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66 PRIMATES, 23(1): 66-7 4, Ja nu ar y 1982

O n e O b s e r v e d C a s e o f C a n n i b a l i s m A m o n g W i l dC h i m p a n z e e s o f t h e M a h a l e M o u n t a i n sKOHSHI NORIKOSHISophia University

A B S T R A C T . T h i s p a p e r p r e s en t s a d e t a il e d r e p o r t o n t h e b e h a v i o r o f c a n n i b a li s m o b s e r v e d in ag rou p o f w i ld ch im panzees o f W es te rn T a nzan ia fo r two days o f J anu ary 13 and 14, 1977 . T h is cased i ff e rs f rom the o ther ones observed so fa r in tha t the adu l t m ales k i ll ed and a te an in fan t o f the irown g roup . Much in te res t ing behav io r was observed in the m other whose in fan t was ea ten and theh igh- rank ing m ales who k i l led and a te i t.I N T R O D U C T I O N

S i n ce S U ZU K I ( 19 7 1) o b s e r v e d t h e c a n n i b a l i s t i c b e h a v i o r a m o n g c h i m p a n z e e s a t t h eB u d o n g o F o r e s t in U g a n d a i n 196 7, e i g h t c a s es i n a ll h a v e b e e n r e c o r d e d a t G o m b e N a -t i o n a l P a r k a n d K a s o j e in T a n z a n i a ( GO O DA L L, 1 97 7). T h e r e a r e t w o m o r e c a s e s o f c a n n i -b a l i s m w h i ch h a v e n o t b e e n p u b l i s he d . O n e o f t h e m w a s r e c o r d e d i n J a n u a r y 1 97 7 a n d th eo t h e r , i n J u n e 1 97 9. I m a k e a d e t a i l e d r e p o r t o f t h e f o r m e r a n d K A W AN A KA , o f t h e l a t t e r(KAWAN AKA, 1981).

A s G O OD AL L 19 7 7) p o i n t s o u t , c a n n i b a l i s m a m o n g c h i m p a n z e e s i s a f a i r ly c o m p l e x p h e n o m -e n o n c o m p a r e d w i th t h a t o b s e r v e d a m o n g c a r n i v o r o u s a n i m a l s. A n a n a l y si s o f t h is b e h a v i o rr e q u i r e s m o r e d e t a i l e d d a t a o n e a c h c a s e t h a n e x i st s a t p r e s e n t . H e r e I w o u l d l i k e t o m a k e ad e t a i l e d r e p o r t o n t h e c a s e w h i c h I o b s e r v e d a s i t d if fe r s i n m a n y re s p e c t s f r o m t h e o t h e rc a s e s w h i c h h a v e b e e n o b s e r v e d s o f a r . [ F o r g e n e ra l d a t a o n c h i m p a n z e e s a t K a s o j e , r e f e r t oNISHIDA (1968, 1970) ; NISHIDA KAWANAKA (1972) . ]

B A C K G R O U N DB e f o r e r e p o r t i n g t h e d e t a i l s o f t h i s c a s e, I w o u l d l ik e t o t o u c h u p o n t h e g e n e r a l m o v e m e n t s

a n d n o m a d i c p a t t e r n o f t h e M - g r o u p c h i m p a n z e e s j u st b e f o r e t h e i nc i de n t.F r o m N o v e m b e r to D e c e m b e r o f 1 97 6, t h e M - g r o u p ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 0 i n d iv i d ua l s) f o r a g -

e d i n t h e K a s o j e F o r e s t b e t w e e n t h e M p i l a V a l l e y a n d t h e M a n y a V a l l e y (s e e F i g . 1), w h e r et h e i r s t a p l e f o o d w a s t h e f r u i t o f Sabaflorida. D u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , Sabaflorida w a s p l e n t i f u l,a n d d a i l y m o v e m e n t s t o o k p l a c e o v e r r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t d i s t a n c e s . I n J a n u a r y o f 1 97 7, w h e nt h e r e w a s l e s s Sab a florida f r u i t a v a i l a b l e , t h e y m o v e d m o r e r a p i d l y a n d w e n t a s f a r as t h ev i c in i ty o f t h e S a n s a V a l l e y a n d t h e L u b u l u n g u R i v e r, f u r t h e r s o u t h o f M a n y a V a l le y .

T h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e M - g r o u p t h e w e e k b e f o r e J a n u a r y 13 , w h e n t h e c a n n i b a l i s m w a s o b -s e r v e d , w a s a s f o l l o w s ( F i g . 1 ):

O n J a n u a r y 5 , a l ar g e su b g r o u p c a m e d o w n f r o m t h e u p p e r K a n s y a n a V a l l e y t o t h e c a m p a n dm o ved to the sou th . T h i s subgroup was com p r i s ed o f 29 iden t if i ed ind iv idua l s and an u nknow n num -b e r o f o th e r s. O n J a n u a r y 6 , t h e y m o v e d u p t h e s l o pe o f t h e M a h a l e M o u n t a i n s w h i c h t h e y h a d n o tu t il ized in No vem ber and Dece m be r , t r ave l ing f rom the N ta le Val ley to the M any a Valley . One

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A Case of Cannibalism Among Wild Chimpanzees 67

; , ~ .6Ob~o l~ v : i n~ r o u ~ e ~ . . . . . . . . . . . .

Fig. 1. Nomadic movement of the M-group (January 5-13).

hundred and forty millimeter of rain prevented us from making observations on January 7. OnJanuary 8, three adult males including Rashidi came to the camp. Judging from the fact that we heardmany vocalizations on the upper Kakolomo Valley and in Masamba Valley on that day, it seemedthat the main body was in Lubulungu River or Sansa Valley. On January 9, we heard the vocal-izations of a small subgroup comprised of Rashidi and others near the camp. We recorded other vo-calizations in Masamba Valley, in the lower Sinsiba Valley, the lower Kasiha Valley and the upperManya Valley. On January 10, the subgroup of Rashidi and others stayed near the camp and ap-proached with loud calling the individuals who came from south that evening. We could identify 20individuals, and more individuals passed by the camp and spent the night on the ridge between theSumba Valley and Kansyana Valley. They moved to the Lwegele Valley on January 11, and to thelower reaches of the Mpila Valley on January 12.

Thus, the M-group moved about 14 km during the seven days from Janu ary 5 to 12. Com -pared with the November--December period, the average speed was relatively fast, about 2km a day.

Duri ng the M-group' s movement to the south, we observed an interesting incident involv-ing Ndi lo , the mother of Humbe , the 2.5- month-old cannibalized infant and the second-rank-ing adult male, If ,agirnimi, one of the probable authors of the kill on the M-gro up's way to

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6 8 K . NO Rm O SI-IIt h e s o u t h . O n J a n u a r y 6 , Ndilo, t h e m o t h e r o f t h e i n fa n t , w a s a t t a c k e d h o t l y b u t w i t h o u t i n-j u r y b y K a g i m i m i . D e t a i l s o f t h e a t ta c k f o l l o w :

O n J a n u a r y 6, t h e M - g r o u p w a s m o v i n g f r o m S i n s ib a V a l l e y t o t h e N t a l e V a l le y t h r o u g h R 4 . A t1 2 : 2 8 , Kagim im i c a m e d o w n a s l o p e in f r o n t o f t h e o b s e r v e r s th r e a te n i n g t h e m b y p o u n d i n g t h eg r o u n d a n d t o s s i n g a s t o n e . Ndilo, c a r r y i n g Humbe, c a m e d o w n t h e s l o p e b e si d e Kagimimi. T h e o b -s e r v e r s g a v e Kagimhni a p i e c e o f s u g a r c a n e a n d t h r e w a n o t h e r p i e c e b e f o r e Ndilo. W h e n Ndilo w a sa b o u t t o t a k e i t , Kagimimi a t t a c k e d Ndilo. H e h e l d h e r d o w n , s l a p p in g h e r o n t h e b o d y , a n d s h es c r e a m e d w i t h p a i n . H e f in i sh e d a t t a c k i n g h e r a f te r a m o m e n t . I n a n s w e r t o h e r s c r e a m s , m a n y i n d i vi d -u a l s v o c a l i z e d f r o m t h e u p p e r s l o p e . Kagim im i a n d Ndilo b o t h a n s w e r e d v o c a l l y . H u m b e h a d a l s o u t -t e r e d a s h o r t v o i c e f o r a w h i l e a f t e r Kagimimi's a t t a c k o n Ndilo. A t 1 2 : 4 7 , Kagiadm i m o v e d t o t h eu p p e r N t a l e V a l l e y . Ndilo m o v e d s o u t h o n R 4 a s h o r t d i s t a n c e , s t o p p e d c l i m b i n g u p a t r e e a n dw a t c h e d t h e o b s e r ve r s . A t 1 : 03 , Ndilo w i t h H u m b e o n h e r b e ll y m o v e d u p t h e N t a l e V a l le y f o l l o w i n gKagimimi. T h a t w a s t h e l as t t i m e Humbe w a s s e e n a l i v e .O B S E R V A T I O N SCANNIBALISM

M a n y i n d i v i d u a ls w e r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e r e c o r d e d c a n n i b a l is m i n v a r i o u s w a y s ( T a b l e 1 ).I w i l l tr e a t t h e i r b e h a v i o r u n d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g f iv e h e a d i n g s :Behavior Re la ted to the Unseen In fan t ic ide

W e d i d n o t o b s e r v e t h e in f a n t ic i d e d i r e c t l y . H o w e v e r , w e c o u l d h e a r t h e h a r s h c ry o f t h ec h i m p a n z e e s w h o p r o b a b l y k i l le d th e i n f a n t , a n d w e w e r e a b l e t o f o l l o w s o m e o f t he i r s u b s e-q u e n t m o v e m e n t s .

T a b l e 1 . P r o g r e s s o f c a n n i b a l i s m .Ind iv idualsw h o h a d t h e A p p r o a c h i n g N e i g h b o r i n gTim e P lace dead in f ant ind iv iduals ind iv iduals M ain behavior

Jan. 13 9:05 a.m. A Kalunde Vocal izat ionK a s u l a m e m b a9:44 B Kag imim i B aka l i , Ka lunde,Kas u lamemba , Nd i lo ,W a n s o m b o9:45 B K a g i m i m i K a j u g i , W a m w e l u10:57 B K a g i m i m i .11 : 13 B KagirnimiKalunde11:14

5:30 a.m. C B a k a l i

6:06 C B a k a 6Jan, 14 12:45 p.m. D K a j u g iwit hdrawalof t he pe l t

WarnwehtWansomboB aka l iK a s u l a m e m b a

KalundeN d i l oK a g i m i m iRashidiNdilo

Ka/ug i , Kag imimi ,R as h id i , M us a ,LubulunguW a k a m p o r n p o

K a j u g i attacked W a m -welu and Wansombo,andKagimimi dropped t hedead in f ant on t heground. Kalunde pickedup the infant , and B a -ka l i and K a s u l a m e m b af o l l o w e d him.K a j u g i approached B a-ka l i t wice and attackedKalunde and Ndilo.

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A Case of Cannib alism Amo ng Wild Chimpanzees 69At 9:05 a.m. on January 13, 1977, a number of chimpanzees cried fiercely on the ridge from theKan sya na Valley to the Su mba Valley (A in Fig. 1). After a while, more tha n fou r chimpanzees were

observed to climb down the ridge and to move to Kamuminsa (B). There were young males amongthem, K a h m d e an d Kasulamemba, but we could not identify other indi viduals because they were in thebush. The n at 9:10, 9:14, 9:17, 9:25 and 9:35, we heard a few chimpanzees vocalizing in the Ka mu -minsa area. I n answer to the vocalizations at 9:35, a chimpanzee called back o n the upper Kan sya naValley. After a while, Kajugi, the top-rankin g male in the M-group, passed by the camp and movedtoward Kam umi nsa from the direction where we heard the vocalizations. We threw a banan a, buthe moved rapidly toward Kamu min sa without paying any attention to it.B e h a v io r o f a n A d u l t M a l e W ' l o m W e F i r st O b s e r v e dE a t i n g a n I n f a n t a n d t h e I n d i v id u a l s A r o u n d H i m

At 9:44 a.m., we arrived at Kam um in sa (B) a nd foun d six chimpanzees abo ut 15 m up a tree ofMyrianthus holst i i . Five of these could be identified at once: three adults, B ak a l i , a middle-rankingmale, Wansombo, a female and Ndi lo; plus two juveniles. Behind the others, a/most o ut of sight, wasanother individual. This later proved to be the second-ranking adult male Kagirnimi in possession ofa dead infant.At 9:45 a.m., Kaj ug i arrived from the direction of the camp a nd slapped the ground. The individ-uals in the tree vocalized in response to that. Kaj ug i climbed up the tree at once to where they were.An adult female, Wamwe l u , carrying her infant, Lusia, had been following Kaj ug i and she also ap-proached the individuals in the tree. I t was at this ti me that we first observed that Ndi l o was notcarrying her inf ant. H u m b e was nowhere to be seen. At 10:03 a.m. and 10:04 a.m., Bakal i , W ansomboan d Lus i a vocalized; and B ak a l i and Lus i a climbed down the tree.Kaj ug i sat next to Ndi lo and they intermi ttentl y groome d each other. Wamwelu, Wansombo andthe still unidentified K a g i m i m i gathered n ear them (within 2 or 3 m). They vocalized at 10:22, 10:27and 10:31 a.m.At 10:55 a.m., K a g i m i m i moved about 10 m from th e others. For the first time he could be identi-fied and seen to be carrying a dead infan t. He tore off part o f the right arm of the inf ant and ate it. Hethen ate an Sabaf lor ida leaf. The rema inin g part of the right han d was bleeding, which showed that itwas not long since the inf ant had died.At 10:57 a.m., W a m w e l u approached Kaghnbn i (abo ut 1 m from h im) and watched him eating theinfant. Her infant, Lusia, left her breast, climbed on the head of K a g i m i m i and returned to her motherafter watchi ng him eating. K a g i m i m i did not look annoyed by the infa nt's behavior.At 11:01 a.m., K a g i m i m i was lying on his back up in the tree. W a m w e l u looked i nto his face and herinfant, Lusia, was playing on his head. K a g i m i m i was holding the dead inf ant with his foot.At 11:06 a.m., K a g i m i m i was gnawing off part of the flesh of the rem aini ng arm, and W a m w e l ulooked int o his face over his shoulder from behind. One could hear the bones being crushed betweenhis teeth. At 11:10, Lusia got on his back and watched him eating over his shoulder. Kaj ug i wasgrooming Ndilo, and later groomed Wansombo abo ut 10 m away in the tree.T h e B e h a v i o r o f A n o t h e r I n d i v i d u a l W h o C a r r i e d t h e I n J b n t A w a y

At 11:13 a.m., Wansombo approached K a g i m i m i and stopped about 5 m from him. When Wan-sombo approached a little closer to K a g i m i m i at 11:23 a.m., Kaj ug i moved toward Wansombo andKagirnimi as if he were ready to a tt ack th em and displayed by shaking the tree. Wansombo and W a m -weht ran away (to the end of the branch) with a scream and K a g i m i m i dropped the dead infant on theground. Kasulamemba, who was sitting near the dropped infant, looked at B a k a B with the expressionof fear and picking up the infan t ran i nto the bush with a scream. B a k a l i an d Kalunde followed him.Kaj ug i climbed down from the tree and slapped the groun d. K a g i m i m i also came down to the ground.Ndi lo continued to urinate for perhaps a minute after Kasu l ame mba carried the dead infant away.Kagi mhni and Kaj ug i remained on the ground; Ndi l o , Wamwe l u an d Wansombo were in the tree.K a g i m i m i and Kajugi vocalized and pounded the ground a number of times. Some chimpanzees(includingB a k a # ) answered them vocally in the bush where he, Kasu l ame mba an d Kalunde had en-tered.

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A C a s e o f C a n n i b a l i sm A m o n g W i l d C h i m p a n z e e s 71a t t h e m . Kajugi t h en g r o o m e d Kagimimi a n d Ndilo r e m a i n e d s i t t in g b y th e m . T h e n t h e t h r e e c h i m p a n -z e e s r e c i p r o c a l l y g r o o m e d o n e a n o t h e r . Bakali and Rashidi r e m a i n e d s i t t in g n e a r b y a t a d i s t a n c e o fa b o u t 2 m .

A t 1 : 2 3 p . m . , Ndilo m o v e d t o t h e n o r t h a n d d i s a p p e a r e d .A t 1 :2 7 p .m . , Wansombo , an a d u l t f e m a l e w i t h h e r i n f a n t , a n d Wabuhansac a m e o v e r to Kajttgi a n dKagimimi.A t 1 : 3 2 p . m . , Kajugi, Rashidi, Kagimimi, Wansombo a n d Wabuhansa v o c a l i z e d a n d Ndilo r e a p -p e a r e d . A l l o f t h e m m o v e d t o t h e w e s t. Kajugi a n d Ndilo m o v e d o n t h e g r o u n d ; o t h e r i n d i v id u a l sc l i m b e d u p a t r e e a n d m o v e d e a t i n g t h e f ru i t o f Saba.Ko.jttgi a n d Ndilo m o v e d c l o s e t o g e t h e r a n d d i s a p p e a r e d i n t o t h e b u s h a t 1 : 5 5 p . m . W e h a d n o t o b -s e r v e d Kajugi, Kagimimi a n d Ndilo e a t i n g p l a n t s d u r i n g t h e 1 h r o f o b s e r v a t i o n o n J a n u a r y 1 4.SOME INTERESTING BEHAVIOR OBSERVED AMONG INDIVIDUALSWHO WERE INVOLVED IN CANNIBALISM

Behavior of the Mother Whose Infant Was EatenNdilo, w h o s e i n f a n t w a s e a t e n , w a s r a i se d i n t h e K - g r o u p l i v in g i n t h e n o r t h o f t h e r a n g e o f

M - g r o u p . S h e m o v e d t o t h e M - g r o u p a n d h a d l i v e d t h e r e t h r o u g h t h e e n d o f 1 97 2 i n t o t h eb e g i n n i n g o f 1 9 73 , w h e n s h e a t t a i n e d h e r s e x u a l m a t u r i t y . S h e h a d h e r f ir s t b a b y in 1 97 5 a n dl o s t i t s o o n a f t e r w a r d . S h e w a s o b s e r v e d d a n g l i n g h e r i n f a n t , Humbe, w h o w a s l e ss t h a n 2m o n t h s o l d , b y i t s le g f o r a l o n g t i m e o n a h i g h t r e e a n d s h e w a s o f t e n a w a y f r o m i t f o r l o n gp e r i o d s .

I h a v e a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d t h a t t h e b u t t o c k s o f Ndilo b e c a m e a l i t tl e s w o l l e n a n d s h o w e ds i gn s o f e s t ru s o n t h e s e c o n d d a y a f t e r t h e c a n n i b a l i s m . I c o u l d n o t o b s e r v e h e r f o r th e f o l l o w -i n g f o u r d a y s . T h e s w e l l i n g o f Ndilo's b u t t o c k s h a d a l r e a d y g o n e b y J a n u a r y 1 9, s ix d a y s a f t e rt h e c a n n i b a l i s m , w h i c h i n d i c a t e d t h e e n d o f h e r e s tr u s , q h o u g h Ndilo w a s i n e s t r u s d u r i n gt h o s e f o u r d a y s , th e e s t ru s w a s v e r y b r i e f, u n l i k e a n o r d i n a r y o n e .Behavior of the Male Who Killed the Infant

F i v e m o n t h s a f t e r t h e c a n n i b a l i s m , Kagimimi, w h o is p r e s u m e d t o h a v e k i l l e d t h e i n f a n t ,a p p r o a c h e d a fe m a l e w i t h a n e w b o r n b a b y a n d t r i e d t o t a k e i t. H e r e f o l lo w s t h e s to r y .

A t 1 2 : 0 0 a . m . , o n J u n e 6 , 19 77 , m a n y c h i m p a n z e e s w e r e r e s t i n g in a l e is u r e l y m a n n e r a t E p o i n t ( t h ef o r e s t o f Harungana madagascariensis, s t a p l e f r u i t o f t h i s s e a s o n ) .A t 0 : 0 5 p . m . , w h e n Kajugi, a t o p - r a n k i n g m a l e , a n d Nishida, a m i d d l e - r a n k i n g m a l e , w e r e g r o o m i n ge a c h o t h e r , Fatumaw i t h CCM, a fe m a l e i n f a n t 2 m o n t h s o l d , a p p r o a c h e d t h e m f r o m a d i s t a n c e o fa b o u t 2 m a w a y w i t h " p a n t - b a r k " a n d t h e n s a t d o w n a t s o m e d i s t an c e . T h e n Kagimimi a p p r o a c h e dt h o s e c h i m p a n z e e s . Fatuma s h o w e d p a n t - b a r k i n g a n d p r e s e n t a t i o n p o s t u r e t o h i m a n d c l i m b e d u p at r e e s o m e d i s ta n c e f ro m h i m a n d s a t d o w n .

T h e f o l l o w i n g b e h a v i o r w a s o b s e r v e d b e t w e e n Kagimirni a n d Fatuma f r o m t h e n t i ll 0 : 2 3p . m . :(1 ) Fatuma e m i t s " p a n t - b a r k " a n d r u n s a w a y a l i tt le in r e s p o ns e t o t h e a p p r o a c h o fKagimimi; (2 ) Kagi-mimi g e t s c l o s e t o Fatuma a n d CCM. P u t t i n g h i s m o u t h o n t h e i r b o d ie s , h e t r ie s t o b i t e t h e m (CCMd o e s n o t l e a v e Fatuma); (3 ) Fatuma e m i t s p a n t - b a r k t o w a r d Kagimimi b e c a u s e o f h is a p p r o a c h . Kagi-mimi b i t e s Fatuma o n t h e h e a d a n d s h o w s r e a s s u r a n c e b e h a v i o r , a n d t h e n Kagimimi g r o o m s Fatuma;(4 ) CCM s c r e a m s a l i t t l e a n d Fatuma r u n s a w a y f ro m Kagimimi; ( 5) A n o t h e r f e m a l e ( W a m w e l u ) a p -p r o a c h e s Kagimimi a n d Fatuma. Kagimimi a p p r o a c h e s Fatuma, w h o t r ie s t o r u n a w a y w i t h p a n t - b a r k ,b u t Kagimirnig r o o m s Fatuma; ( 6) W h e n Wamwelu a p p r o a c h e s Fatuma a n d Kagimimi, Fatuma a l s o

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72 K. NORIKOSmapproaches W a m w e l u with pant-bark. W a m w e l u grooms F at uma and Kagi mi mi also grooms F at uma;(7) F at uma runs away from Kagi mi mi , who runs after F at uma and grooms her again; (8) When F a-t uma tries to get away from Kagi mi mi , Kag i mi mi approaches F a t u m a who runs away with pant-bark;and (9) W a m w e l u grooms Kagimimi. Lusia, an infant of Wamwe l u , plays on the body of K a g i m i m i atfirst, and later on that of F at uma. F a t uma has held C C M tightly to her breast since the behavior men-tioned under (3).At 0:23 p.m., K a g i m i m i climbed down a tree, going to Kajugi, and they moved together. F at umawent to Nishida and emitted pant-bark. Showing her buttocks to Nishida, Fatuma assumed presen-tation posture. Nishida put his mouth to the buttocks of F at uma, who went a little away from Nishida.After F a t u m a looked at Kaj ug i and K a g i m i m i who were some distance from the former and emittedpant-bark toward them, she got behind Nishida and groomed him. Then F at uma turned her back toNishida and was groomed.At 0:30 p.m., F at uma moved toward K a g i m i m i and Kajugi.As far as C C M is concerned, she lived till the end of October 1977, when my period of observationwas completed. The cause of her later death remains a mystery.

DISCUSSIONAs we did not observe the infant's death, first it is necessary to examine whether this indi-

vidual was actually H u m b e , N d i l o ' s 2.5-month-old son.The pelt which we to ok fro m K a j u g i was very small, 36 cm long from head to foo t, clearly a

few- mont h-ol d infant. "1 he M- gro up at this time ha d only one small infant, H u m b e . There wasalso a small infant in the K-group, but it was confirmed that the latter was alive the weekfollowing the cannibalism. We made sure of the fact that all the other (older) infants werealive after the incident both in the M-group and the K-group . Finally, when we consider thelocal nomadic patterns of chimpanzees at the time of the incident, it is virtually impossiblethat an infant of any group other than the M-g roup or the K- grou p was involved.

I would like to analyze some characteristics of this cannibalism from various points ofview.

The first characteristic is that at Gombe it was a female and her offspring who killed andate an infan t of the same gr oup (GOODALL, 1977), while in this case male were respons ible.What is more, it was an inf ant o f a stranger that males killed in all the othe r cases which havebeen observed, bu t the males of this case ate an infant o f their own group. It can be seen fromthe above that this case is quite different from the other ones.

The second characteristic is as follows:At Gombe, a male showed unusual behavior such as hitting or grooming an infant whomhe had killed (GOODALL, 1977), but such behavi or was no t observed at Kasoje. In this sense

the cannibalism observed at Kasoje resembled more ordinary meat eating. However, it dif-fers from it in that the males spent a considerable time in eating the infant without showingmuch excitement, also i1~ tha t other individuals present were apparent ly little interested in theeating. One could have assumed that cannibalism would be more inhibited when eating aninfant o f one's own commu nity than when eating a strange infant. 1he exact reverse was thephe nom eno n which was actually observed and remains entirely unaccounted for.

The third characteristic concerns the behavio r o f N d i lo , the m other whose infant was killed.Two aspects of her behavior will be discussed. First, her apparent lack of emotional distressand concern at the cannibalism of H u m b e ; and second, her intimate association with twoadult males that she observed eating and/or handling H u m b e ' s body.

N d i l o approached B a k a l i while he was eating H u m b e and looked closely into his face. This

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A C a s e o f C a n n i b a l is m A m o n g W i l d C h i m p a n z e e s 7 3w a s t h e g r e a t e s t d i r e c t i n t e r e s t t h a t w e o b s e r v e d h e r t a k e i n Humbe's c a n n i b a l i s m . S h e d id n o td i s p la y o b v i o u s e m o t i o n a l d i s tr e ss , a n d s h e n e v e r t r ie d t o a t t a c k t h e i n d iv i d u a ls w h o w e r ee a t i n g th e i n f a n t o r t o t a k e i t b a c k . H e r l a c k o r a g g r e s si o n a n d h e r a p p a r e n t l a c k o f c o n c e r nw e r e p e r h a p s r e l a t e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l s w h o w e r e e a t i n g Humbe w e r e h i g h - r a n k -i n g m a l e s a n d a b s o l u t e l y d o m i n a n t o v e r he r . H e r a p p a r e n t l a c k o f di s tr e ss a n d c o n c e r n m i g h ta l so h a v e b e e n r e l a t e d t o h e r g e n e r a l p e r f o r m a n c e a s a m o t h e r . Ndilo c o u l d h a v e b e e n c o n -s i d er e d a b a d m o t h e r . W e o f t e n o b s e r v e d h e r d a n g l i n g h e r i n f a n t b y i ts le g h ig h u p i n tr e es .W e a l s o o f te n o b s e r v e d h e r n e w b o r n i n f a n t l e f t u n a t t e n d e d .

Ndilo's g r o o m i n g r e l a t io n s h i p s w i t h t h e h i g h e s t r a n k i n g a d u l t m a l e s w a s o f a s p ec i a l n a t u r ed u r i n g t h is p e r i o d o f J a n u a r y 13 ( t he d a y w e o b s e r v e d t h e c a n n i b a l i s m ) a n d J a n u a r y 1 4 ( t hed a y w e r e c o v e r e d Humbe's p e l t ) . O n t h e f i r s t d a y , Kajugi, t h e h i g h e s t - r a n k i n g a d u l t m a l e , a p -p r o a c h e d Ndilo, g r o o m e d h e r , a n d s h e p a r t ia l l y r e c i p ro c a t e d . A s h o r t t i m e l a t e r Kajugi w a so b s e r v e d to b e g r o o m i n g Ndilo w h i l e s h e g r o o m e d Wansombo, a n d t h e y a l l i n t e r m i t t e n t l yw a t c h e d l(agirnimi e a t i n g Humbe s o m e d i s ta n c e a w a y i n t h e t re e . O n t h e s e c o n d d a y , Ndiloa p p r o a c h e d Kajugi a n d ](agimimi; p r e s e n t e d t o Kagimimi, a n d t h e t h r e e g r o o m e d e a c h o t h e r.A l t h o u g h o t h e r a d u l t fe m a l e s w e r e p r e s e n t o n b o t h d a y s , o n l y Ndilo s h a r e d i n t h e m u t u a lg r o o m i n g . A n o t h e r u n u s u a l a s p e c t o f Kajugi a n d 3;agimirni's b e h a v i o r w a s t h a t f o r t h e 2 h ro n J a n u a r y 13 t h a t l(ajugi w a s o b s e r v e d w i t h Ndilo n e a r b y , n e i t h e r o f t h e m w a s s e e n to e a ta n d t h a t t h e n e x t d a y a g a in , d u r i n g t h e 1 h r w h e n Kajugi, Kagimimi a n d Ndilo w e r e o b s e r v e dt o g e t h e r n e i t h e r w a s s e e n t o e a t .

O n J a n u a r y 1 3, Ndilo s h o w e d n o s i g ns o f e s t r u s . S h e d id , h o w e v e r , s h o w s o m e s l ig h t e s t r u ss w e l l in g o n t h e s e c o n d d a y . S h e p r e s e n t e d t o Kagimimi w h e n h e a p p r o a c h e d h e r. Kagimimit o u c h e d h e r b u t t o c k s w i t h fi n ge r s a n d s n if fe d th e m , b u t a p p a r e n t l y Ndilo w a s n o t i n fu l l e st r u sa n d w e d id n o t o b s e r v e t h e m c o p u l a t e . W e d i d n o t s e e Ndilo f o r f o u r d a y s a f t e r t h a t . W h e n w eo b s e r v e d h e r a g a i n o n J a n u a r y 1 9, s ix d a y s a f t e r t h e c a n n i b a l i s m i n c i d e n t , h e r e s tr u s w a s a l -r e a d y o v e r . E v e n i f Ndilo h a d b e e n i n e st r u s f o r t h o s e f o u r d a y s d u r i n g w h i c h w e w e r e u n a b l et o o b s e r v e h e r , th e e s t r u s w a s v e r y b r i e f , u n l ik e a n o r d i n a r y o n e . S h e d i d n o t d i s p l a y s i g n s o fe s tr u s f o r o n e m o n t h a f t e r th a t .

L a s t l y , I w il l t o u c h u p o n t h e b e h a v i o r o f th e h i g h - r a n k i n g m a l e s w h o k i l l e d o r a t e t h e i n -f a n t .

I h a v e a lr e a d y m e n t i o n e d t h a t t h e i n f a n t w a s e a l e n v e r y sl o w l y i n t h is c a n n i b a l i s m a n d t h a ts t r o n g i n h i b i t i o n w a s e x e r c is e d o v e r i t. I n r e l a t i o n t o t h i s i n h i b i t i o n , I w i ll m e n t i o n t h e f a c tt h a t Kajugi, t h e fi r s t - r a n k i n g m a l e , o f t e n a t t a c k e d t h e i n d i v i d u a l s w h o w e r e e a t i n g t h e i n -f a n t o r a p p r o a c h i n g i t, a n d g o t t h e m t o l e a v e t h e s c e n e o f c a n n i b a l i sm . I t is o p e n t o a r g u m e n tw h e t h e r t h e b e h a v i o r o f Kajugi a i m e d a t p r o h i b i t i n g c a n n i b a l i s m o r a t o b t a i n i n g t h e f l es h.T h e n e x t d a y , h e h a d t h e p e l t o f th e i n f a n t w i t h h i m . T h e r e s u l t, h o w e v e r , i s t h a t h i s b e h a v i o rd i d h e l p i n k e e p i n g c a n n i b a l i s m f r o m s p r e a d i n g , t o s a y t h e l e a s t. T h e f o l l o w i n g is k n o w n a s as i m i l ar c a s e : W h e n a c a n n i b a l f e m a l e t o o k a n i n f a n t o f a n o t h e r f e m a l e , a h i g h - r a n k i n g m a l el e n t h is h e l p i n g i v i n g b a c k t h e i n f a n t t o i t s m o t h e r ( G o o D A L L , 1 9 77 ). T h e r e i s n o q u e s t i o nt h a t c a n n i b a l i s m i s n o t a t a b o o a m o n g c h i m p a n z e e s , b u t i t is a l m o s t c e rt a i n t h a t t h e b e h a v i o ro f t h e f i r st - ra n k i n g m a l e w o r k e d a s a s o c ia l m e c h a n i s m t o r e s t ri c t c a n n i b a l is m .

I n c o n c l u s io n , 1 w o u l d l ik e t o e m p h a s i z e t h a t c a n n i b a l i s m is a v e ry c o m p l i c a t e d p h e n o m e -n o n . T h e r e a r e m a n y u n a n s w e r e d q u e s t i o n s. H o w , f o r e x a m p l e , c o u l d Warnwelu's i n f a n tLusia p l a y s o c a s u a ll y o n t h e h e a d o f Kagimimi w h i l e h e a t e Humbe? A l l t h e e v i d e n c e s h o w st h a t Humbe w a s n o t j u s t a n o t h e r n o r m a l m e a t . H o w c o u l d Wamwelu s o c a l m l y w a t c h Kagi-mimi e a t Hurnbew h i l e Lusia p l a y e d ? T h i s i s e s p e c i a l ly d if fi c u lt t o u n d e r s t a n d s i nc e Wamwelu

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7 4 K . N O RiK O SH Il o s t h e r 3 - y e a r - o l d s o n S h i g e r o i n 1 97 4 i n th e c a n n i b a l i s m c a s e o b s e r v e d i n th e K - g r o u p(N IS H ID A , U EH AR A & N YU ND O, 1 97 9) . A s m a y b e e x p e c t e d f o r s u c h c o m p l i c a t e d p h e n o m e n a ,I a m s u re t h a t o u r c o n t i n u e d r e s e a r c h w i l l p r o v i d e n e w c l u e s t o c l a r i fy i n g t h e f u n d a m e n t a ls t r u c t u r e o f c h i m p a n z e e s s o c i e ty a n d m o r e s u b t l e i n s ig h t s in t o t h e i r m e n t a l i t y .A c k n o w l e d g em e n t s . I a m g r e a t l y i n d e b t e d t o J a p a n I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o o p e r a t i o n A g e n c y ( J I C A ) w h i c hs e n t m e t o T a n z a n i a a s a n E x p e r t o f P r i m a t o l o g y , a n d t o W i l d D i v i s i o n , t h e M i n i s t r y o f N a t u r a lR e s o u r c e s a n d T o u r i s m , T a n z a n i a G o v e r n m e n t , u n d e r w h i c h I w o r k e d a s a G a m e R e s e a r c h O f fi ce ra t K a s o j e C h i m p a n z e e R e s e a r c h S t a t i o n . I a m g r a t e fu l t o th e s t a f f o f t h e E m b a s s y o f J a p a n i n T a n -z a n i a , o f J I C A H e a d q u a t e r s , a n d o f J I C A O f fi ce i n T a n z a n i a , f o r t h e i r k i n d h e l p a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t .I a m p a r t i c u l a r l y o b l ig e d t o D r . T . N I SH ID A a n d o t h e r s m e n t i o n e d a t t h e b e g i n n in g o f t h i s p a p e r f o rt h e i r g e n e r o s i ty i n o ff e ri n g m e t h e i n v a l u a b l e u n p u b l i s h e d d a t a . I m u s t e x p r e ss m y g r a t i t u d e t o D r . J .I TA N I f o r h i s c o n s t a n t e n c o u r a g e m e n t ; t o P r o f . T . K IT A H AR Ao f S o p h i a U n i v e r s i ty f o r h is k i n d h e l pi n p r e p a r i n g t h i s m a n u s c r i p t . I w o u l d l i ke t o d e e p l y t h a n k o u r c o l l e a g u e s a n d f ie l d a s s i st a n t s o fK a s o j e C h i m p a n z e e R e s e a r c h S t a ti o n .R E F E R E N C E SG O OD A LL , J . , 1 9 77 . I n f a n t k i l l i n g a n d c a n n i b a l i s m i n f l e e - l i v i n g c h i m p a n z e e s . Folia Primatol . , 2 8 :2 5 9 - 2 8 2 .KAWANAKA, K. , 1 98 1. I n f a n t i c i d e a n d c a n n i b a l i s m i n c h i m p a n z e e s w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o t h en e w l y o b s e r v e d c a s e i n M a h a l e M o u n t a i n s . Af t . S tud. Monogr . , 1 : 6 9-99 .N IS H ID A , T . , 1 96 8. T h e s o c i a l g r o u p o f w i l d c h i m p a n z e e s i n t h e M a h a l i M o u n t a i n s . Primates , 9 : 1 6 7 -224 .- - , 1970. S o c ia l b e h a v io r a n d r e l a ti on s h ip s a m o n g w i ld c h im p a n ze e s o f t he M a h a l i M o u n -t a i n s . Primates , 1 1 : 4 7 - 8 7 .- - & K . KAWANAKA,1 97 2. I n t e r : u n i t - g r o u p r e la t i o n s h i p s a m o n g w i l d c h i m p a n z e e s o f t h eM a h a l i M o u n t a i n s . Kyoto Univ . A f t . S tud. , 7 : 1 3 1 - 1 6 9 .- - , S . U EH AR A & R . N YU ND O, 1979. P r e d at o ry b eh a v io r a m o n g w i ld c h im p a n z ee s o f t heM a h a l e M o u n t a i n s . Primates , 2 0 : 1 - 2 0 .S U ZU K I, A . , 1 97 1. C a r n i v o r i t y a n d c a n n i b a l i s m o b s e r v e d a m o n g f o r e s t - li v i n g c h i m p a n z e e s . J . Anth-ropoL Sac. Nippon, 7 9 : 3 0 - 4 8 .

- - R e c e i v e d Decem ber 25, 1980; A c c e p t e d M a y 9 , 1981A u t h o r ' s N a m e a n d A d d r e s s : K O H SH INORmOSHI,Lif e Science Institute, Sop hia U niversity, Kioi-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 102 Japan.