edited by K. Mutua & C. S. Sunal

CHAPTER 7

PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

Demographic Patterns, Qualifications, and Self-Efficacy

Frank C. Worrell , Marley W. Watkins, and Tracey E. Hall

In thi s stud}', we cX:1 m incd the d cmogr<l phic characlCrislics. ed ucational lju;1lifiGlI ions. and scll:'cflicacy attitudes of a reprcscnt.Hivc sa mple of e le­me nta ry school Icache rs (N = 496) in Trinidad <lnel Tobago. Result s indi­c u cd that tcachers in the elementary grades (Ire primarily female. wi th male representa tion increasing in the upper c!cl1lcl1Iary grade levels. Teachers in urban areas arc morc diverse group than Icachers in rura l areas. The l11,,!jor­it )' o f teachers had att ended a Icachers' college. but f;1r les!!. had completed a pos t-tra ining ccnilicalc and even fewer lwei uni\'ersil\' degree.!!. Teachers re ported mOdCI';l[ C to high scl f-clliG1C)' bcJiels across (l Illllnber 01 teach ing d OIl1<lins. but po st hoc analyses sugges ted lhal these beliefs are related to },C<lrs o r ex per ience. The au thors suggest placing greater empha"j<; on tcachi ng as a p rofess io ll and <l I'cconccptllal iz;u ion or leacher education pnlcti ces in Trinicbd <1nd Tobago.

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Copyrigh t © 20011 by lnfol'lllalion Age Publi shing All ri ghts ofrqmldllclilJl1 ill any i(l rllll'esc rvcd .

130 F. C. WORRELL, M . W. WATKINS, and T. E. HALL

Trinidad and Tobago is a dua l-island republic (;I I [he ~oll(hcrll end o f Lhe:: cha in of Caribbean islands. Formerly a colo ny o f Spain and Great Brita in, respectively, lhe COUIll!)' was gramcd independence b~ the British in 1962. Trinidad and Tobago d ilTers fro m Dlhe r Caribbean nation stales in severa l ways. First, Trinidad and Tobago has a Il lUre cLllllica lly diverse population tha n most of its Ilc ighbors-40.3% of the pOpuhllio n is of East Ind ian d escent, 39.5% are of African descent, 18.-1% arc o f \1i xed he ri­tage, 0.6% arc White. a nd the re maining 1.2% include C hinese a nd Ara­bic descended peoples amun g the m. In cuntras t, most of the fOrlne r British colonies in the \-Vcst Indies (c.g. , The Bahamas, Bermuda, Sa int \incent a nd the Gre nadines) have majority Black popu lat ions, and many (e.g. , Barbados, J a ma ica, Sa int KillS a nd Nevis, Saint Lucia) have popula­tions that are at least 90% of Africa n descent. This ethn ic diversi ty is rep­resented in Trinidad's cuisine and festivals, as well as in the religious part icipation, with practicing Hindus makin g up about 25% o f the popu­lation.

Second, Trinidad and Tobago is o lle of the most prosperous nations in the Caribbean regio n (Centra l Inte ll igence Agency [C IA], 2004; Dooke­ra n, 1998) due in large part to oi l a nd natura l gas deposits, and the coun­try's economy has been dominated by th e o il ind ustry since the early 19005. In 2004 , -li 'inidad and Tobago was the only independent Carib­bean nation to ap pear in the top 1 00 countries in bo th GO P per ca pita and GO P rea l growth, with a n expected real growth rate higher than tha t of the United States (C IA). However, despite -n-inidad a nd -Iobago's wealth, there are o the r facets o f the socie ty that a re more similar to its less amuen t ne ighbo rs. For example, the most recent es timate o f populatio n living below the poverty line is 2 1%, para llelin g a 20% ra te in J a maica, a nd the une mploy me nt rate is 10.4%. Similarl y, although the reponed li t­eracy rate is 98% (C IA), the fun ctio nal lite racy r~ne is much lower wi th estimates rangin g fro m 55% to 85%. It is in the context of these dispari­Lies-the strong econo my versus the hi gh poven y raLe, the amue nce of the country versus the low functional lite racy nlte-that we exam ine the profi le of primal)' school teache rs in Trini dad and -robago.

Primary School Education in Tri n id a d and Tobago

Since early in its histOl), as an independent na tion when Dr. Eric \Vi ll ­ia ms, the cou nlt)"s first Prime Mini ster, comme nted th ~lt the future o f the nation was in the boo k bags o f th e nation's childrell. education has been a prio ri ty for the Trinidad a nd Tobago government. The education syste m is d ivided in to two general segments, primal; (or elemental"Y) school edu ­cation-tha t is, the first 7 )'ears o f schooli ng beginn ing at age 5 and

Primary School Teachers in Trinidad and Tobago 131

rough ly equiva lent LO ki ndergancn to Grade 6 in the Uni ted States-and secondary schoo l educilt ion. which a lso has a 7·yea r seque nce. Only the tirst 5 years or secondar\' schooling arc considered mandatory.

Prima!,}' school eduGttion has been lega lly compu lsOl'y since 1961 (George &.: QUilll1imh\i),cj illa. 2002), a lthough the actua l enrollment nne fo r the primary school rea rs is in the 90% to 93% range (Central Statisti­ca l O ll' co. 1998; United Nat iolls Develo pment Programme, 200 I). George and Quam ill a.A iyej ina reported that there were 557 public and private primary schools in Thnidad ~lIl d ~Iobago, and 47 post-p rimary cC lllers for students who did not pass the e lllnlllce examinat io n for the secondary schoo l syste m, In 2000, there were 17 1,062 students (49.3% fema le) in the primary school system. On ly 68.3% and 63% o f th e stu ­dents in primil1)' school pass mathema tics and English, respectivc1}\ in Lhe Seconda ,), Entrance Assessment (d i Gropc1lo, 2003), indicating a low success I'.He ill p repa ring stud ents fo r seconda!), school.

Primary School Teachers in Trinidad and Tobago

The requ irements f()J ' p rim al)' school teachers prior to 1985 were pass ing grades in five or 1110re subjects, includ ing English Language, in th e Gene r~1I Cert ificate o f Educat ion (GC E) O rdinary Level exami na­tions, or Ca ri bbeiln Exa minat ion Council (CXC) examina tions take n at the end o f the fifth year o f seconci;.1I1' school. These requ irements not­withstanding, individuals were accepted with fewe r than live p;lsses due lO a dearth o f qua lified app lica nts for teaching positions, Sin ce 1985, the fi ve required subj ects must include Engli sh lilllguage, mathe matics, and a scie nce subject (George &. QlI ~lInin;I -Ai )lej ill a. 2002), It is im por­tant to note th at these qualiticaLiol1!o. are requ ired fo r employment as a primary school teacher, ~lIl d not <i!o. prerequis ites for enterin g a tcachers' tra ining college. Entrallce in to trainin g coll ege is on the basis o f senior­ity as a practicing te~l ch er. Although this in -sen 'ice model of training gave way to pre-service trai ni ng for a period from 1963 to 1975 (Quam­illa-Aiyej in a, Mohammed, Rampau l. George. Kallo l1. Kel ler, e t a l. 1999), an increasing backlog at the tra ining colleges and shortages of teachers ror practice in the schoo ls resll hed in a return to the in-service model, where teachers begin teachi ng prior lO hem eligible for a tra inin g col­lege phlCemenl. Thus, teachers currenth \\orking in (he primary schools o f Trinidad and l o bago a rc "!o.ccond<l(,,\ ,,<hool ~Tildua tcs who mayor may not have been tr~lined at a teacher"" coil e- (George & Q uamina­Aiyej ina , 2002 , p . 8).

In 199 ~S, the government put in place .. r(.rm.aJ prt· 'tf11ice program for p rimal)' school teachers (George &. Qu.amtna-_.\J\cJma. 2002). but descrip-

132 F. C. WORRELL, M . W. WATKINS, and T. E. HALL

[ions of this p rogram su ges[ thaI it func tions as another lype of in-ser­vice program, at least for Dille (George. FOllrnillier, & Brown, 2000). and is not universal. The most reccmly ava ilable government dma-fur the 1996/1997 school year-indica le lhal 77.5% o f the 7,3 I I prima,), school teache rs were gradua tes of a teachers' college (George & QU3mi na-Aiye­j in" , 2002) . Also see George. Wo rrel l, Rampcrsad, and Rampaul (2000), George, \-Vorrell , Rampersad , Rampau l, and Mohammed (2000) . Lewin , Ke Jler, and -lay lor (2002), and Quami na-Aiyej ina e l a l. ( 1999) for more detailed descriptions o f teacher training in Trinidad and Tobago.

In an o ngoin g elTon to increase the educational options available for teachers. the School of Education at the Trinidad campus of the Unive r­sity of the ""est I ndies offers a one-year Cenificatc in Education in-sc lv icc program for primal)' school tcachers who have graduated from a teach­ers' college and who have at least five years tcach ing ex perience . Classes arc given in the evening and panicipants must choose ~111 area of special ­izat ion, such as educational adm inistration or teaching science, mathe­matics, or language an s. More senior teachers, vice principals, ~lIld

principals can apply to the Bachelor's of Education degree program. At the primal)' school level, there are only two salal), sca les, one for teachers prior to going to training college (S pecial Teacher I ) and one for teachers who have comple led the d ip loma a l th e lra ining college (Teacher I). Com pleLing the Certificate in Education program does not result in a sa l­.ti l)' increase for a ~reacher I, and a Bachelor's degree will on ly yield a sa l­ary increase if the teacher then obta ins a post at a seconda!) ' school as a Special Te.:teher III or a Teacher II .

Beginning Teachers in Trinidad and Tobago

In the recent past, there have been severa l studies o n teacher train ing in Trinidad and Tobago (George, Fourn ill i e l ~ & Brown, 2000; George, Mohammed , Quamina-Aiyej ina , Fournillier, & Otway-Charles, 200 I ; George & Q uamina-Aiyejina, 2002; Morris & Joseph, 2000), which have provided descriptions of teachers who were entering teachers' coll eges and recent graduates from the colleges. T hese data ind icated thal pro­spective trainees were 70% femal e, genera lly between 2 1 and 30 )'ears old, and had been teaching for 3 to 4 years prior to being ad mitted to teach­ers' college. Addiliona lly, 80 to 90% of lhcm had al leasl fi ve GC[ or CXC passes as required. George el a l. (200 I) a lso found lhal lhc lrainees seemed to be gell ing o lde r.

Morris and Joseph (2000) interviewed e ight teachers who had rcn: nt ly completed their tra ining college years. The\" reported that teachers were vel)' satisfi ed wi th the psychology, socio logy. and phi losophy courses [hat

Prr.la J School Teachers in Trinidad and Tobago 133

they received . The tea<..h~f' l\ere less s~lli s fi cd wi th melhocioloh,)' courses, but wc re able 1O idcllllf, some curricu lul11 delivery and classroom man­agement s tri-llcg i c~ that "ere ll .. ~eflii. Howeve r, these teachers felt that the leachers' coll ege cxpc l;ell< .. c had IlOI increased the ir e ffectiveness as [c;'l(hc rs, and th al i S~l1c-" of cia nXHll co ntrol ;:mel d iscipline d id no t work as th e ir lcachc r~ ' college inst ructors had prcd i<.:ted . resu ltin g in their returnin g lO ''' Ill ore trad itionar - (.\Io rris & Josep h, p. 18) and probably mo re puniti ve Ill cl ilucb . .\ Io rris li nd Jose ph (p. 20) drew the fo llowing co nclusio n frolll the ir ilHcr\' ic\\'s:

In general. IH::\\' I)' qual ilied Icachcrs Ic lt that the Te achers' College p ro­gr:lllllllc did nOt prepare ,helll adequ Ci lcl)t I'or work in the schoo l sell ing. They \,'cre awarc of thc incongru ity between their College expe rie nces, including leachin g: practi ce. and the classroo m rea lity. In such a situa tio n Ihc)' I'ocuscd o n sllrvi";11 strateg ies <Ind in many cases replaced the recom­mended str<lt cgies thc}' h<ld learn t ",ilh pr<lctic<ll solu tions th;) t provided rcsult s. They bccamc mo re co ncerned wi th classroom management and co nt ml<l lld in some C<l ses reverted to trad it ionalmcthods o f achiev ing thi s.

These rccel1l lc~ u..: hc rs· co llege graduates fclt that e ffective teachers arc "borll. not made" (Morris & J oseph , p . 18), and looked to classroom experience to im prove the ir practice .

T his vicw of teacher- as born , not made-is not e ntirely surprising. g iven thell the syste m ill which primal)' school teachers in Trinidad and Tobago a re sociali zed . T hese teache rs arc hired a n er com ple tion of less tha ll ste lla r seco ndary school cred entials, a nd placed in the classroom will wlIl any train ing and ex pected to fun Clion . Several yea rs hlle l~ a fte r they have developed skills "lIld habi ts that may work for the m, even if they a rc not necessari ly the m( )st e ffective pedagogica ll y, these jJrllcticing teach­ers a rc se nt to teachers' co ll eges with instructors, many of who m have no t taught in the prima ry sl hool syste m, have not been specifically tra ined as teacher educators, ;:lIld whose degrees arc in subject matter disciplines. T he fai lure to see teaching as a professio ll is supported by the absence o f a llY systematic or reliable assessme nt o f teacher e Oectivc ness, both fo r praClicill g teache rs-pre a nd post-training co ll ege-and fo r teachers in tra inin g (Quamina-Aiycj inCl et a l. . 1990). and by tremendously under­resourced scho()ls (George & QU<lmi lla-Ai \'Cj inll . 2002).

The Present Study

T he re has been increasin g pu blic comment abo ut the lack of profes­sio na li sm in the teach ing profess ion in Trinidad a nd Tobago. Some have suggested th at a Bache lo r's degree in education be dle minimum creden-

134 F. C. WORRE LL. M . W. WATKINS. and T. E. HALL

tia l for beginning teachers (Beddoe, 200 I ; J ames, 2004; Spence. 2002). and in December of 200-1,. the ~'I i ni stcr of Education ind icated at an address a t Corinth Teachers' College tha t p re-service trainin g will be mandatory in the near future , and that a proposal for teacher licensing is moving forward, with license renewa l every fi ve years dependent o n meet­ing conti nuing educa tion requi rements.

Much o f the quantitative data in the stud ies cited ca me from govern­men t sources, and the ac tua l emp irica l stud ies consisted o f qualitative studies with small sample sizes (e.g. , Morris &J oseph. 2000), or stud ies of teachers curre ntly a ttend in g a teachers' tra inin g college (e.g .. George el

aI. , 200 I ). In this study, we (a ) profi led the primary school teachin g I" rce on major demographic variables, including gendc l~ age, ethn icity, and socioeconomic staw s (5E5). (b) described the educational qua li fi ca tions of (hese teachers with regard to the diploma from the teachers' tra in ing col­leges. university degrees. and the Certificate of Education otTered at the Univers ity of the ' '''est Ind ies. Fina lly. we exam ined these teachers' sense of teaching e lliot<..), and its relat ionshi p to the demographic variables and (eacher qualifications. T his study complements the others already con­ducted o n the primary school teachers of Trinidad and l obago and pro­vides some guidance for the proposed reforms of the teacher educatio n system.

METHOD

Participants

T he participants consisted of a stratified randorn sample o f 494 teach­ers fro m 76 schools across Trinidad and Tobago. T hese teachers' class­rooms were chosen as part o f a proj ect to develop no rmative info rmatio n on reading and behaviorlll measures for primary schoo l students in Trin­idad and Tobago (see Hall , Watkins, & Worrell. 2002; Worrell , Ha ll . & ' '''atkins, 2002). The normative sample o f students came hu m 78 schools across Trinidad and Tobago. with one class chosen at each grade level. Consequently. the potent ia l sa mple of teachers was 546, and the actual sample represen ts 90% of the partici pating classrooms. The sCl lllple para l­lels the representa tion of the e ight educatio na l regions fa irly closely, with the four regions that contain 75% of the school popu latio n contribut ing 73% of the teachers in the sa mple. T he seven grade levels in the pr imary school system a re represented (~lir l y c\·enl ~ (1 2.-1 1'1 to 15.4%; lV/tin = 14.4%). T h us, the sa mple is quite representalhe of (he p rimary school teacher popu lalio n of Trinidad and Tobago.

Prvnary S<hool Teachers in Trinidad and Tobago 135

Measure

Teitehcrs cU lll plctecl d rwo·page ques tion na ire consisung o f demo­graphi c questiull s and the Teacher Scif-EfTtcacy Scale (TSES; Bandura, n.d. ). T he TSES is a :~O-itelll measure developed to assess the sdf-efiicacy o f teache rs across scn:11 d ifTcrcm [caching roles, including ErTicacy to

Influ ence Decisioll \I a king. EffiulCY to Inn ucnct: School Resources, Inslruclio nal Sclr·I·: nl ca,-~. Disciplinary Sdf·EnlGlcy, EnleaL)' lO En iisl ParemallnvolvcmelH.EHicacy to En list COllllllunity Involvem ent, a nd Effi cacy to Crea te a Posit i\'c School Clima te. Responde nts rate th e ite ms o n a 9- point Like rt sca le wi th verbal and Illl lllc r iu li a nchors. Five o f the ro les consist of three or Ill ore items, a nd scores on these five subsca les wcre fOll nd lO have fai r lO muder;-He rel iability in samp les of bot h eleme n­ta ry and secondary sehoul teache rs in -n 'inidad and -ro bago (.62 :S ex :S .86, Meln a = .84; Pie rre & Worrell , 200~).

In addition to prov id in g info rm;nion on the standard d e mogra phic variables (i.e .. age. gende r, e thnicity), and comple ting the TSES, teachers ind icated (a) how mallY yea rs they have been teclChing, (b) if the), had comple ted teache rs' college, (c) if the), had a unive rsity degree, and (d ) if the)1 had cOl ll p lc tcd the in-service Ce rtifica te of Education . T hey a lso ra ted th e ir socioeco nomic SLalllS on a 5- po im sca le ( I = /)001', 3 = middle dass, 5 = weol/hy) .

Procedure

Tra ined o niccrs of the Ministry or Education collected data in the 200 1-2002 academic yea r. I n addit ion lO adm inisterin g the readi ng mea­sures lO the students ill the selected classrooms, the data collectors also asked teache rs of those classes to (o rnplcte two rat ing sca les on the stu­dents and the teacher questionn a ire. which provided the data ror this study.

RESULTS

Demographic Profile of Teachers

As in the United Stales. the majorit\ o f prima l)' school teachers in Trinidad and Tobago (70%) arc fc male. and as Figure 7. 1 ind icates quite graphica ll y, the majority o r the male teachers \,'o rk with the uppe r ele­me ntal) ' gnldes. Males made lip less than 2G: or (he (Cachers in First Year classes, a nd less tha n 25% u f th e teachers 111 lhe firs l fi\'e yea rs of prima l)'

136 F. C. WORREll. M .

40

3S

30

2S

20

1S

10

S

o

...

.-"

. -

/

:;; !J'. :g

CJ) 'C c: N

ATJ(JNS. and T. E. HAll

I • .1 y

I I -- --

-" V -----~c -.

I ,

N '" " '" 'C :g :g :g iii CJ) CJ) CJ)

___ Male

-e- Female

Fi!,>'tlre 7. I . Perccmage o f lOlal male and female (cachers at each grade leve l.

schoo l. T he decl ine in the percentage of female teachers across the grade levels results in a Sta ndard 5 teacher cohon that is gender balanced with 49% of the teachers at tha t grade level be ing male.

T he teachers ranged in age from 19 to 59, and the age distribution is rough ly symmetrical (/vIdn = 37) . Gender and e thnic groups d id not d ir­fe r in mean age (see Table 7.1) . Given a mandatory retircmel'll age of 60, the data indicate that about 15% o f the teaching force is wi thin 10 years of retiring . Not surprisingly, the number of years of lcaching experience was strongly correlated with age (r = .93), and as wiLh age, Lhere was no dilTer­cl'H':e be tween genders or amo ng e thnic groups on this variable .

East Indians made up 47.8% of the teaclH: r~. wi th Blacks making up 3 1.2% and individuals of mixed descclH making up 18.6%. T hese figures indica te an overrepresentation of about 87c for Easl I ndialls based o n the ir pe rcentage in the population and an ul1c1c lTcp resenta tion by the sa me proportion for individuals or Africa n dcscent. Mi xed individua ls matched the ir populatio n percelltage at 18.6'1 , and individuals of Ot her descent (.6%) were a lso underrepresented . Although the Mixed (8 7%) and Black (85%) groups had higher perce mages of fema le teachers than the East Indians (75%), this d ifle rencc was not statistically signilicam. The m~IjOl· ity of teachers rated themselves as m iddle class (see l~lb l e 7.2), with a substantia l minority rating themsekes as \\orking class (36%). Ma les

Ta ble 7.1 . M eans and St andard Deviations by Gender and Et hnic Group (N = 494)

(;elult'i" t:lhl/ic (; I"/) /I/J

FCllwle.\" MlIle.~ Black Ells/Indian Mixed T"'III

Vorillblel' M Sf) M Sf) M Sf) M Sf) M Sf) '" SI)

:\g-c :\S.7 9.'1 :m.!l 10.!l <10.5 9.9 ;n .6 S.5 :~~I . I 1'i.:1 : H(,~ ~ 1,1;

YC:I I',lt.::ldlin g- 17.0 10.0 IS.4 10.7 18.Y 10.5 Iii. 1 9.S 17 .r~ !/,7 17 :1 III .\!

' li:: I! h ill~ :Ihi l in' ·1.:1 0 .(1 4 .:\ O.li '1.4 0.6 4. '\ 0 .6 ,\ ,:1 lUi 1. :1 iUi

Flti . , II \ V.II ".hl .. "

Ikl "lUll lIL,d,ill l-\" j.j 1.8 G.O 1.5 5 .$ I.S 5.5 1.7 5.7 l.~ ,; ,1) I. I'i

RI ' " fi lII l " .~I. li 2 . 1 fi.O 1.9 fHi 2.0 5.8 2 .U 5.4 2.1 ;). (i 2 .0

111 '1 11111 Ii !II li ,n 1.1 6.1 1.0 6 . I 1.0 G.O 1.0 til 1.2 lUI 1.1

1)1'-111,1111(: 7.0 1.2 7 . 1 1.2 7.1 1.2 7. \ 1.2 7.0 1.2 7.1 1.2

]',tIC l ll it1\'okcl1lClll 6.:.s 1.5 5.9 1.4 G.2 1.'1 6 .2 1.5 6.4 \.5 fi.2 1.5

( :11111 till I II it)' i ll voln : lllt.:1lI .1. I I.(j 4.2 1.4 4. 1 1. 5 4 .2 1.6 :.s.9 1.6 'I. I 1.6

S( iloo1 d irniltc 6.11 1.3 6.4 1.2 6.4 1. 3 H.'I I. :; 6.4 I.:; 6.4 I. :;

138 F. C. WORRELL, M . W. WATKINS, and T. E. HALL

Tab le 7.2. Percentages of Categorical Variabl es by Gender and Ethnic Group (N = 494)

Variable.\'

Attended teachers' w llege

Has 01" pursuing a CcnEci

Has a universit y dcgrt'c

5ES i ~ midd le class

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

o

A ----t ,f

II i ._,.,._-+ , ,

. .;>;. '~ I • . .'\

- ~ •

;;; ;;; '0 'c ~ ~ ·s e ?; w ~

0 ~

~ " " e> e> ~ 0 0

~ ~

<!l <!l ~

05 05 'i? « in

Gl!mi(!r

Female:. " -fales /J/ack

89.!) YO.(-l 90.9

17.1 ~U. :\ ~7.0

7. [ 7.-1 13.7

58.7 -\9.5 48.0

.... _ .. _ .... - -.-.... f-

1\ , ,",,

! '" £_-,,,? I-l\_._

..:'. .. t I 1\ Mo

e ~ ·i 0

~ '" ~ " § ~ ~

Q.

'" in > .~

z

Ethnic GlVllp

ElIsr Indian Mixed Tufal

~9.4 90.2 90. 1

10.2 26.0 18.'1

2.6 7.~ 7. 1

()2.7 59.6 57.4

___ Atrican Oescent

........ East Indian Descent

- .- Mixed Oescent

Figure 7.2. Percentage or teachers by ethnic group across educat ional regioll.

and females did no t dilTer un SES, but more East Ind ian and Mixed teachers rated themselves as at least m iddle class than d id Black teachers.

Regio na l teach ing assignments reOected the e thnic makc.up o f the communities, with educational regions with higher perce ntages o f o ne e thnic group overa ll having higher percen tages of that gn)up in the regio n's teachers. These patte rn s are presented in Figure 7.2 , which incli · cates the pe rcentage o f teachers in each region b\ ethnic group. As ca n be seen, the educational regio ns with the capital ( l. Geo rge \ Vest) and the heavily popu lated [ ast·West cor r idor (Sc Geo e East) both have substa n· tia l numbers o f teachers fro m the three major eth nic groups. However; Mixed individ uals make up fewer than 1.3G: or the teachers in th e six

Pnmal'f School Teachers in Trinidad and Tobago 139

ot he r regioll s. Tcachcl 111 Tobaao an .' p redomina nLly uf Afri can ciCSCC Ill, a nd teache rs ill Caroni. Sc .-\nclrC\\ Sr. Dav id , Nariva/Mayaro, a nd Victo­ria ilrc prcdo lll iliant h of E..P.( Indian desce nt. Tht: diffe re nces arc pa rti cu­larly stark ill T()i>ago ,m el Caron i. \\·jt h the predominant ethnic group 111

t hose [wo rcgi()l1 ~ making lip about gO?( o f the teaching fu r«..:c.

Qualifications of Teachers

Teachers "'cn.: as ked three questi ons with regard to qua lilicmio ns: (a) have )'Oll a tte nded teachers' tra in ing co llege, (b) clo )'Oll have a unive rsity degree. a nd (c) do you have, or are ) 'OU cu rre ntly pu rsu ing a Certificate of Educa tio n? Responses lO these questio ns ca n be found in Table 7.2. Approx imately 90% of the primary schoo l teachers have obw in ed the dipl oma grant ed upon co mpl etion of a teachers' college progra m, a nd these fi gures ~I p ply ~lCross ge nders a nd ethnic groups. As ex pected , the teache rs who had not yet comp leted Teache rs' College were younger (I\II = 27.4) and had fewe r yea rs expc rie nce (M = 4.8) tha n those who had comp le ted the diplo ma (M age = 40. 1, NI yea rs ex pe rie nce = 18.6).

Far fewer teachers had complelCd a Certifica te of Educatio n or a uni­versity degree . More m'l1c.:s than fe males had comp leted the Cen Ed, and Blacks a nd Mi xcd individuals had comp leted this cre de ntia l a t a rate 2.5 timcs hi gher tha n East India ns. University d egrees were the most in fre­quent credent ial earned by these teachers, with mo re teache rs of Afri can descc nt reponing degrees th an the ot her two groups, a nd more Mi xed indi vidu als re portin g degrees than Etlst Indians. There were no diffe r­e nces in age, gcnde l~ or yea rs of experie nce be r. .... een individ uals with d egrees or CertEds ;,m d those who d id not have th ose crcdentials.

Teachers' Sense of Efficacy

Before exa millin g lI1 ea ll scores on the e HiGIC)1 varia bles, re liability es ti ­mates were ca lculated fo r the live efTicacy co mposites consist in g o f three or Illore ite ms to exa rnin e the ir interna l cOJlsiste llcy in this sa mp le. These results a rc presented in -nlble 7.:'t. Thc <.:omp()~ i tes were gcne rally reliable across gende r a nd e thnic grou ps. ,,·ith alp ha codl icients ra nging rro m .74 to .89 (f\tldn = .84). Me~lIl s ~lI1 d standa rd de,"iatiol1s for e<lCh of th e e ffi cacy scores are presented in Table 7. I .. -\lthough there ',·ere no significa nt dif­fe re llces by gender or ethnicity. there were a couple of tre nds worth nOl­in g. In gene ral , teache rs reported Icvcl!l of efliGlcv o n the hi gher e nd o r the 1-9 Liken sca le with most of th e mean ratin~!'l raili ng betwee n live and six. Teache rs reported the highest level of eflicao· in the i-poin t ra nge

140 F. C. WORRELL, M . W. WATKINS, and T. E. HALL

Table 7.3. Reliability Estimates for Teacher Efficacy Variables by Gender and Ethnic Group

Gender Ethnic GroliP

Variables F('IlIales Male.~ Black Eaw Indian Mb:ed Towl

Instructional (9) .84 .83 .83 .8 1 .89 .84

Disci plinary (3) .80 .79 .79 .80 .82 .80

Parental involvement (3) .83 .74 .8 1 .82 .87 .82

Com munity involvement (4 ) .89 .77 .87 .86 .88 .87

School climate (8) .88 .86 .88 .87 .88 .88

Nole: I'\umbt- rs ofiu:ms 0 11 Slibsca ies in pare ntheses.

(quile a bit) o n Discip linary efficacy and the ir lowest level of e ffi cacy in the 4-po int range (between very little a nd some influence) on the ir ability lO gel the cOllllllunity involved in the school.

T he e fficacy variables had inlercorreiations in the medium to high ra nge (.29 ~ r ~ .73, Md1l = .48), but had modest correlat io ns with o ther variables . Enicacy in Decision Making had positive correlat ions wilh age (r = .27) a nd yeal's ex perience (r = .29) tha t approached the medium effect size for correlation coeffi cients (r = .30; Newton & Rudestam , 1999).

Diffe re nces on the seven self.effi cacy variables were examined between individuals who had completed teache rs' college and those who had not. Multiva ria te a nalys is of variance (MANOVA) was used , as the se lf·eHicacy variables wcre correlated . Given the tre me ndously unequal samp le sizes, a random sample was drawn from the larger gro up. Thus, the 49 individu­a ls who had not completed teache rs' college were compared to a random sample of 49 individua ls who had com pleted tea(hers' college. The two groups did not d iffe r by gende l; X2 (2) = .77, /) > .05, or ethnic represen­tatio n, X2 (3) = 6. I , fJ > .05.

However, the MANOVA was signilicant , F(7, 90) = 3. 5, j' < .00 1, and the univa riate Fs for six of the seven self·enica<...), va riables we re also sig. nificant. A post hoc discrimina nt fun ction analysis. the recommended procedure fOl' MANOVA (VVeinfurl , 1995 ) was used. T his a nalys is was sig. nificant, Wilks' Lambda = .82, X~ (6) = I .9. P < .005. and correct ly clas­sified 70.4% o f the two groups (73.5 '7< of the trained teachers and 67.3% of the ulllra ined teache rs). The cri tical variables fo r the dassirication, with both structure and standardi zed coefficients greate r than .4, were Efficacy to Create a Positive School Climate. In truct ional Sclf'.. Efficat)', a nd Disciplinal), Self· Efficacy. Given the contention (hat ex perience in the classroo m is much more useful than informauon gained at the teachers' colleges (Morris & J ose ph, 2000), the \ L-\..,\O\: ... "<IS re-calcu lated indud-

?--:'I.;r School Teachers in Trinidad and Tobago 141

in g ye(lrs of experi cille a .. a CO\-ana(t". Th is a lia lys is was not signifiGIIl( . F (7,86) = 1.9j' > .05.

DISCUSSION

III this study of prauiun pril11cuy ~choo l teachers in -n· in id~ld and l()iJago, we eXCImil lL' d deIlH):5''''p hic clla raCleristics, qua lifica tio ns, and sL'lf-ellicacy. The n:~ lIl b Oil demographic characteristics pa rallel and val i­da te th e results reported on tcachers a ttending training cullege in the 1900s. T ile ge ll der repre~ellta tiOil of tllese teachers was a lmost identical to reports by Ceorge et .11. (200 I ). alld the mea n age of the teachers who had not )'et ente red tcac her~ ' college fe ll nca r the upper end of the range identifi ed by George et a l. As most uf these teachers a re graduates of the first fi vc )'e.lrs of secondary schoulin g, whi( h is typ ically (ompleted in the teenage years, the Ill ea ll age of 27 reported by teachers who had not yet attended teachers' collegc provides some support for George et al. 's (on­lcntion that tcacl H..: rs ente ring tra inin g college are gett ing older. T his findin g is also supported by thi s sampl e's average amount o f teaching experiencc being close r to fi ve yea rs, than the three to four )'cars repon ed by George cl <I I.

T here arc two dernograp hic trends in the data worth notin g. The first of th ese is Lin; gende r n;presentatio n o f th e teaching cohon across grade Ie\'el s. The population o rTrinidad and Tobago and the po pulatio n o f stu ­dents ,mending schools arc uo th approximately even by gender. None­thc...:l ess. ill the first fiv e grades o f primary school, less than 25% of the tea( iling force is male. The under-representa tion of ma les in the early eleme ntary grades is not limi ted to li·iniclad and Tobago (Allan , 1997; Kin g, 1998; Nel son & Sheppa rd, 1992). as teaching in the early grades is (oll sidcrcd a felllinine act ivity in Illany countries (All an , 1993, 1994; Car­rin gton, 2002). King (1998) a rgued tha l teachin g in the primal)' grades is perceived liS ca rin g. which is (onsiclercd a fema le act ivity. Moreove l~

n . .:search suggests tlia t ma les who work il1 ea rly childhood education arc pen:e ived as less masculine and poss ibly de"iant (Kin g, 1994) , and are more close ly scrutini zed (Sargent. 2002). III a Ca ri bbea n contex t where gender roles arc more rigid (Parry. 1996: Richardson , 1988) these con­cerns may be he ight ened.

Nonet heless, to th e extelll that male role models arc important at all levels o f schoolin g, conccrted e fTorts Ill U'il be made to recruit and assign Ina le teachers to th e ea rly primary school ~I(tdes . . A.dd itio nally, a lth ough m;llc a nd fe male teachers do n Ol d iffer in a cor ,·ea rs o f experience, the number o f male principals is a lm ost equal 10 fema le principals in the sys­tem with a fc lllale· rn ale ratio of 1.1· 1 ,Gro~e & QU<l mina-Aiyejina,

142 F. C. WORRELL, M . W. W ATKINS, and T. E. HALL

2002), as opposed to the ,-3 rat io of female to male teachers. At best, these fi gures in dicate a substa ntia l under-represe ntation of females in administrative positions and. at worS1, gender bias in pro lllOlio n to

ad ministra tive posit ions ill a society where male privilege is '\mrccog­ni zed and uncontested" (;.Joguera & Worrell , 1998, p. 30).

T he second area indi ca tin g a dra matic trend is the ethnic n :prcsenta­lion in regio nal teachin g assignmcllls. It is impon ant to notc while this imba lance does ind icate clear segregatio n, it does not re fl ect biased assignments. as the ass ignments rcfleCl the natural geograp hic distribu ­tion of the ethnic groups in the popu lat ion . T his patte rn is also rel ated to

the presence of special types o f public schools-that is, assisted schools often run by religious orders-which make up 7 1 % of the public primary schools (l nd 6 1 % of all primary schools. The segregation in schools is a lso counteracted by the size of the country, and studen ts wi ll be exposed to other ethnic groups via the nationa l media and interact regularly d uring visits (Q the urban cente rs.

\-Vith regard (Q qua lificatio ns, the data in the CUITelll study indica te a 13% increase in the number of teachers who have comple ted teachers' college from the mid-1990s, but l'e1atively sllla ll numbers with any othe r credentials. The increase in tra ined teachers ll ppears to be a step in the right direction. For exa mple, Pierre and Worrell (2003) found that trained teachers in Trinidad and Tobago had higher self-efficacy th lll1 teachers who had not auended tra ining college. and noted that the data suggested that training should be required for (I II teachers. However, these autho rs also ind icated that their data were confounded by the level where the teachers taught (primary versus secondary school), and they did not con­trol for years of experience as was done in this study.

T he da ta in this study do nm support increasi ng the number o f teach­ers who arc tra ined , at least not using the current tra ini ng. Rathe l~ this study's results indicate tha t a ll teachers bel ieve that the)' are doing a good job, and the ir sense o f self-efficacy is highest in the areas in which those receivin g tra ining believe they were least wel l served in the ir teacher trai ning institutio ns (e.g., disci p li nc , instruction). T he ana lyses ind icate that years of ex perience were more important in pred icting teacl le rs' self­effi cacy than participatio n in a teacher-t raining program. However, thi s study focused o n teachers' sel f-reported self-efficat.~· and teachers' actual performance in the classroom was not c\'aluated.

Given the belief that the initia l teacher training pro\' ided at the teach­ers colleges is not useful and there is 11 0 increased re muneration for add i­tional credentials such as a Certificate of Education o r a uni versity degree, it is not surp rising that teachers (Ire not seekin these add itiona l creden­tia ls in substant ial numbers, a lthough this pallenl rna\' change if pro mo-

Pr.nary School Teachers in Trinidad and Tobago 143

lion to ad ministrari\'e po IliOlb becomes contingent on hav ing onc of these add it iolla l (<.'niIlGuioll.!) (james. 2004) .

T he Illore i lllpOn llfl( concern here celltcrs on the issue o f teache r crc­dcnt ia ling 111O\"<: gl'llcralh and rcaching as <l profession . Tri nidad and T<)bago is a nation \,' j[h subst,<l nr ia l econom ic rcsoun:cs a nd a stro ng ecoll ­omy. Pan of its S ll (CC~S in <Htrani ng fore ig n inves tme n t has been a wel l­ed ucated workforce (Dookeran. 1998). Howeve r, its curren t model o f rccrll itlll Cnl an d tra ining fo r primary schoo l teac he rs communicates that formal teacher train in g is 110[ only not 11 cccssa I) '. but a lso is not lIsefu l even whe n provided. Moreover, the poor pass rate o f students in the corc subject a reas (eli Crope llo , 200:3 ) will lIot be rect ified if e ffeClive teache r tra ini ng is no t put into p lace. T he co mbination of pass ra tes in the 60% range in the two core subjects a nd the p rimary school teache r t ra ining Illode l suggests e ith er d l(lt the poli cy makers do not va lue education, which is not in keep in g with th e public rhetoric, o r like the teache rs them­se lves, they do not recogni ze that e ffective teacher tra inin g ca n make a ti itTere nce in student lea rnin g outco mes (Tennessee Vct lue-Added Assess­ment SYSle m, 1997).

III II worl d tha t is becoming more d epe nde nt o n technolo!,ry and sci­ence, two a reC:ls in which the primary schoolteaching recruits a re least well prepa red (George & QU<l llIin a-Ai)'eji na, 2002), e ffective teaching is cru­cial fo r ma intainin g a well-educated workforce and econo mi c g rowth . Lewin et a l. (2002) obse rved th at the declin in g school-aged populat io n and concom itant reduced Ileed for teache rs provides a n excelle nt oppo r­tuni ty fo r the governm e nt to collaborate with local teacher educators in des ignin g a new teacher trainin g model based o n the compellin g empi ri­ca l research and po licy recolll llle nda tio ns in this a rea (e.g. , George & Q uami na-Aiyej in a).

AUTHOR NOTE

Corresponde nce concernin g this article shou ld be add ressed to Fra nk C. Worre ll , 45 1 I Tolman Ha ll , Berkel ey, CA 94720-1 670. Phone: (5 10) 643-4891 ; 1~l x: (5 10) 642-3555; e-ma il : rr'lIl kc@bcrkeb·.edu

ACKNOWLEDG M ENT

T his resea rch was supported ill pan b, a ~m from the Organi zat ion of Alll e ri ca n States (l~r/AE/ I ~8 1 01 941 ). II-e ""P our thanks to th e Stu -

144 F. C. WORRELL, M . W. WATKINS, and T. E. HALL

dent Support Services S~s[elll (rormerly known as the Centra l Guidance Unit) of the ~n' inidad and -robago M inisu), of Education.

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