice a month in or-der to prolong their lives268 In spite of the uncertainty about the identity of such

265 For a discussion on Indian medicinebeyond Ayurveda see Maas 2019 1ndash2266 Dattātreyayogaśāstra 99 CfRasārṇava 1220ab (त मऽपरीषण शभवित कानम) 12265 etc267 For more on the limitations of pre-

scriptive texts see Sanderson 2013 215ndash16268 SeeWhite 1996 50 for details of this ref-erence in Marco Polorsquos travel book and formore accounts by Franccedilois Bernier and JohnCampell Oman

ldquoyogisrdquo in this and similar accounts it seems reasonable to accept that those yo-gins whose reputations did not rely on claims that Yoga could cure all diseasesand guarantee a long life might well have been tempted to achieve health andimmortality by combining Yoga with the consumption of medicinal compoundsif they were available

Ideally I would have liked to have searchedmore extensively for passages onYoga in Ayurvedic and alchemical texts that date from the tenth to eighteenthcentury but such research has remained beyond the scope of this article I knowof only one such passage which probably derives from a Yoga text A section onYoga in the alchemical compilation called the Ānandakanda appears to be basedon an early recension of the Vivekamārtaṇḍa269 Further research may reveal theextent to which alchemists integrated teachings specific to premodern Yoga tra-ditions in their literary works

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Dr Dagmar Wujastyk for invitingme to be part of the Ayuryog project encouraging me towrite this article and helping me with it at every stage Iwould also like to thank Dr Christegravele Barios and Dr Phil-ipp Maas for the discussions we had while I was writ-ing this essay and Dr James Mallinson Dr Suzanne New-combe Dr Mark Singleton Prof Dominik Wujastyk and Jacqueline Hargreavesfor their comments on various drafts My work on this article has received fund-ing from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European UnionrsquosHorizon 2020 research and innovation programme from two grants (agreementno 647963 and no 639363)

269 Ānandakanda 12048ndash196 TheĀnandakandarsquos chapter on Yoga containsthe same contents as the Vivekamārtaṇḍa

(including the same six auxiliaries (aṅga)the ajapā mantra the same āsanas bandhasmudrās and so on)

jason birch 65

APPENDIX THE SHARED TERMINOLOGY OF YOGA ANDAYURVEDA IN THE HAṬHAPRADĪPIKĀ (1972 EDITION)

Frequency

General Terms

doṣa 133 221 28 34 53 314 17 475vāta (in the sense of a bodily wind) 227 65pitta 227 58 65 396kapha 227 66śleṣman 221 65dhātu 166 228 53medas 221

Diseases

gulma (swelling) 133 227 58 317hikkā (hiccup) 217śvāsa (breathing difficulty) 217 25kāsa (cough) 217 25śiraḥkarṇākṣivedana 217plīha (enlargement of the spleen) 225 27 58kuṣṭha (skin diseases) 225 317udara (stomach diseases) 133 227kaphadoṣa 235 36kapharoga (viṃśati) 225śleṣmadoṣa 252vātadoṣa 250kṛmidoṣa 250nāḍījalodara 253dhātugatadoṣa 253

sthaulya (obesity) 236ālasya (sloth) 255jvara (fever) 258pitta 258viṣa 258 316 38 45brahmanāḍīmukhe saṃsthakapha 266kṣaya (consumption) 317gudāvarta (constipation) 317tṛṣā (thirst) 255 58kṣudhā (hunger) 255 58ajīrna (indigestion) 317valīpalitavepaghnaḥ (eliminatingwrinkles grey hair and trembling)

valitaṃ palitaṃ na dṛśyate 381

In addition to this there are references to stimulating digestive fire270 curingtwenty phlegmatic diseases271 curing eye diseases272 and throat problems res-toration of the bodily constituents (dhātu) senses andmind 273 destroying all ora group of diseases 274 and bestowing health275

270 For example jaṭharapradīpti 127udayaṃ jaṭharānalasya 129 janayatijaṭharāgniṃ 131 analasya pradīpanam 220mandāgnisandīpana 234 dehānalavivardhana252 śarīrāgnivivardhana 265 agnidīpana278 jaṭharāgnivivardhinī 379271 kapharogāś ca viṃśatiḥ 225 This demon-strates that a number of phlegmatic diseaseswere known However in most cases aYoga technique is said to remove imbalancesin phlegm (eg kaphadoṣaviśoṣaṇī 236)272 mocanaṃ netrarogāṇāṃ 233

273 dhātvindriyāntaḥkaraṇaprasāda 229274 pracaṇḍarugmaṇḍalakhaṇḍana 127harati sakalarogān 133 vyādhivināśa 146sarvavyādhivināśana 149 54 sarvarogakṣaya216 kṣīyante sakalāmayāḥ 228 jatrūrd-hvajātarogaughaṃ [hellip] āśu nihanti 230aśeṣadoṣamayaśoṣaṇī 234 mucyate [hellip]vyādhimṛtyujarādibhiḥ 337 vyādhīnāṃharaṇam 349275 ārogya 117 ārogatā 129 278 na rogo[hellip] tasya 338 pīḍyate na sa rogeṇa 339nirvyādhiḥ 350 na jāyate [hellip] rogādikaṃ 374

jason birch 67

ABBREVIATIONS

MS manuscriptEd Editioned editorΣ All manuscriptscorr correctionemend emendationconj conjectureunmetr unmetricalcf conferARL Adyar Research LibraryGOML [Indian] Government Oriental Research LibraryNAK National Archives of Kathmandu

ACRONYMS

HIML Gerrit Jan Meulenbeld (1999ndash2002) A Historyof Indian Medical Literature 5 vols Groningen EForsten isbn 9069801248

MW Monier Monier-Williams E Leumann CCappeller et al (1899) A SanskritndashEnglishDictionary Etymologically and PhilologicallyArranged New Edition Oxford ClarendonPress url httpsarchiveorgdetailsSanskritEnglishDictioneryMONIERWILLIAMS(on 4 Jan 2018)

NCC V Raghavan K Kunjunni Raja C S SundaramN Veezhinathan N Gangadharan E R RamaBai Siniruddha Dash et al (1949ndash) NewCatalogus Catalogorum an Alphabetical Register ofSanskrit and Allied Works and Authors MadrasUniversity Sanskrit Series Madras Universityof Madras v1 revised edition 1968

INDEX OF MANUSCRIPTS

Baroda Central Library 4110 13 45

Calcutta AS G4077 57Cambridge CUL Add 2145 1 60Cambridge CUL Add 2145 59Chennai ARL 70528 1 37 38Chennai ARL 75278 1 37 38Chennai ARL 70528 6Chennai GOML D4339 38Chennai GOML SR1448 6

Jodhpur Mansingh PPL 2244 1 60Jodhpur RORI 16329 1 36Jodhpur RORI 34946 43 44

Kathmandu NAK 3393 57Kathmandu NAK S 332 (microfilm A133320) 10 19

Madras GOML D4373 23Madras GOML R3239 1 60Madras GOML SR 1448 1

Nāsik Sārvajanik Vācanālaya no identifier 56

Pune BORI 220 of 1882ndash83 1Pune Jayakar 2402 56

TEXT EDITIONSIn English alphabetical order

Ahirbudhnyasaṃhitā Mālayanvikulavātaṃsa DevaśikhāmaṇiRāmānujācārya and V Krishnamacharyaeds (1966) Śrīpāntildecarātrāgamāntargatā Ahir-budhnyasaṃhitā = Ahirbudhnya-saṃhita ofthe Pāntildecarātrāgama 2nd ed 2 vols AdyarLibrary Series 4 Adyar Madras Adyar Lib-rary and Research Centre isbn 0835672344url https archive org details Ahirbudhnyasamhita2vols (on 4 Jan 2018)

Amanaska Jason Birch (2013c) ldquoThe Amanaska King ofAll Yogas A Critical Edition and AnnotatedTranslation with a Monographic IntroductionrdquoPhD thesis University of Oxford

jason birch 69

Amaraughaprabodha ldquoŚrīmadgorakṣanāthaviracitaḥ ldquoAmaraugha-prabodhardquordquo (1954b) In Siddha-Siddhānta-Paddhati and Other Works of the Nātha YogīsEd by Kalyani Mallik Pune Poona Ori-ental Book House pp 48ndash55 url https archiveorgdetailsMallik1954 (on 25Dec 2017)

Amaraughaprabodha (MS) (Nd) MS Chennai ARL 75278 MS ChennaiARL 70528 MS Chennai GOML SR 1448

Amṛtasiddhi James Mallinson ed (in preparation) The Amṛ-tasiddhi Haṭhayogarsquos Tantric Buddhist Source Texturl https www academia edu 26700528(on 12 Apr 2018) To appear in The Festschrift ofAlexis Sanderson In preparation

Ānandakanda S V Radhakrishna ed (1952) AnandakandamEdited with Translation in Tamil and Introductionin Tamil and Sanskrit Vol 15 TMSSM SeriesThanjavur Tanjore Maharaja Serfojirsquos SaraswatiMahal Library

Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā Rahul Peter Das and Ronald E Emmerickeds (1998) Vāgbhaṭarsquos Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitāthe Romanised Text accompanied by Line andWord Indexes Groningen Oriental Series 13Groningen Forsten isbn 9789069801049

Bhāgavatapurāṇa Jagadisalala Sastri ed (1983) Śrīmadbhāgavata-purāṇam with the Tīkā Bhāvārthabodhinā ofŚrīdharasvāmin Delhi Motilala Banarasidasurl https archive org details bhagavatamshridhari (on 4 Jan 2018)

Bhāvaprakāśa K R Srikantha Murthy (1998ndash2000)Bhāvaprakāśa of Bhāvamiśra (text EnglishTranslation Notes Appendeces [sic] and Index)2 vols Varanasi Krishnadas Academy

Bṛhatkhecarīprakāśa Ballāla (nd) MS Ujjain Scindia OrientalResearch Institute 14575

Carakasaṃhitā Priya Vrat Sharma (1996) Caraka-saṃhitāAgniveśarsquos Treatise Refined and Annoted byCaraka and Redacted by Dṛḍhabala (text withEnglish Translation) 4th ed Vol 36 4 vols TheJaikrishnadas Ayurveda Series Varanasi DelhiChaukhambha Orientalia

Dattātreyayogaśāstra James Mallinson (2013b) Dattātreyarsquos Discourseon Yoga [translation of the Dattātreyayogaśāstrathe Earliest Text to Teach Haṭhayoga] Edby Alexis Sanderson Peacuteter-Daacuteniel SzaacutentaacuteJason Birch and Andrea Acri url https academiaedu3773137 Forthcoming

Gaurīkāntildecalikātantra Śrībhuvanacandra Vasāka ed (1821) GaurīKāntildecalikā Tantra Kolkata Saṃvādajntildeānarat-nākara

Gheraṇḍasaṃhitā James Mallinson (2004) The Gheraṇḍa SaṃhitāThe Original Sanskrit and an English Transla-tion Woodstock NY YogaVidyacom isbn0971646635

Gorakṣayogaśāstra (MS) (Nd) MS Kathmandu NAK S 332 (microfilmA133320)

Haṭhābhyāsapaddhati (Nd)Haṭhapradīpikā Swami Digambaraji and Raghunathashastri

Kokaje eds (1998) Haṭhapradīpikā of Svāt-mārāma 2nd ed Lonavla Swami Digambarajifor the Kaivalyadhama S M Y M Samiti isbn8189485121 url httpsgooglTgzr1o (on3 Jan 2018)

Haṭharatnāvalī Veṅkaṭa Reddy (1982b) Hatharatnavali ofSrinivasabhatta Mahayogindra With an ElaborateIntroduction Selected Text English TranslationCritical Notes Appendices and Word IndexSri Medapati Subbireddy Memorial YogaSeries 1 Arthamuru EG Dt AP India MRamakrishna Reddy

Haṭhasaṅketacandrikā (MSS) (Nd) MS Madras GOML R3239 MS Cam-bridge CUL Add 2145 MS Jodhpur MansinghPPL 2244

Haṭhatattvakaumudī M L Gharote Parimal Devnath and Vijay KantJha (2007) Haṭhatatvakaumudī ndash A Treatise onHaṭha-yoga by Sundaradeva Vol 800 LonavlaLonavla Yoga Institute

Haṭhayogapradīpikā Srinivasa Iyangar Tookaram Tatya A ARamanathan S V Subrahmanya Sastri andRadha Burnier eds (1972) The Haṭhayogapra-dīpikā of Svātmārāma with the Commentary Jyotsnāof Brahmānanda and English Translation Adyar

jason birch 71

The Adyar Library and Research Centre urlhttpsarchiveorgdetailsinernetdli2015495257 (on 3 Jan 2018)

Jogapradīpyakā Swāmī Maheśānanda B R Sharma G SSahay and R K Bodhe eds (2006) Jogapra-dīpyakā of Jayatarāma Critically Edited 1st edLonavla Kaivalyadhama SMYM Samiti isbn8189485458

Jyotsnā Sahāy Maheśānand Śarmā and Bodhe eds(2002) Brahmānandakṛtā Haṭhapradīpikā JyotsnāLonavla Kaivalyadham Śrīmanmādhav Yo-gamandir Samiti url httpsgooglqT5Mpk(on 4 Jan 2018)

Kākacaṇḍīśvarakalpatantra Gyanendra Pandey (2003) Kākacaṇḍīśvarakal-patantra Text with English Translation VaranasiChowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office

Khecarīvidyā James Mallinson (2007b) The Khecarīvidyāof Ādinātha A Critical Edition and AnnotatedTranslation of an Early Text of Haṭhayoga LondonNew York Routledge isbn 9781281260383

Kṣurikopaniṣat ldquoKṣurikopaniṣatrdquo (1968a) In Yoga Upaniṣadswith the Commentary of Śrī Upaniṣadbrahmayo-gin Ed by Alladi Mahadeva Sastrī AdyarLibrary Series 6 Madras The Adyar Lib-rary and Research Centre pp 36ndash44 urlhttpsarchiveorgdetailsinernetdli2015345354 (on 2 Jan 2018)

Liṅgapurāṇa Nāga-Śaraṇa Singh and Gaṇeśa Nātu eds(2004) Liṅgamahāpurāṇam Śivatoṣiṇīsaṃs-kṛtaṭīkopetam Nāga Śaraṇa Siṃha-saṃpādita-Ślokānukramaṇyā sahitam 3rd ed Delhi NagPublishers url https archive org detailslingapurana (on 18 Apr 2018)

Mahābhārata Sitaram Vishnu Sukthankar Shripad KrishnaBelvalkar et al eds (1933ndash1959) The Mahā-bhārata 19 vols Poona Bhandarkar OrientalResearch Institute

Mānasollāsa A Mahaacutedeva Śaacutestri and K Rangaacutechaacuteryaeds (1895) Dakṣiṇāmūrtistotram śrīśaṃkarā-cāryaviracitam = The Dakshinamurti-Strotraof Sri Sankaracharya with Commentaries by

Sureśvaraacutechaacuterya Svayamprakaacuteśa and RaacutematiacuterthaGovernment Oriental Library Series ndash Bib-liotheca Sanskrita 6 Mysore Governmentof Mysore url https archive org details Dakshinamurti Stotra of Sri SankaracharyawithCommentaries (on 3 Jan2018)

Matsyendrasaṃhitā Debabrata Sen Sharma ed (1994) MatsyendraSaṃhitā Bibliotheca Indica Series Calcutta TheAsiatic Society

Netratantra Madhusūdan Kaul Sāstrī ed (1926 1939) TheNetratantram with the Commentary by Kshemarāja2 vols Kashmir Series of Texts and Studies 4661 Bombay Government of Jammu and Kash-mir State url httpsarchiveorgdetailsNetraTantraWithCommentaryByKshemarajaVol1 Vol 2 at httpsarchiveorgdetailsNetraTantraWithCommentaryByKshemarajaVol2

Nirukta Lakshman Sarup (1967) The Nighaṇṭu and theNirukta the Oldest Indian Treatise on EtymologyPhilology and Sementics Delhi Varanasi PatnaMotilal Banarsidass url https goo gl q51eUL (on 3 Jan 2018)

Pātantildejalayogaśāstra Ve Śā Rā Rā Kāśīnātha Śāstrī Āgāśe andHari Nārāyaṇa Āpaṭe eds (1904) Vācaspati-miśraviracitaṭīkāsaṃvalitavyāsabhāṣyasametāniPātantildejalayogasūtrāṇi Tathā Bhojadevaviracita-rājamārtaṇḍābhidhavṛttisametāni Pātantildejalayo-gasūtrāṇi Ānandāśramasaṃskṛtagranthāva-liḥ 47 Puṇyākhya-pattana Ānandāśrama-mudraṇālaya url https archive org detailspatanjaliyoga

Prapantildecasāratantra Arthur Avalon and Aṭalānanda Sarasvatīeds (2002) Prapantildecasāra Tantra with theCommentary Vivaraṇa by Padmapādācārya andPrayogakramadīpikāmdasha Vṛtti on the VivaraṇaReprint edition Delhi Motilal Banarsidassisbn 8120805232 url httpsarchiveorgdetailsPrapanchaSaraTantraVol12_201801(on 2 Jan 2018)

jason birch 73

Rasaratnākara Yādavaśarmā Trivikrama Ācārya and Rāma-candraśāstrī Paṇaśīkara eds (1939) Śrīnitya-nāthasiddhaviracitaḥ RasaratnākarāntargataśCaturthaḥ Rasāyanakhaṇḍaḥ = RasacircyanakhandaFourth Part of Rasaratnākara of Śrī Nitya NāthaSiddha Haridāsa Saṃskṛta Granthamālā 95Banaras Caukhambā Saṃskṛta Pustakālaya4 78 url https archive org details RasaratnakaraRasayanakhanda1939

Rasārṇava Praphulla Chandra Ray and HariśhchandraKaviratna eds (1910) The Rasārnavam or theOcean of Mercury and Other Metals and Miner-als Bibliotheca Indica New Series 1193 1220and 1238 Calcutta The Asiatic Society ofBengal url httpsarchiveorgdetailsb24967506 (on 5 Jan 2018)

Rasārṇavakalpa Mira Roy and BV Subbarayappa (1976)Rasārṇavakalpa Manifold Powers of the Ocean ofRasa Indian National Science Academy 5 NewDelhi Indian National Science Academy

Sāṅkhyakārikā Satalur Sundara Suryanarayana Sastri ed(1948) The Sāṅkhyakārikā of Īśvara Kṛṣṇa 3rdedition revised reprint Publications of theDepartment of Indian Philosophy 3 MadrasUniversity of Madras url httpsarchiveorgdetailsinernetdli201551840 (on3 Jan 2018)

Śāradātilakatantra Arthur Avalon ed (1996) Śārada-Tilika-TantraDelhi Motilal Banarsidass isbn 8120813375url https archive org details AvalonSaradaTilakaTantram1933 (on 2 Jan2018)

Sarvadarśanasaṃgraha Vasudeva Śāstrī Abhyankar ed (1924) Śrīmat-sāyaṇamādhavācāryapraṇītaḥ Sarvadarśanasaṃ-grahaḥ AbhyaṃkaropāhvavāsudevaśāstriviracitayāDarśanāṅkurābhidhayā Vyākhyayā Sametaḥ Rāja-kīya Prācya(Hindu)granthaśreṇiḥ 1 Puṇya-pattana Prācyavidyāsaṃśodhanamandira[Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute] urlhttps archive org details Sarva -darsana-sangrahaOfMadhavacharya

Sarvajntildeānottaratantra Dominik Goodall ed (in preparation) Sar-vajntildeānottaratantra Based on the followingsources MS Kathmandu NAK 1ndash1692 (micro-film A 4312) MS Chennai GOML D 5550MS Pondicherry IFP T 334 MS PondicherryIFP T 760 Devakoṭṭai edition and Thanjavuredition The Adyar edition was consulted forthe Yogaprakarṇa In preparation

Satkarmasaṅgraha R G Harshe (1970) SatkarmasaṅgrahaḥLonavla Yoga-Mīmāmsā Prakāśana

Siddhasiddhāntapaddhati M LGharote ed (2005) SiddhasiddhāntapaddhatiḥA Treatise on the Nātha Philosophy Lonavla TheLonavla Yoga Institute isbn 9788190161718

Śivasaṃhitā James Mallinson (2007c) The ŚivasaṃhitaA Critical Edition and an English Transla-tion Woodstock NY YogaVidyacom isbn9780971646650

Śivayogapradīpikā Gaṇapatarāva Yādavarāva Nātū and Āśra-masthapaṇḍitāḥ eds (1978) Sadāśivayogīśvara-viracitā Śivayogadīpikā Mantra-laya-haṭha-rājākhyacaturvidhayogānāṃ vivaraṇam Sadāśiva-brahmendrapantildecaratnaṃ ca 2nd ed Ān-andāśrama Sanskrit Series 139 Pune Ān-andāśrama url https archive org detailsShivaYogaDeepika139AnandAshramSeries_201603 (on 3 Jan 2018)

Suśrutasaṃhitā Priya Vrat Sharma (2013) Suśruta-Saṃhitā withEnglish Translation of Text and Ḍalhaṇarsquos Com-mentary Alongwith (sic) Critical Notes Reprint3 vols Haridas Ayurveda Series 9 VaranasiChaukhambha Visvabharati

Svacchandatantra Madhusūdanakaulaśāstrī ed (1933) Sva-cchandatantra with the Commentary (Svac-chandoddyota) of Rājānaka Kṣemarāja Vol 5BKashmir Series of Texts and Studies 53 BombayNirṇayasāgara Press for the Government ofKammu and Kashmir url httpsarchiveorg details TheSvacchandaTantramVol VPartBMadhusudanKaul (on 4 Jan 2018)Covers paṭala 10 v 674-end

Tattvabinduyoga (Nd) MS Pune BORI 664 of 1883-84

jason birch 75

Vaiśeṣikasūtra Muni Jambūvijaya ed (1961) Vaiśeṣikasūtra ofKaṇāda with the Commentary of CandrānandaVol 136 Gaekwadrsquos Oriental Series BarodaOriental Institute

Vasiṣṭhasaṃhitā Swami Maheshananda B R Sharma G SSahay and R K Bodhe (2005) Vasiṣṭha Saṃ-hitā (Yoga Kāṇḍa) Revised edition LonavlaKaivalyadhama SMYM samiti url https googljQm6tx (on 25 Dec 2017)

Vāyavīyasaṃhitā PushpendraKumar ed (1981) Śrī ŚivamahāpurāṇamThe Śiva Mahāpurāṇa 2nd ed Delhi Nag Pub-lishers url httpsarchiveorgdetailsShivaPuranaPushpendraKumarNagPublishers(on 18 Apr 2018)

Vimānārcanākalpa Raghunāthacakravārtin and Setu Mād-havācārya eds (1926) Vimānārcanākalpa edRaghunāthacakravārtin and Setu MādhavācāryaMadras Venkateshwar Press 1926 Madras Ven-kateshwar Press url httpsarchiveorgdetails Vimanarcanakalpa1926 (on 3 Jan2018)

Vivaraṇa Rama Sastri and S R Krishnamurthi Sastrieds (1952) Pātnjala[sic]-yogasūtra-bhāṣyaVivaraṇam of Śaṅkara-bhagavatpāda CriticallyEdited with Introduction Madras GovernmentOriental Series 94 Madras GovernmentOriental Manuscripts Library url https archive org details Patanjala -yogasutra - bhasyaVivaranamOfSankara -bhagavatpada (on 20 Oct 2017)

Vivekamārtaṇḍa Rāmalāla Śrīvāstava ed (1983) Vivekamārtaṇḍa(Praṇetā Śivagorakṣa Mahāyogī Gorakṣanātha)1st ed Gorakhapura Gorakhanātha-Mandira

Yājntildeavalkyasmṛti The Śāstris at the Santurāmātmajasundara-malakheḍa ed (1919) Maharṣivaryaśrīyogi-yājntildeavalkyaśiṣyaviracitā YājntildeavalkyasmṛtiḥVijntildeāneśvaraviracitamitākṣarāvyākhyāsamalaṅkṛtāMumbai Śrīveṅkaṭeśvara Mudraṇayantrālayaurl https archive org details in ernetdli2015405629 (on 18 Apr 2018)

Yogabīja Paṇḍita Hariśaṅkarjī Śāstrī ed (1899) Yog-abījam bhāṣāṭīkā sahita Haridvar AdhyakṣaSaṃskṛt Mahāvidyālay

Yogabīja (MS) (Nd) MS Jodhpur RORI 16329Yogacintāmaṇi Haridās Śarma ed (1927) Yogacintāmaṇiḥ [of

Śivānandasarasvatī] Calcutta Oriental PressYogacintāmaṇi (MS) (Nd) MS Pune BORI 220 of 1882ndash83Yogacūḍāmaṇyupaniṣat ldquoYogacūḍāmaṇyupaniṣatrdquo (1968b) In Yoga

Upaniṣads with the Commentary of Śrī Upaniṣad-brahmayogin Ed by Alladi Mahadeva SastrīAdyar Library Series 6 Madras The AdyarLibrary and Research Centre pp 337ndash62 urlhttpsarchiveorgdetailsinernetdli2015345354 (on 2 Jan 2018)

Yogasārasaṅgraha Muktabodha Digital Library ed (2018) Yoga-sārasaṅgraha url httpmuktalib5orgDL_CATALOGDL_CATALOG_USER_INTERFACEdl_user_interface_display_catalog_recordphpM00213 (on 2 Jan 2018) Institut FrancaisPondicherry transcript T0859 based on MSMadras GOML D4373

Yogataraṅgiṇī (Nd) MS Ahmedabad LDI 22595Yogatārāvalī Swāmī Śrī-Dayānanda Śāstrī ed (1982)

Śrīmacchaṅkarabhagavatpādaviracitā YogatārāvalīVaranasi Vārāṇaseya Saṃskṛta Saṃsthāna

Yogayājntildeavalkya Prahlad C Divanji (1954) Yoga-yājntildeavalkya ATreatise on Yoga As Taught by Yogī YājntildeavalkyaBBRA Society Mongraph 3 Bombay Bom-bay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society urlhttpsarchiveorgdetailsDivanji1954(on 3 Jan 2018) Reprinted from the J BBRASvols 28 and 29

Yuktabhavadeva M L Gharote and V K Jha eds (2002b) Yukta-bhavadeva of Bhavadeva Miśra Lonavla LonavlaYoga Institute

jason birch 77

SECONDARY LITERATURE

Bernard Theos (1950)Hatha Yoga the Report of a Personal Experience London andNew York Rider

Birch Jason (2011) ldquoThe Meaning of haṭha in Early Haṭhayogardquo In Journal ofthe American Oriental Society 1314 pp 527ndash54 JSTOR 41440511 url httpswwwacademiaedu1539699 (on 23 Dec 2017)

mdash (2013a) ldquoRājayoga The Reincarnations of the King of All Yogasrdquo In Inter-national Journal of Hindu Studies 173 pp 401ndash44 doi 101007s11407-014-9146-x url httpswwwacademiaedu3791900 (on 23 Dec 2017)

mdash (2013c) ldquoThe Amanaska King of All Yogas A Critical Edition and Annot-ated Translation with a Monographic Introductionrdquo PhD thesis Universityof Oxford

mdash (2015) ldquoThe Yogatārāvalī and the Hidden History of Yogardquo InNāmarūpa 20pp 4ndash13 url httpswwwacademiaedu12099338 (on 23 Dec 2017)

mdash (2018a) ldquoThe Proliferation of Āsana in Late Mediaeval Indiardquo In Yogain Transformation Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on a Global Phe-nomenon Ed by Karl Baier Philipp Maas and Karin Preisendanz ViennaVienna University Press In press

mdash (2018b) ldquoThe Quest for Liberation-in-Life in Early Haṭha and Rājayogardquo Ox-ford Forthcoming

Birch Jason and Jacqueline Hargreaves (2015) Yoganidrā An Understanding of theHistory and Context url httptheluminescentblogspotin201501yoganidrahtml (on 14 Nov 2017)

Bose D M S N Sen and B V Subbarayappa eds (1971) A Concise History ofScience in India New Delhi Indian National Science Academy url httpsarchiveorgdetailsinernetdli2015502083 (on 9 Jan 2018)

Bouy Christian (1994) LesNatha-yogin et les Upanisads eacutetude drsquohistoire de la litteacuterat-ure hindoue French Publications de lrsquoInstitut de civilisation indienne Collegravegede France Seacuterie in-80 62 Paris Boccard isbn 2868030629

Bronkhorst Johannes (2007)GreaterMagadha Studies in the Culture of Early IndiaVol Bd 19 2 Abt Indien Handbuch der Orientalistik Leiden and BostonBrill isbn 9004157190

Brunner Heacutelegravene Gerhard Oberhammer and Andreacute Padoux eds (2004) Tān-trikābhidhānakośa II Dictionnaire des termes techniques de la litteacuterature hindouetantrique Vol 2 Beitraumlge zur Kultur- und Geistesgeschichte Asiens 44 WienVerlag der OumlsterreichischenAkademie derWissenschaften isbn 3700133197

Callewaert Winand M (2009) Dictionary of Bhakti North-indian Bhakti Textsinto Khaṛī Bolī Hindī and English New Delhi D K Printworld isbn9788124605295

Chakrabarti S (2012) ldquoThe Avatars of Baba Ramdev The Politics Economicsand Contradictions of an Indian Televangelistrdquo InGlobal and Local Televangel-

ism Ed by P N Thomas and P Lee London Palgrave Macmillan pp 149ndash70

Colas Geacuterard (2012) Vaiṣṇava Saṃhitās English In Brillsrsquo Encyclopedia ofHinduism Ed by Knut A Jacobsen Helene Basu Angelika Malinar andVasudha Narayanan doi 1011632212-5019_beh_COM_2020090 (on 12Feb 2017)

Das Rahul Peter (2003) The Origin of the Life of a Human Being Conception andthe Female According to Ancient Indian Medical and Sexological Literature Vol 6Indian Medical Tradition Delhi Motilal Banarsidas isbn 81-208-1998-5

Desikachar T K V and R H Craven (1998) Health Healing and Beyond Yogaand the Living Tradition of T Krishnamacharya New York North Point Press

Dutt Uday Chand (1877) Materia Medica of the Hindushellipwith a Glossary of IndianPlants by George King and the Author Calcutta Thacker and Spink url httpsarchiveorgdetailsmateriamedicaofh00duttuoft (on 4 Oct 2017)

FloodGavin ed (2003)The Blackwell Companion toHinduism Oxford Blackwellisbn 0-631-21535-2

Frawley David (2002) Yoga and Ayurveda Self-Healing and Self-Realization Wis-consin Lotus Press

Garzilli Enrica (2003) ldquoThe Flowers of Rgveda Hymns Lotus in V787 X1842X10710 VI1613 and VII3311 VI612 VIII133 X1428rdquo In Indo-IranianJournal 464 pp 293ndash314 doi 101023bindo00000095074314509

Gharote M L and V K Jha eds (2002a) Yuktabhavadeva of Bhavadeva MiśraLonavla Lonavla Yoga Institute

Gode P K (1953) ldquoGodāvaramiśra the Rājaguru and Mantri of GajapatiPratāparudradeva of Orissa and his Works ndash Between AD 1497ndash1539rdquo InStudies in Indian Literary History Vol I Ed by Āchārya Jina Vijaya MuniSinghi Jain Series 37 Bombay Singhi Jain Śāstra Śikshāpīth BhāratīyaVidyā Bhavan pp 470ndash78 url https archive org details StudiesInIndianLiteraryHistoryVolume1 First published in the PoonaOrientalist 9 (1944) 11ndash19

Goodall Dominic (1998) Bhaṭṭarāmakaṇṭhaviracitā Kiraṇavṛtti = Bhaṭṭa Rā-makaṇṭharsquos Commentary on the Kiraṇatantra Critical edition and annotatedtranslation Publications du Deacutepartement drsquoIndologie 86 Pondicheacutery InstitutFranccedilais de Pondicheacutery Ecole Franccedilaise drsquoExtrecircme-Orient

mdash (2004) Parākhyatantram A Scripture of the Śaiva Siddhānta Collection Indolo-gie 98 Pondicheacutery Inst Franccedilais de Pondicheacutery isbn 2855396425

Goodall Dominic Alexis SandersonHarunaga IsaacsonNirajanKafle DiwakarAcharya et al (2015) The Niśvāsatattvasaṃhitā the Earliest Surviving ŚaivaTantra Volume 1 A Critical Edition amp Annotated Translation of the Mūlasūtra Ut-tarasūtra amp Nayasūtra Collection Indologie 128 Pondicherry Eacutecole franccedilaise

jason birch 79

drsquoExtrecircme-Orient Nepal Research Centre French Institute of PondicherryUniversitaumlt Hamburg

Goudriaan Teun and Sanjukta Gupta (1981) Hindu Tantric and Śākta LiteratureVol 22 A History of Indian Literature Wiesbaden Harrassowitz

Hatley Shaman (2018) ldquoThe Brahmayāmalatantra and Early Śaiva Cult ofYoginısrdquo PhD thesis University of Pennsylvania url httppqdtopenproquestcomabstractdispub=3292099 (on 3 Jan 2018)

Iyengar B K S (2006) ldquoParallelism between Yoga and Ayurvedardquo In AstadalaYogamala 3

Jeannotat Franccediloise (2008) ldquoMaharishi Ayur-Ved A Controversial Model ofGlobal Ayurvedardquo In Modern and Global Ayurveda Pluralism and ParadigmsEd by Dagmar Wujastyk and Frederick M Smith New York SUNY Presspp 285ndash331 isbn 9780791474891

Jois Pattabhi (2002) Yoga Mala New York North Point PressJolly Julius (1977) Indian Medicine Translated from German and Supplemented with

Notes by C G Kashikar with a Foreword by J Filliozat 2nd ed NewDelhi Mun-shiram Manoharlal Publishers

Kirtikar K R B D Basu and an ICS (1987) Indian Medicinal Plants Ed by EBlatter J F Caius and K S Mhaskar 2nd ed Dehradun International BookDistributors First published in Allahabad 1933

Kiss Csaba (2009) ldquoMatsyendranātharsquos Compendium (Matsyendrasaṃhitā) ACritical and Annotated Translation of Matsyendrasaṃhitā 1ndash13 and 55 withAnalysisrdquo PhD thesis University of Oxford p 342

Kuvalayānanda et al (1924ndash1925) ldquoThe Scientific Section amp The Semi ScientificSectionrdquo In Yoga-Mīmāṅsā 11ndash2 pp 9ndash126

Lad Vasant (1984) ldquoYogarsquos Sister Science An Introduction to Ayurvedardquo InYoga Journal 59 pp 7ndash10 url https books google ca books id =gesDAAAAMBAJamplpg=PP1amppg=PP1v=onepageampqampf=false (on 23 Dec 2017)

Maas Philipp Andreacute (2008) ldquoThe Concepts of the Human Body and Disease inClassical Yoga and Āyurvedardquo InWiener Zeitschrift fuumlr die Kunde Suumldasiens =Vienna Journal of South Asian Studies 51 pp 123ndash62

mdash (2017) ldquoOn the Meaning of Rasāyana in Classical Yoga and Āyurvedardquo InHistory of Science in South Asia 52 pp 66ndash84 doi 1018732hssav5i232

mdash (2019) ldquoIndianMedicine andAyurveda [online preprint 2015]rdquo In The Cam-bridge History of Science Ed by Alexander Jones and Liba Taub Vol 1 Cam-bridge Cambridge University Press url https www academia edu 10632151 (on 18 Apr 2018) In press

Mahajan S G ed (1986) Descriptive Catalogue of Manuscripts Available in theJayakar Library University of Poona 2 vols Pune Jayakar Library Biswas0875

Mallik Kalyani ed (1954a) Siddha-Siddhānta-Paddhati and Other Works of theNātha Yogīs Pune Poona Oriental Book House url httpsarchiveorgdetailsMallik1954 (on 25 Dec 2017)

Mallinson James (2007a) The Khecarīvidyā of Ādinātha A Critical Edition and An-notated Translation of an Early Text of Haṭhayoga London NewYork Routledgeisbn 9781281260383

mdash (2011) ldquoHaṭha Yogardquo In Brillrsquos Encyclopedia of Hinduism Ed by Knut AJacobsen Helene Basu Angelika Malinar Vasudha and Narayanan Vol 3Leiden Brill pp 770ndash81 doi 1011632212-5019_beh_COM_000354

mdash (2012) ldquoThe Original Gorakaṣaśatakardquo In Yoga in Practice Ed by David GWhite Princeton University Press pp 257ndash72 url httpswwwacademiaedu3491519

mdash (2013b) ldquoHaṭhayogarsquos Philosophy A FortuitousUnion ofNon-Dualitiesrdquo InJournal of Indian Philosophy 421 pp 225ndash47 doi 101007s10781-013-9217-0

mdash (2016) The Amṛtasiddhi Haṭhayogarsquos Tantric Buddhist Source Text url httpswwwacademiaedu26700528 (on 12 Apr 2018) To appear in The Fests-chrift of Alexis Sanderson

Meulenbeld Gerrit Jan (1974) The Mādhavanidāna and Its Chief CommentaryChapters 1ndash10 Introduction Translation and Notes Leiden Brill

mdash (1999ndash2002) A History of Indian Medical Literature 5 vols Groningen E For-sten isbn 9069801248

mdash (2011) ldquoThe Relationships betweenDoṣas andDūṣyas A Study on theMean-ing(s) of the Root Murch-mūrchrdquo In eJournal of Indian Medicine 42 pp 35ndash135 url httpugprugnleJIMarticleview24740 (on 13 Oct 2017)

Mohan A G (2004)Yoga Therapy A Guide to the Therapeutic Use of Yoga and Ayur-veda for Health and Fitness Boston London etc Shambala Publications isbn9781590301319

Moksha Festival (2015) Moksha Festival A Pilgrimage to your Soul url httpswebarchiveorgweb20150627080944httpmokshafestivalcomlacontentour-mission (on 7 July 2015)

Monier-Williams Monier E Leumann C Cappeller et al (1899) A SanskritndashEnglish Dictionary Etymologically and Philologically Arranged New Edi-tion Oxford Clarendon Press url https archive org details SanskritEnglishDictioneryMONIERWILLIAMS (on 4 Jan 2018)

Nadkarni A K (1954) Dr K M Nadkarnirsquos Indian Materia Medica with Ayur-vedic Unani-tibbi Siddha Allopathic Homeopathic Naturopathic amp Home Rem-edies Appendices amp Notes 2 vols Bombay Popular Prakashan url httpsarchiveorgdetailsIndianMateriaMedicaKMNadkarni (on 11 Aug2017) URL is 1926 edition

jason birch 81

Olivelle Patrick (1981) ldquoPraṇavamīmāṃsā A Newly Discovered Work ofVidyāraṇyardquo In Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute 62pp 77ndash101 url httpwwwjstororgstable41693668 (on 24 Dec2017)

Powell Seth (June 30 2017)Advice on Āsana in the Śivayogapradīpikā The Lumin-escent url httptheluminescentblogspotin201706advice-on-asana-in-sivayogapradipikahtml (on 4 Oct 2017)

Raghavan V K Kunjunni Raja C S Sundaram N Veezhinathan NGangadharan E R Rama Bai Siniruddha Dash et al (1949ndash) New Cata-logus Catalogorum an Alphabetical Register of Sanskrit and Allied Works andAuthors Madras University Sanskrit Series Madras University of Madrasv1 revised edition 1968

Rastelli Marion andDominic Goodall eds (2013) Tāntrikābhidhānakośa Diction-naire des termes techniques de la litteacuterature hindoue tantrique 3 ṬndashPh Diction-naire des termes techniques de la litteacuterature hindoue tantrique Vol 3 Beitraumlge zurKultur- und Geistesgeschichte Asiens 76 Wien Verl der Oumlsterr Akad derWiss isbn 9783700173373

Ray Dipti (2007) Pratapararudradeva The Last Great Suryavamsi King ofOrissa (AD 1497 to AD 1540) New Delhi Northern Book Centre isbn9788172111953

Reddy Veṅkaṭa (1982a) Hatharatnavali of Srinivasabhatta Mahayogindra Withan Elaborate Introduction Selected Text English Translation Critical NotesAppendices and Word Index Sri Medapati Subbireddy Memorial Yoga Series1 Arthamuru EG Dt AP India M Ramakrishna Reddy

Rosmarynowski M (1981) ldquoSatkarmasadana (Parts 1 2 and 3)rdquo In Life in the21st Century Ed by Viktoras Kulvinskas and Richard Tasca Jr WoodstockValley Conn Omangod Press isbn 978-0933278004

Sanderson Alexis (1999) ldquoYoga in Śaivism The Yoga Section of the Mṛ-gendratantra an Annotated Translation with the Commentary of BhaṭṭaNārāyaṇakaṇṭhardquo url https www academia edu 6629447 Unpub-lished

mdash (2007) ldquoAtharvavedins in Tantric Territory The Āngirasakalpa Texts of theOriya Paippalādins and Their Connection with the Trika and the Kālīkulawith Critical Editions of theParājapavidhi theParāmantravidhi and theBhadra-kālīmantravidhiprakaraṇardquo In The Atharvaveda and Its Paippalāda Śākhā Histor-ical and Philological Papers on a Vedic Tradition Ed by Arlo Griffiths and An-nette Schmiedchen Aachen Shaker Verlag pp 195ndash311 url httpswwwacademiaedu6077821 (on 2 Jan 2018)

mdash (2013) ldquoThe Impact of Inscriptions on the Interpretation of Early Śaiva Lit-eraturerdquo In Indo-Iranian Journal 56 pp 211ndash44 doi 10 1163 15728536 -13560308

Sharma Priya Vrat (1992) ldquoDevelopment of IndianMedicine Through the AgesA Resumerdquo In History of Medicine in India Ed by Priya Vrat Sharma NewDelhi Indian National Science Academy Chap 14 pp 493ndash99

mdash (1999ndash2001) Suśruta-Saṃhitā with English Translation of Text and ḌalhaṇarsquosCommentary Alongwith (sic) Critical Notes 3 vols Haridas Ayurveda Series9 Varanasi Chaukhambha Visvabharati Reprinted 2013

Shastri Hara Prasad (1928) A Descriptive Catalogue of Sanskrit Manuscripts inthe government Collection Under the Care of the Asiatic Society of Bengal VolumeV Purāṇa Manuscripts Calcutta Asiatic Society of Bengal url https archiveorgdetailsinernetdli2015502340 (on 2 Jan 2018)

Sivananda Sri Swami (1997) Practical Lessons in Yoga 8th ed Yogic CultureSeries 1 Shivanandanagar India Divine Life Society isbn 817052010X urlhttpsarchiveorgdetailsPRACTICALLESSONSINYOGABYSRI (on 23Dec 2017) First published Lahore Motilal Banarsi Dass 1938

mdash (2006) Practice of Ayurveda 3rd ed Sivanandanagar Divine Life Society isbn9788170521594 First published in 1958

Slatofff Zoe (Oct 3 2017) Ayuryog Project Blog Ed by Dagmar Wujastyk urlhttpayuryogorgblogseeds-modern-yoga-confluence-yoga-and-ayurveda-C481yurvedasC5ABtra (on 10 Nov 2017)

Strauss Sarah (2005)Positioning Yoga Balancing Acts Across Cultures Oxford etcBerg isbn 1859737390

Udupa KN (1985a) Promotion of ldquoHealth for Allrdquo by Ayurveda and Yoga VaranasiK N Udupa

mdash (1985b) Stress and Its Management by Yoga Delhi Motilal BanarsidassVasudeva Somadeva (2004) The Yoga of the Mālinīvijayottaratantra Critical Edi-

tion Translation and Notes Collection Indologie 97 Pondicherry IFP-EFEOWarrier Maya (2011) ldquoModern Ayurveda in Transnational Contextrdquo In 5

pp 80ndash93 issn 1749-8171 doi 101111j1749-8171201100264xWhite David Gordon (1996) The Alchemical Body Siddha Traditions in Medieval

India Chicago University of Chicago Press isbn 0-226-89497-5Wujastyk Dagmar (2015) ldquoOn Perfecting the Body Rasāyana in Sanskrit

Medical Literaturerdquo In AION Annali dellrsquoUniversitagrave degli Studi di Na-poli ldquoLrsquoOrientalerdquo Elisir Mercuriale e Immortalitagrave Capitoli per una StoriadellrsquoAlchimia nellrsquoAntica Eurasia A cura di Giacomella Orofino Amneris Rosellie Antonella Sannino XXXVII2015 pp 55ndash77 issn 11128-7209 url https wwwlibrawebnetarticoliphpchiave=201509901amprivista=99 (on16 Aug 2017) Preprint at httpswwwacademiaedu12713803

mdash (2016) ldquoMercury Tonics (Rasāyana) in SanskritMedical Literaturerdquo In Soul-less Matter Seats of Energy Metals Gems and Minerals in South Asian TraditionsEd by Fabrizio M Ferrari and Thomas Daumlhnhardt Sheffield Bristol Equi-nox Publishing Ltd Chap 5 pp 94ndash115 isbn 9781781794364 doi 101558

jason birch 83

equinox29654 url httpswwwequinoxpubcomhomeview-chapterid=29654

Wujastyk Dagmar and FrederickM Smith eds (2008)Modern and Global Ayur-veda Pluralism and Paradigms New York SUNY Press isbn 9780791474891

Wujastyk Dominik (2003a)The Roots of Ayurveda Selections from SanskritMedicalWritings 3rd ed Penguin Classics London New York etc Penguin Groupisbn 0-140-44824-1

mdash (2003b) ldquoThe Science of Medicinerdquo In The Blackwell Companion to HinduismEd by Gavin Flood Oxford Blackwell Chap 19 pp 393ndash409 isbn 0-631-21535-2 doi 1010029780470998694ch20

mdash (2012) ldquoThe Path to Liberation through Yogic Mindfulness in Early Ayur-vedardquo In Yoga in Practice Ed by David G White Princeton University Presspp 31ndash42 url httpsacademiaedu3216968

mdash (July 9 2014) Kuṭipraveśam rasāyanam Cikitsā blog url httpcikitsablogspotcoat201407kutipravesam- rasayanamhtml (on 21 Sept2015)

mdash (2017) ldquoThe Yoga Texts Attributed to Yājntildeavalkya and Their Remarks on Pos-turerdquo In Asian Literature and Translation 4 pp 159ndash86 issn 2051-5863 doi1018573j201710192

Zarrilli Phillip B (1998) When the Body Becomes All Eyes Paradigms Discoursesand Practices of Power in Kalarippayattu a South Indian Martial Art New DelhiOxford University Press isbn 0195639405

Zysk Kenneth G (1993) ldquoThe Science of Respiration and the Doctrine of theBodily Winds in Ancient Indiardquo In Journal of the American Oriental Society113 pp 198ndash213 doi 102307603025

mdash (1998) Asceticism and Healing in Ancient India Medicine in the Buddhist Mon-astery 2nd ed Vol 2 Indian Medical Tradition Delhi Motilal Banarsidassisbn 81-208-1507-6 First published 1991

mdash (2001) ldquoNew Age Āyurveda or What Happens to Indian Medicine When ItComes to Americardquo In Traditional South Asian Medicine 6 pp 10ndash26

Please write to ⟨wujastykualbertaca⟩ to file bugsproblem reports feature requests and to get involvedTheHistory of Science in South Asia bull Department of History and Classics 2ndash81 HMTory Building Universityof Alberta Edmonton AB T6G 2H4 Canada

Corpus of Texts on Yoga and Ayurveda

Shared Terminology

Names of Disease

Humoral Diseases

Theory

Fire Digestive Fire and Digestion

Yogi-Physicians and Humoral Theory

Vital Points (marman)

The Early Corpus

The Late Corpus

Herbs

Praxis

Postures (āsana)

The Six Therapeutic Actions (ṣaṭkarma) of Haṭhayoga

Premodern Yoga Therapy (yogacikitsā)

A Vaidya-Yogi-Scholar

Concluding Remarks

Index of Manuscripts

HISTORY OF SCIENCE IN SOUTH ASIAA journal for the history of all forms of scientific thought and action ancient and modern in allregions of South Asia published online at httphssa-journalorg

ISSN 2369-775X

Editorial Board

bull Dominik Wujastyk University of Alberta Edmonton Canadabull Kim Plofker Union College Schenectady United Statesbull Dhruv Raina Jawaharlal Nehru University New Delhi Indiabull Sreeramula Rajeswara Sarma formerly Aligarh Muslim University Duumlsseldorf Germanybull Fabrizio Speziale Universiteacute Sorbonne Nouvelle ndash CNRS Paris Francebull Michio Yano Kyoto Sangyo University Kyoto Japan

PublisherHistory of Science in South Asia

Principal ContactDominik Wujastyk Editor University of AlbertaEmail ⟨wujastykualbertaca⟩

Mailing AddressHistory of Science in South AsiaDepartment of History and Classics2ndash81 HM Tory BuildingUniversity of AlbertaEdmonton AB T6G 2H4Canada

This journal provides immediate open access to its content on the principle that making researchfreely available to the public supports a greater global exchange of knowledge

Copyrights of all the articles rest with the respective authors and published under the provisionsof Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 40 License

The electronic versions were generated from sources marked up in LATEX in a computer runninggnulinux operating system pdf was typeset using XƎTEX from TEXLive The base font used forLatin script and oldstyle numerals was TEX Gyre Pagella developed by gust the Polish TEX UsersGroup

Theory and Praxis

INTRODUCTION

jason birch 3

bull Herbs4 Praxis

jason birch 5

bull Rājayoga only

jason birch 7

bull Others22

jason birch 9

jason birch 11

names of disease

jason birch 13

jason birch 15

jason birch 17

3 THEORY

jason birch 19

jason birch 21

jason birch 23

jason birch 25

jason birch 27

Śāradā-tilaka106

Kṣurikopa-niṣat

urvī ūru ūru

meḍhra śiśna

tālu tālumūla

randhramūrdhan

jason birch 29

jason birch 31

jason birch 33

(an interpolation)

jason birch 35

jason birch 37

jason birch 39

jason birch 41

jason birch 43

jason birch 45

4 PRAXIS

postures (āsana)

jason birch 47

jason birch 49

jason birch 51

jason birch 53

jason birch 55

jason birch 57

jason birch 59

jason birch 61

jason birch 63

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

jason birch 65

Frequency

General Terms

Diseases

jason birch 67

ABBREVIATIONS

ACRONYMS

jason birch 69

jason birch 71

jason birch 73

jason birch 75

jason birch 77

jason birch 79

jason birch 81

jason birch 83

Shared Terminology

Names of Disease

Humoral Diseases

Theory




The Early Corpus

The Late Corpus

Herbs

Praxis

Postures (āsana)




Concluding Remarks


Theory and Praxis

INTRODUCTION

jason birch 3

bull Herbs4 Praxis

jason birch 5

bull Rājayoga only

jason birch 7

bull Others22

jason birch 9

jason birch 11

names of disease

jason birch 13

jason birch 15

jason birch 17

3 THEORY

jason birch 19

jason birch 21

jason birch 23

jason birch 25

jason birch 27

Śāradā-tilaka106

Kṣurikopa-niṣat

urvī ūru ūru

meḍhra śiśna

tālu tālumūla

randhramūrdhan

jason birch 29

jason birch 31

jason birch 33

(an interpolation)

jason birch 35

jason birch 37

jason birch 39

jason birch 41

jason birch 43

jason birch 45

4 PRAXIS

postures (āsana)

jason birch 47

jason birch 49

jason birch 51

jason birch 53

jason birch 55

jason birch 57

jason birch 59

jason birch 61

jason birch 63

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

jason birch 65

Frequency

General Terms

Diseases

jason birch 67

ABBREVIATIONS

ACRONYMS

jason birch 69

jason birch 71

jason birch 73

jason birch 75

jason birch 77

jason birch 79

jason birch 81

jason birch 83

Shared Terminology

Names of Disease

Humoral Diseases

Theory




The Early Corpus

The Late Corpus

Herbs

Praxis

Postures (āsana)




Concluding Remarks


jason birch 3

bull Herbs4 Praxis

jason birch 5

bull Rājayoga only

jason birch 7

bull Others22

jason birch 9

jason birch 11

names of disease

jason birch 13

jason birch 15

jason birch 17

3 THEORY

jason birch 19

jason birch 21

jason birch 23

jason birch 25

jason birch 27

Śāradā-tilaka106

Kṣurikopa-niṣat

urvī ūru ūru

meḍhra śiśna

tālu tālumūla

randhramūrdhan

jason birch 29

jason birch 31

jason birch 33

(an interpolation)

jason birch 35

jason birch 37

jason birch 39

jason birch 41

jason birch 43

jason birch 45

4 PRAXIS

postures (āsana)

jason birch 47

jason birch 49

jason birch 51

jason birch 53

jason birch 55

jason birch 57

jason birch 59

jason birch 61

jason birch 63

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

jason birch 65

Frequency

General Terms

Diseases

jason birch 67

ABBREVIATIONS

ACRONYMS

jason birch 69

jason birch 71

jason birch 73

jason birch 75

jason birch 77

jason birch 79

jason birch 81

jason birch 83

Shared Terminology

Names of Disease

Humoral Diseases

Theory




The Early Corpus

The Late Corpus

Herbs

Praxis

Postures (āsana)




Concluding Remarks


jason birch 3

bull Herbs4 Praxis

jason birch 5

bull Rājayoga only

jason birch 7

bull Others22

jason birch 9

jason birch 11

names of disease

jason birch 13

jason birch 15

jason birch 17

3 THEORY

jason birch 19

jason birch 21

jason birch 23

jason birch 25

jason birch 27

Śāradā-tilaka106

Kṣurikopa-niṣat

urvī ūru ūru

meḍhra śiśna

tālu tālumūla

randhramūrdhan

jason birch 29

jason birch 31

jason birch 33

(an interpolation)

jason birch 35

jason birch 37

jason birch 39

jason birch 41

jason birch 43

jason birch 45

4 PRAXIS

postures (āsana)

jason birch 47

jason birch 49

jason birch 51

jason birch 53

jason birch 55

jason birch 57

jason birch 59

jason birch 61

jason birch 63

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

jason birch 65

Frequency

General Terms

Diseases

jason birch 67

ABBREVIATIONS

ACRONYMS

jason birch 69

jason birch 71

jason birch 73

jason birch 75

jason birch 77

jason birch 79

jason birch 81

jason birch 83

Shared Terminology

Names of Disease

Humoral Diseases

Theory




The Early Corpus

The Late Corpus

Herbs

Praxis

Postures (āsana)




Concluding Remarks


bull Herbs4 Praxis

jason birch 5

bull Rājayoga only

jason birch 7

bull Others22

jason birch 9

jason birch 11

names of disease

jason birch 13

jason birch 15

jason birch 17

3 THEORY

jason birch 19

jason birch 21

jason birch 23

jason birch 25

jason birch 27

Śāradā-tilaka106

Kṣurikopa-niṣat

urvī ūru ūru

meḍhra śiśna

tālu tālumūla

randhramūrdhan

jason birch 29

jason birch 31

jason birch 33

(an interpolation)

jason birch 35

jason birch 37

jason birch 39

jason birch 41

jason birch 43

jason birch 45

4 PRAXIS

postures (āsana)

jason birch 47

jason birch 49

jason birch 51

jason birch 53

jason birch 55

jason birch 57

jason birch 59

jason birch 61

jason birch 63

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

jason birch 65

Frequency

General Terms

Diseases

jason birch 67

ABBREVIATIONS

ACRONYMS

jason birch 69

jason birch 71

jason birch 73

jason birch 75

jason birch 77

jason birch 79

jason birch 81

jason birch 83

Shared Terminology

Names of Disease

Humoral Diseases

Theory




The Early Corpus

The Late Corpus

Herbs

Praxis

Postures (āsana)




Concluding Remarks


jason birch 5

bull Rājayoga only

jason birch 7

bull Others22

jason birch 9

jason birch 11

names of disease

jason birch 13

jason birch 15

jason birch 17

3 THEORY

jason birch 19

jason birch 21

jason birch 23

jason birch 25

jason birch 27

Śāradā-tilaka106

Kṣurikopa-niṣat

urvī ūru ūru

meḍhra śiśna

tālu tālumūla

randhramūrdhan

jason birch 29

jason birch 31

jason birch 33

(an interpolation)

jason birch 35

jason birch 37

jason birch 39

jason birch 41

jason birch 43

jason birch 45

4 PRAXIS

postures (āsana)

jason birch 47

jason birch 49

jason birch 51

jason birch 53

jason birch 55

jason birch 57

jason birch 59

jason birch 61

jason birch 63

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

jason birch 65

Frequency

General Terms

Diseases

jason birch 67

ABBREVIATIONS

ACRONYMS

jason birch 69

jason birch 71

jason birch 73

jason birch 75

jason birch 77

jason birch 79

jason birch 81

jason birch 83

Shared Terminology

Names of Disease

Humoral Diseases

Theory




The Early Corpus

The Late Corpus

Herbs

Praxis

Postures (āsana)




Concluding Remarks


bull Rājayoga only

jason birch 7

bull Others22

jason birch 9

jason birch 11

names of disease

jason birch 13

jason birch 15

jason birch 17

3 THEORY

jason birch 19

jason birch 21

jason birch 23

jason birch 25

jason birch 27

Śāradā-tilaka106

Kṣurikopa-niṣat

urvī ūru ūru

meḍhra śiśna

tālu tālumūla

randhramūrdhan

jason birch 29

jason birch 31

jason birch 33

(an interpolation)

jason birch 35

jason birch 37

jason birch 39

jason birch 41

jason birch 43

jason birch 45

4 PRAXIS

postures (āsana)

jason birch 47

jason birch 49

jason birch 51

jason birch 53

jason birch 55

jason birch 57

jason birch 59

jason birch 61

jason birch 63

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

jason birch 65

Frequency

General Terms

Diseases

jason birch 67

ABBREVIATIONS

ACRONYMS

jason birch 69

jason birch 71

jason birch 73

jason birch 75

jason birch 77

jason birch 79

jason birch 81

jason birch 83

Shared Terminology

Names of Disease

Humoral Diseases

Theory




The Early Corpus

The Late Corpus

Herbs

Praxis

Postures (āsana)




Concluding Remarks


jason birch 7

bull Others22

jason birch 9

jason birch 11

names of disease

jason birch 13

jason birch 15

jason birch 17

3 THEORY

jason birch 19

jason birch 21

jason birch 23

jason birch 25

jason birch 27

Śāradā-tilaka106

Kṣurikopa-niṣat

urvī ūru ūru

meḍhra śiśna

tālu tālumūla

randhramūrdhan

jason birch 29

jason birch 31

jason birch 33

(an interpolation)

jason birch 35

jason birch 37

jason birch 39

jason birch 41

jason birch 43

jason birch 45

4 PRAXIS

postures (āsana)

jason birch 47

jason birch 49

jason birch 51

jason birch 53

jason birch 55

jason birch 57

jason birch 59

jason birch 61

jason birch 63

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

jason birch 65

Frequency

General Terms

Diseases

jason birch 67

ABBREVIATIONS

ACRONYMS

jason birch 69

jason birch 71

jason birch 73

jason birch 75

jason birch 77

jason birch 79

jason birch 81

jason birch 83

Shared Terminology

Names of Disease

Humoral Diseases

Theory




The Early Corpus

The Late Corpus

Herbs

Praxis

Postures (āsana)




Concluding Remarks


Documents

Premodern Yoga Traditions and Ayurveda: Preliminary