Upload
katarina-lacer
View
234
Download
3
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Productivity & Constrains on
Productivity Lec. 5
The open-endedness of lexicon
Morphological theorizing & the formation of words (established words +freshly coined words)
Lexicon vs. syntax Word formation rules are passive: to
analyze existing words rather that to create new ones
The open-endedness of lexicon
In principle, no word is infinite in length, but there is no upper limit to the formation of bases (e.g. uncomplicatedness).
Borrowing & the lexicon of a language Morphology is productive
What is productivity? Productivity & generality: the more
general a word-formation process is, the more productive it will be assumed to be.
1. Productivity is a matter of degree2. Productivity is subject to the dimension
of time
Productivity and the inherent ambiguity
Productivity, Time dimension & Fashion
Singular
I take Thou takest He, she taketh
Plural
We take Ou take They take
Exercise -id -ist -er
morbid anarchist worker
tepid communist painter
timid pianist swimmer
splendid violinist dancer
horrid racist jogger
Buddhist vs. *Muhammedist
Latin suffix*unproductive/
frozen
Mid-way suffix*Unexplainable
gaps
Germanicproductive
The suffix -itis The suffix (–itis) is (Greek origin) is suffixed
to form the feminine of adjectives It is used in modern medical English to
form words referring to inflammatory diseases, e.g. arthritis
the words suffixed with (-itis) are fewer than those suffixed with (–er), however the former suffix (-itis) attaches with an extremely high degree of regularity to most suitable bases.
The suffix -itis Cephalitis Hepatitis Vaginitis Neuritis Bronchitis Arthritis
The suffix -ant The suffix (–ant) (Latin origin) is
suffixed to turns a verbal base into an agentive nominal.
There is some restriction (historical) to the bases to which the suffix –ant is attached.
The suffix -ant The base is originally Latin, so it attaches to Latin
bases only. Germanic bases are not allowed.
dependent participant assistant servant consultant *wri(e)tant *buildant *shoutant
The suffix -ant Semantically, the –ant has
unpredictable effects, and the meaning of words created by suffixing –ant is inconsistent
defendant vs. accountant
Productivity & Creativity Productivity = creativity The capacity of all human languages to
use finite means to produce an infinite number of words & utterances
In the scope of morphology, creativity can be seen in 2 ways:
1. Rule-governed creativity2. Rule-bending creativity
Productivity & Creativity 1. Words are formed following general rules
and principles internalized by speakers in the process of language acquisition (quick quickly) or (post postwar)
2. however, speaker have the ability to extend the stock of words idiomatically, producing words without following the standard rules of word-formation.
Stool pigeon / security reasons/ collateral damage/ anti-terror law / deadline
Constrains on Productivity Blocking (i) Blocking may be due to the prior existence of another word with the same meaning that the new word would have , i.e. Perfect synonyms are avoided. Thief *stealer
Constrains on Productivity Blocking (ii) If there are two semantically similar morphemes, one of which is more productive than the other, the more productive morpheme is less likely to blocking than its less productive counterpart.-ness & -ity
Examples -ness & -ity
X + (-ous)adjective
Pre-existing
Noun
Noun (-ness)
More productive
Noun (-ity)Less
productive
Glorious glory Gloriousness *Gloriosity
Furious Fury Furiousness *Furiosity
Couragous Courage Courageousness
*Couragity
Spacious space spaciousness *spaciosity
blocking The concept of blocking is due to a
number of factors; these factors may be (i) phonological, (ii) morphological, (iii) semantic, or (iv) aesthetic.
1. Phonological factors
Verbs with the meaning ‘to begin x’ can be usually formed from adjectives by suffixing (-en) to an adjectival base provided which meets the following phonetic conditions: The base must be monosyllabic The base must end in (stop/ fricative)
which may be optionally preceded by a (nasal consonant/ or approximate)
Blocking -en
Allowed verbs blacken dampen quieten soften whiten harden fasten
*disallowed verbs
dryen blueen greenen dimmen
Blocking -lyAdverbs, in general, are can be usually formed from adjectives by suffixing (-ly) to an adjectival base: The (-ly) suffix tends to be avoided
where an adjective ends in (-ly)
Blocking -ly
allowed grand – grandly clever – cleverly fierce – fiercely elegant –
elegantly serious – seriously
*disallowed sillyly friendlyly miserlyly sisterlyly
2. morphological factors
The morphological properties of a base may prevent the application of morphological rules. Often native morphemes behave differently from foreign morphemes. Some affixes may only be added either to native bases or bases of foreign origin.
Velar softening According to the rule of velar softening,
the /k/, is usually spelled as the letter (c) when attached to words of Latin & French origin.
/k/ /s/ cynic cynicism critic criticism fanatic fanaticism sceptic scepticism
Blocking -hood Allowed
native bases
boyhood girlhood motherhood fatherhood sisterhood brotherhood manhood womanhood
*disallowedForeign bases
Judgehood Authorhood Prisonerhood Colonelhood Generalhood Governerhood
Note The distinction between native & borrowed
morphemes is very important. However, we should be careful not to press this too far.
There are roots borrowed from French, yet they can take the suffix –hood.
With the passage of time, foreign morphemes can be fully assimilated and nativised so that they behave in the same way as indigenous morphemes.
E.g. parenthood – statehood - nationhood
3. Semantic factors Semantic considerations may be
involved in the application of word-formation processes.
For example, forming compounds from adjectives plus past participle is not always allowed.
Examples
allowed short-sleeved short-sighted green-roofed blue-eyed one-armed three-legged red-nosed red-haired
disallowed *Two-carred *Three-housed
3. Semantic factors If there are 2 adjectives with opposite
meanings, one of which has a more positive meaning than the other, normally the negative prefix (–un) attaches to the positive adjective
If (–un) is attached to the negative member of the pair, the resulting word is usually ill-formed.
Examples
allowed unwell unloved unhappy unwise unclean unoptimistic
disallowed *unill *unhated *unsad *unfoolish *unfilthy, * undirty *unpessimistic
4. Aesthetic factors & the adoption of words
Word-formation sometimes is inhibited by vague aesthetic factors. In principle, there are many words well-formed words whose adoption has nevertheless been resisted.
e.g. stagflation (stagnation + inflation)