50
Promethean Science Agricultural Biotechnology, the Environment, and the Poor Ismail Serageldin and G. J. Persley CONSULTATIVE GROUP ON INTERNATIONAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

Promethean Science : Agricultural Biotechnology, the Environment

  • Upload
    lehanh

  • View
    217

  • Download
    0

Embed Size (px)

Citation preview

Promethean Science

Agricultural Biotechnology,the Environment, and the Poor

Ismail Serageldin and G. J. Persley

CONSULTATIVE GROUP ON INTERNATIONAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

Copyright © 2000Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research1818 H Street N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, USAhttp://www.cgiar.org

Citation:

Serageldin, Ismail, and G.J. Persley. 2000. Promethean Science: Agricultural Biotech-nology, the Environment, and the Poor. Consultative Group on International Agricul-tural Research, Washington, D.C. 48 p.

Technical Editor: L. Reginald MacIntyre ELS

For John J. Doyle,whose vision inspires us still

Contents

Authors’ Preface v

Part 1 The Challenge 1

Global Food Security 1Poverty in a Time of Plenty: A Paradox 1World Food Production Challenge 3Beyond the Green Revolution 4Doubly Green Revolution 5Double Shift in the Research Paradigm 5Challenge of Biotechnology 7

Part 2 Enabling Technologies 12

Evolution of Modern Genetics 12Gene Transfer Technologies 13Understanding Plant and Animal Genes 13Platform Technologies 15Functional Genomics for Trait Discovery 15

Part 3 Putting Technologies to Work 18

Crop Improvement 18Characterizing Biodiversity 21Bioinformatics 23Livestock Improvement 23Diagnostics and Therapeutics 27

Part 4 The Way Ahead 31

Food for the Poor 33Epilogue 36

Glossary of Terms 37References 39

iii

The CGIAR… The Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research(CGIAR) is an informal association of 58 public and privatesector members supporting 16 international agricultural researchcenters. The CGIAR’s mission is to contribute to food securityand poverty eradication in developing countries through re-search, partnership, capacity building, and policy support, pro-moting sustainable agricultural development based on theenvironmentally sound management of natural resources. TheWorld Bank, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), UnitedNations Development Programme (UNDP), and United nationsEnvironment Programme (UNEP) serve as cosponsors.

The Authors… Ismail Serageldin, Chair of the CGIAR, is a Vice President ofthe World Bank for Special Programs. Before focusing on theBank’s special programs, he was Vice President for Environmen-tally and Socially Sustainable Development. He held earlier po-sitions as economist, Division Chief, and Director at the WorldBank, dealing primarily with Africa, and the Middle East. Heobtained his doctorate at Harvard University, and has publishedinternationally on economic development, human resourcesissues, and the environment, with an emphasis on poverty alle-viation.

Gabrielle J. Persley is an advisor to the CGIAR and the WorldBank on biotechnology-related issues. She received her doctor-ate in microbiology at the University of Queensland, and workedfor several years as a plant pathologist in Africa and Australia.Her work in recent years has focused on the role of biotechnol-ogy in developing countries. She has published widely, and iseditor of a CABI-published series of books on Agricultural Bio-technology.

v

Prometheus, according to Greekmythology, was a Titan, responsiblefor introducing fire to humans, a re-

markable innovation at the time, but hav-ing benefits and risks, depending on its use.Promethean has since come to mean dar-ingly original and creative.

This book is a companion to the largervolume “Agricultural Biotechnology andthe Poor” which was published in January2000. That volume reported on the inter-national conference that the CGIAR andthe U.S. National Academy of Sciences co-sponsored with many other interested in-stitutions in October 1999.

There is a double shift in the researchparadigm: firstly, the need for greatercontextualization of research, to be under-taken in the context of the deeper under-standing of the suatainable management ofthe environment and the socioeconomicand gender issues that affect the livelihoodsof poor people in rural and urban areas.The second shift is the need to mobilizethe new revolution in genetics and biotech-nology to improve the productivity of agro-ecological systems and the crops,livestock, fish, trees and other species im-portant to poor people and developingcountries.

Without minimizing in any way thevital importance of the first shift, thismonograph is devoted to a discussionof the second shift, the challenge of

Authors’ Preface

harnessing the new findings in biotech-nology for the benefit of the poor and theenvironment.

It is here that the newly created GlobalForum for Agricultural Research must beseen as an important new vector for bringingabout the necessary collaboration amongstfarmers, producer and consumer organiza-tions, public and private companies, non-governmental organizations, nationalagricultural research systems, advanced re-search organizations and international ag-riculture research institutes, including theCGIAR centers.

Our thanks are due to Per Pinstrup-Andersen and Rajul Pandya-Lorch for per-mission to use material from the InternationalFood Policy Research Institute’s Focus 2 seriesof briefs on biotechnology, which were pub-lished in October 1999 as part of the 2020Vision project. We are especially gratefulto John Barton, Richard Flavell, CliveJames, Klaus Leisinger, and Ivan Morrisonfor allowing us to draw on their material.We thank also Peter Doherty, Val Giddings,Declan McKeever, Noel Murphy, and AnaSittenfeld for their helpful review of themanuscript.

The design and desktopping of this bookwere done by Staci Daddona and GaudencioDizon. We thank them and also Shirley Geerand Sarwat Hussain of the CGIAR Secretariatfor their exceptional effort in getting thisbook out in record time.

Ismail SerageldinGabrielle J. Persley

WARDACote d'Ivoire

IITANigeria

ILRIICRAFKenya

IWMISri Lanka

ISNARNetherlands

IPGRIItaly

ICARDASyria

IFPRI USA

CIMMYT Mexico

CIAT Colombia

CIP Peru

ICRISAT India

IRRI Philippines

ICLARM Malaysia

CIFOR Indonesia

Wheat,Barley

Cassava

Groundnut

PotatoSweet potato

Sorghum,Millets

Rice,Soybean,Banana/Plantain

Maize,Beans

Schematic illustration of regions of origin of the major food crops and the locations of the research centers of the CGIAR

Part 1 The Challenge

1

Throughout history, innovation hasdriven progress and helped peopleaddress the problems of their Age.

This progress has not been achieved with-out pain and controversy. At times, war,famine, and pestilence thwart our best en-deavors. Despite setbacks, people the worldover continue to strive to understand thenatural world, to pursue truth and beauty,and to create a better world for themselvesand their children.

Science has a role to play in all thesepursuits. However, the very power of thenew discoveries in the biological sciencesraises fears that these discoveries will notbe used wisely. Many believe that they willaccelerate the destruction of the naturalenvironment, damage human health, con-centrate too much power in the hands of afew global companies, and widen the gapbetween the rich and the poor, within andbetween nations.

The task of the Promethean scholarsof today is to analyze where modern sci-ence can lead to technical innovations andhow these can be used wisely to improveagricultural productivity, conserve naturalresources, and create wealth especially forpoor people in developing countries.

Global Food Security

A world of food-secure people iswithin our reach, if we take the

necessary actions.

The World Food Summit recognized thateradication of poverty is a critical step inimproving access to food. Food securitycovers both the availability of food at thehousehold level as well as access in termsof purchasing power (FAO 1996). Mostpeople who are undernourished either can-not produce enough food or cannot afford tobuy it. Reduction and elimination of pov-erty is therefore an integral part of the pro-vision of sustainable global food security.

Poverty in a Time of Plenty:A Paradox

Although the annual world agriculturalgrowth rate has decreased from 3 percentin the 1960s to 2 percent in the last de-cade, projections indicate that, given rea-sonable initial assumptions , world foodsupply will continue to outpace worldpopulation growth, at least to 2020(Pinstrup-Andersen, Pandya-Lorch, andRosegrant 1999). Worldwide, per capitaavailability of food is projected to increasearound 7 percent between 1995 and 2020,and for developing countries, by 9 percent(Pinstrup-Andersen, Pandya-Lorch, andRosegrant 1999).

The paradox is that despite the increas-ing availability of food, there are about 840million people, or 13 percent of the globalpopulation, who are food insecure. Thesepeople are among the 4.5 billion inhabit-ants of the developing countries in Asia (48percent), Africa (35 percent), and LatinAmerica (17 percent). Of these 840 mil-

2 PROMETHEAN SCIENCE AND THE POOR

lion, at least 200 million are malnourishedchildren.

It is also paradoxical that food insecu-rity is so prevalent at a time when globalfood prices are generally in decline. Worldcereal production doubled between 1960and 1990, per capita food production in-creased 37 percent, calories supplied in-creased 35 percent, and real food prices fellby almost 50 percent (McCalla 1998).

The basic cause of the paradox is theintrinsic linkage between poverty and

food security. Simply put, people’saccess to food depends on income.

Poverty is both a rural and an urbanphenomenon. Over 1.3 billion people indeveloping countries are absolutely poor,with incomes of US$1 per day or less perperson, while another 2 billion people areonly marginally better off (World Bank1997). Malnutrition kills 40,000 peopleeach day. Children and women are mostvulnerable to dietary deficiencies, with 125million children affected by vitamin Adeficiency. Many of the poor today live inthe low-potential rural areas of the world.With increasing urbanization, a higher pro-portion of poor people will be living in thecities of the developing countries. The rateof increase of the urban population in thedeveloping countries will be approximatelysix-fold that of rural areas (Figure 1). En-suring their access to sufficient nutritiousfood at affordable prices is also an impor-tant component of global food securitystrategies. Agricultural research needs to re-spond to both of these challenges, so as toimprove the livelihood of the rural poor andensure the increased availability of nutri-tious food at affordable prices for the urbanpoor.

Food Security

Food security is a complex issue that in-volves:

• Not just production, but also access• Not just output, but also process• Not just technology, but also policy• Not just global, but also national• Not just national, but also household• Not just rural, but also urban• Not just amount, but also content.

Food production is a necessary but notsufficient condition for food security. Fo-cusing on improving the livelihood ofsmallholder farmers in developing coun-tries is key to environmental protection,poverty reduction, and food security. Theneed is to produce differently, not to pro-duce less.

Global Food Base

Humanity has a narrow food base. Twelvecrops account for 95 percent of the plant foodbase. These are banana/plantain, cassava,

2010 2020200019901980197019601950

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0

Billions

RuralUrban

Figure 1 Urban and rural populationlevels in developing countries,1950–2020

Source: United Nations, World Urbanization Prospects:The 1996 Revision (New York: UN, 1996).

PART 1 THE CHALLENGE 3

corn (maize), groundnut, millets, oil crops,potato, rice, sorghum, soybean, sweet potato,and wheat.

There is also an increasing demand formilk and meat in the developing countries,as dietary preferences change, with increas-ing urbanization. Indeed, some considerthat a “livestock revolution” is taking placein global agriculture that has profound im-plications for human health, livelihoods,and the environment. Population growth,urbanization, and income growth in devel-oping countries are fueling a massive in-crease in demand for food of animal origin.These changes in the diets of billions ofpeople could significantly improve thewell-being of many rural and urban poor(Delgado and others 1999). Although someof this increase will be met by local range-land production, some also requires in-creased production and/or import of feedgrains and more intensive livestock produc-tion. FAO has nominated 14 priority spe-cies in its global strategy on farm animalgenetic resources. The most important ofthese for food production are cattle, sheep,goats, pigs, and chickens. Fish are also anincreasingly important component of thediet in developing countries (FAO 1999).

World Food Production Challenge

Production Trends

Yields of maize, wheat, and rice in devel-oping countries increased from 1.15 to 2.76tons/hectare between 1961 and 1998. InAfrica, they increased from 0.81 to 1.22tons/hectare over the same period. Thispresents a significant opportunity to raisecereal production in Africa through yieldincreases. Globally, meat production in-

creased from 71 million tons in 1961 to226 million tons in 1999. For developingcountries, it increased from 20 milliontons to 122 million tons over the sameperiod (Delgado and others 1999).

Consumption Patterns

Demands for food in developing countriesare met by both local production and im-ports. Currently the developing world is anet importer of 88 million tons of cereals/year at a cost of US$14.5 billion. Since the1970s the developing countries have be-come large net importers of milk and meatas demand for livestock products increas-ingly exceeds supply. Net meat imports bydeveloping countries will increase eight-fold between 1995 and 2020.

Forecasts of future demands for plantand animal products that will drive the pro-duction/import requirements of the vari-ous regions of the developing world willneed to take into account: (a) changes indietary composition of both food and live-stock products; (b) use of cereals as foodand feed; and (c) the balance between pro-duction and import of plant and animalcommodities.

Future Demands

IFPRI projects that global demand for ce-reals will increase by 40 percent between1995 and 2020, with most of the increasein demand coming from developing coun-tries. This will include a doubling in de-mand for feed grains in the developingworld. Net cereal imports by developingcountries will almost double by 2020 tomeet the gap between production and de-mand (Pinstrup-Andersen, Pandya-Lorch,and Rosegrant 1999) (see Figures 2 and 3).

4 PROMETHEAN SCIENCE AND THE POOR

West Asia andNorth Africa

5.6%

Sub-SaharanAfrica5.0%

LatinAmerica16.4%

Developedcountries

15.4%

Rest of Asia12.8%

China40.6%

India4.3%

World = 115 million ton increase

West Asia andNorth Africa

10.1%

Sub-SaharanAfrica10.6%

LatinAmerica11.7% Developed

countries15.9%

Rest of Asia14.2%

China24.9%

India12.6%

World = 690 million ton increase

West Asiaand North Africa

4.6%

Sub-Saharan Africa42.8%

Latin America9.9%

Developed countries2.8%East Asia

19.9%

SoutheastAsia6.0%

SouthAsia6.0%

World increase = 234 million tons

Figure 2 Share of increase in global demand by region, 1995–2020

Cereals Meat products

Roots and tubers

Source: IFPRI IMPACT simulations, July 1999.

Beyond the Green Revolution

The food production increases over the past40 years have been achieved by increasingproductivity of cereals, expanding the areaof arable land, and massive increases infertilizer use.

The key element in improving food se-curity during 1960-99 was governmentpolicies reflecting a belief that investments

in improving agricultural productivity werea prerequisite to initiating the process ofeconomic development. These policieswere supported by both the public andprivate sectors of the international commu-nity. The successful implementation ofthese policies led to the Green Revolution.Attention was given to the following issues:research and development; technologytransfer; human resource development;

PART 1 THE CHALLENGE 5

appropriate provision of credit; supply anddistribution of inputs (seed, water, fertilizer,pesticide); appropriate pricing policiesfor inputs and outputs; and infrastruc-ture.

The scientific basis for the green revo-lution stems from joint national and inter-national research programs, which led tothe development and distribution of new,high-yielding varieties, primarily of wheatand rice. These varieties gave improvedyields, especially when grown in favorableenvironments with the addition of fertil-izer and pesticides.

Plant breeding was carried out withmultiple sites worldwide, north and southof the equator. These trials were associatedwith comprehensive production trainingprograms for scientists and techniciansfrom national agricultural research systems.Informative data on the performance of thegenetic materials were provided back to thecoordinating center. Local breeding andselection programs were later initiated bythe national agricultural research systems,based on the international breeding mate-rials crossed with locally adapted material.This increased the availability of locallyadapted varieties for different ecosystems.

The international agricultural researchcenters also undertook the collection andconservation of the germplasm of theirmandate crops, established and maintainedlarge ex situ collections of this geneticmaterial, and undertook its partial pheno-typic characterization. Some hundreds ofthousands of accessions are now held intrust by the CGIAR Centers, under theauspices of the FAO Commission on PlantGenetic Resources.

Doubly Green Revolution

To meet the food security needs of theworld’s people in the decades ahead and tocreate wealth, there is a need to increaseagricultural productivity on the presentlyavailable land while conserving the natu-ral resource base (Conway 1997). Such arevolution would involve:

• Increasing productivity of the majorfood crops

• Reducing chemical inputs of fertilizersand pesticides and replacing these withbiologically based products

• Integrating soil, water, and nutrientmanagement

• Improving the productivity of live-stock.

Double Shift in the ResearchParadigm

The challenge now is how to use newdevelopments in modern science,

communications technology, and newways of managing knowledge to make

complex agricultural systems ofsmallholder farmers more productive in

a sustainable way.

Developing countries

World

Developed countries

180

160140

120100

8060

4020

0Cereals Meat Roots and tubers

Percent

Figure 3 Projected increase in totaldemand for food, 1990–2020

6 PROMETHEAN SCIENCE AND THE POOR

These issues make for a complex researchagenda to improve food security and createwealth. This new research agenda needs to com-bine traditional wisdom with modern science.

There is a double shift in the researchparadigm: firstly, the need for greatercontextualization of research, to be under-taken in the context of the deeper under-standing of the suatainable management ofthe environment and the socioeconomic andgender issues that affect the livelihoods ofpoor people in rural and urban areas. Thisresearch will need to seek synergies withinthe farming systems of smallholders, whointegrate crop agriculture, livestock,agroforestry, and aquaculture in complexfarming systems.

The second shift is the need to mobilizethe new revolution in genetics and biotech-nology to improve the productivity of agro-ecological systems and the crops, livestock,fish, trees and other species important to poorpeople and developing countries.

Without minimizing in any way the vi-tal importance of the first shift, this mono-graph is devoted to a discussion of the secondshift, the challenge of harnessing of the newfindings in biotechnology for the benefit ofthe poor and the environment.

Role of Agricultural Research

The annual rates of return to investmentin agricultural research average 50-80 per-cent. Thus well directed agricultural re-search and development programs remaina wise investment of public funds (Alstonand others 2000).

There have been several forces that haveresulted in the restructuring, downsizing,and refinancing of agricultural and natu-ral resources research systems in industrialand developing countries over the past

decade. They include increasing privati-zation and competition amongst researchproviders. These changes are also having asignificant impact on donor perceptions,policies, and financial support for nationaland international agricultural research.

There is a trend toward decreasing pub-lic sector investments in research and de-velopment. This is partially offset byincreasing private sector investmentslargely aimed at generating new productsand processes through biotechnologicaladvances. There is also an increasing useof participatory processes involving farm-ers, civil society, and other stakeholders inthe financing, planning, and conduct of re-search and technology transfer. These ap-proaches seek to enhance successfuldelivery of useful products and decision-support systems to farmers and consumers.

The coming into force of several inter-national treaties and conventions have alsoincreased the pressure on national govern-ments to meet international obligations.

New Modalities

New developments in modern biotechnology,information technology, and geographic in-formation systems are revolutionizing globalresearch and development in agriculture andnatural resources research. Partnershipsbetween national agencies and internationalgroups may often be the most effectivemeans of developing and delivering newagricultural research technologies of a pub-lic goods nature.

These programs need to involve vari-ous combinations of national agriculturalresearch systems, nongovernmental orga-nizations, the private sector, farmer groups,advanced research organizations, and theinternational agricultural research centers.

PART 1 THE CHALLENGE 7

This challenge requires the CGIAR towork with more partners, in a wider

array of environments, with a broaderrange of commodities, often grown inmixed systems, and with concern formaintaining the physical and genetic

resource base.

The Genetic Imperative

Rapid progress is being made in understand-ing the genetic basis of living organisms,and the ability to use that understandingto develop new products and processesuseful in human and animal health, foodand agriculture, and the environment.

There is now increasing use of modernmolecular genetics for genetic mapping andmarker-assisted selection as aids to improvecrops, livestock, fish, and tree species.Other biotechnology applications such astissue culture and new diagnostics and ani-mal vaccines are being widely adopted.

Harnessing the full power of the ge-netic revolution requires going beyondthese early applications of modern biotech-nology, and recognizing the power of the

new revolution in genomics and associatedtechnologies as aids for genetic improve-ment. The new technologies will enablegreatly increased efficiency of selection forvaluable genes, based on knowledge of thebiology of the organism, the function ofspecific genes, and their role in regulatingparticular traits. This will enable moreprecise selection of improved strains atthe molecular as well as the phenotypiclevel.

Challenge of Biotechnology

Biotechnology (see Box 1) offers both prom-ise and perils for the world community. Inhuman health, it offers new ways to under-stand the genetic basis of diseases, and todevelop improved diagnostics, drugs, andvaccines for their treatment. In agricultureand forestry, it promises new ways to har-ness and improve the biological poten-tial of crops, livestock, fish, and trees, andimproved ways to diagnose and control thepests and pathogens that damage them.

The perils lie in the profound ethicalissues surrounding the control and use of

Box 1Box 1Box 1Box 1Box 1 Biotechnology definedBiotechnology definedBiotechnology definedBiotechnology definedBiotechnology defined

Biotechnology is any technique that uses liv-ing organisms or parts thereof to make ormodify a product, improve plants or animals,or develop microorganisms for specific uses.All the characteristics of any given organismare encoded within its genetic material, whichconsists of the collection of deoxyribonucleicacid (DNA) molecules that exist in each cellof the organism. The complete set of DNAmolecules in an organism comprises its ge-nome. The genome is divided into a series offunctional units, called genes. . . . . Typical cropplants contain 20,000 to 25,000 such genes.

The genome contains two copies of each gene,one having been received from each parent.The collection of traits displayed by any or-ganism (phenotype) depends on whichgenes are present in its genome (genotype).The appearance of any specific phenotypetrait also will depend on many other fac-tors, including whether the genetic infor-mation responsible for the trait (or genes)associated with it is turned on (expressed) oroff, the specific cells within which the genesare expressed, and how the genes, their ex-pression, and the gene products interact withenvironmental factors (genotype x environ-ment effects).

8 PROMETHEAN SCIENCE AND THE POOR

these powerful new technologies, and the as-sessment and management of risks to humanhealth and the environment associated withspecific applications. These issues have ledto rising public concerns in some countriesabout various applications of biotechnology.The concerns have been stimulated by an ac-tivist campaign against the use of geneticallyimproved organisms in food and agricultureand their release into the environment.Modern biotechnology raises profound issues,but it also offers enormous promise for deal-ing with previously intractable problems.

Key Issues

The key policy issues that will affect theapplication of new developments in mod-ern biotechnology for the public good areethics, food and environmental safety, eco-nomic concentration, and intellectual prop-erty management.

Ethics

A wealth of scientific and popular discus-sion exists about the benefits and risks ofgenetic engineering and biotechnology.Confusion surrounds the issue of bio-technology’s risks and benefits. What arethe social and ethical issues surroundingthe use of biotechnology to improve foodsecurity and alleviate poverty? Currentpublic debate about the “gene revolution”often does not sufficiently differentiate be-tween risks inherent in a technology andthose that transcend it. This differentiationis important in any attempt to reason outthe social and ethical implications of bio-technology (Leisinger 2000).

Since the early 1970s, recombinantDNA technology has enabled scientists togenetically modify plants, animals, andmicroorganisms and introduce a greater

diversity of genes, including genes fromdistantly related species, into organismsthan traditional methods of breeding andselection. Organisms genetically modifiedin this way are called living modified organ-isms. Concerns exist about the potentialrisks posed by living modified organisms.The principles and practices required forassessment of technology-inherent risks arewell established and draw on the experi-ence of individual countries and regionaland international organizations. From anethical perspective, risks disallowed in in-dustrial countries should not be exportedto developing countries. If genetically en-gineered organisms and biotechnologicalprocedures are used in developing coun-tries, state-of-the-art quality managementthat takes local ecological conditions intoaccount must be practiced. Such risk as-sessments allow governments, communi-ties, and business to make informeddecisions about the benefits and risks in-herent in using a particular technology tosolve specific problems.

Technology-transcending risks ema-nate from the political and social contextin which a technology is used. These risksstem from both the course the globaleconomy takes and country-specific politi-cal and social issues. The most critical fearshave to do with the potential aggravationof the prosperity gap between industrialand developing countries and growing dis-parities in the distribution of income andwealth within and between developingcountries. The gap in prosperity betweenindustrial and developing countries maygrow because of the possible substitutionof genetically engineered products fortropical agricultural exports and becausethe industrial world may not adequatelycompensate the developing world for ex-ploiting its indigenous genetic resources.

PART 1 THE CHALLENGE 9

Widespread fear exists that private en-terprises and research institutes could gainunremunerated control of the genes ofplants native to the developing world anduse them to produce superior varieties thatwould then be sold back to developingcountries at high prices. The successfulimplementation of the Rio Convention onBiological Diversity so that it becomes clearwho should compensate whom for whatand for how much needs unequivocal regu-lation. Simple and effective ways need tobe found to establish fair compensation.

In assessing the potential impact of bio-technology on food security and poverttyalleviation, the interpretation of data issubject to the interests and value judgmentsof a variety of stakeholders. Identical in-formation can lead some to consider agri-cultural biotechnologies to be amongst themost powerful and economically promis-ing means of ensuring food security, whileothers perceive them as a threat to devel-opment in poor countries. Differing reali-ties and pluralism of opinion exist.Biotechnology involves a number of eco-nomic, social, and ecological risks. Butthese risks are not a consequence of thetechnology per se. They arise from particu-lar social settings, transcending the natureof the technology employed within thosesettings. There are also ethical issues in-volved in not pursuing the use of new tech-nologies that may contribute to improvingthe productivity and sustainability of agri-culture, especially in developing countries(Nuffield Council on Bioethics 1999). Allthese issues need to be openly debated, andchoices made by individuals and nations.

Food Safety

An open, transparent, and inclusive foodsafety policy and regulatory process is re-

quired, which takes account of public con-cerns about genetically improved foods.Many consumers in North America, Europe,and China have been eating genetically im-proved food over the past several years, with-out any demonstrated adverse effects onhuman health. The concept and practice ofrisk assessment, including consistent ap-proaches to the use of substantial equivalenceand the precautionary principle, are valuabletools but need to be kept under review.

Food labeling, whether mandatory orvoluntary, could be used to provide informa-tion about specific products and enable con-sumers to make informed decisions abouttheir use. The potential long-term impact ofgenetically improved foods on human health,worker safety, and the environment is un-known, and requires monitoring and re-search. Methods are available to testallergenicity and toxicity of novel geneticallyimproved foods in humans. Post-marketmonitoring of such foods may be possible insome markets but impractical in others.

The Organization for Economic Coop-eration and Development will report in mid2000 to the G8 Summit on key issues,including:

• Factual points of departure where thereis agreement and disagreement

• Benefits versus risks, which differ fordifferent countries and environments

• Management of genetic modificationtechnologies

• The role of stakeholders• An international program of activities

to inform the public debate andpolicymaking.

Environmental Risks

When addressing risks posed by the culti-vation of plants in the environment, six

10 PROMETHEAN SCIENCE AND THE POOR

safety issues need to be considered (Cook2000; NRC 2000). These are

• gene transfer to wild relatives• weediness• trait effects• genetic and phenotypic variability• expression of genetic material from

pathogens• worker safety.

Review of these issues is inherent in theregulatory systems in place today (Doyleand Persley 1996).

The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafetywas agreed to by 130 governments inMontreal in January 2000. The BiosafetyProtocol is intended to specify obligationsfor international transfer of living modi-fied organisms that may threaten bio-diversity. It sets out means of riskassessment, risk management, advance in-formed agreement, technology transfer, andcapacity building.

Under the Protocol, governments willsignal whether they are willing to acceptimports of living modified organisms in-tended for release into the environment,by communicating their decision via aBiosafety Clearing House. Information onliving modified organisms that may becontained in shipments of commoditieswill also be provided to importing coun-tries.

Advanced Informed Agreement proce-dures will apply to the introduction ofseeds, live fish, attenuated vaccines, andother living modified organisms that are tobe intentionally introduced into the envi-ronment and which may threatenbiodiversity. In all these cases, the exportermust provide detailed information to eachimporting country in advance of the firstshipment, and the importer must then au-

thorize the shipment within a one-year pe-riod. The Protocol also outlines general pro-cedures for risk assessment. The aim is toensure that recipient countries have boththe opportunity and the capacity to assessany risks to biodiversity involving the prod-ucts of modern biotechnology. Capacitybuilding is also an important componentof the agreement. The Protocol and theWorld Trade Organization are intended tobe mutually supportive. The Protocol is notto affect the rights and obligations of gov-ernments under any existing internationalagreements.

To ensure the safe use of biotechnol-ogy in the environment, there is a need forcontinuing emphasis on:

• Efficient and cost-effective regulatorysystems at the institutional and na-tional levels

• Clear guidelines for field tests and com-mercial releases of living modified or-ganisms

• Informative labeling of novel productsfor consumers

• Systematic capacity building• International support mechanisms for

early warning of good or bad develop-ments with living modified organisms

• More scientific research on possibleshort- and long-term effects of livingmodified organisms on the environ-ment and risks to biodiversity.

Economic Concentration

The trend toward intellectual property pro-tection in biosciences has had several im-portant structural consequences. Theprivate sector life sciences industry hasbecome increasingly centralized. About sixcompanies dominate what was once an in-dustry in which many more small compa-

PART 1 THE CHALLENGE 11

nies played a major role. The reasons forthis are complex. They relate to economicefficiencies in production and marketing,as well as the desire to access specific re-search and development expertise insmaller companies. Intellectual propertyprotection has contributed significantlyto the development of the current bio-technological revolution in agriculture,and to the institutional restructuring thatis accompanying that revolution (Barton1999).

Intellectual Property Management

New scientific discoveries in biotechnol-ogy may be protected by plant variety pro-tection, patents, and/or trade secrets.Countries differ in what forms of intellec-tual property protection may be applied tospecific inventions. The 1995 Agreementon Trade-Related Aspects of IntellectualProperty Rights requires all members toprovide at least a sui generis system of pro-tection for plant varieties.

Industrial country moves toward in-tellectual property protection of the prod-ucts of biotechnology have led todeveloping country moves to protect thegenetic sources. This culminated in theConvention on Biological Diversity in1992. This agreement made it clear thatnations could enact legislation protectingthe export of genetic resources, by arrange-ments to share the benefits should therebe financial return from the exported ge-netic resources.

Because the private sector holds manyof the advanced biotechnologies, the pub-

licly funded agricultural research commu-nity must also develop an effective ap-proach to cooperation with the privatesector in research and product develop-ment. The public sector needs to developa policy toward intellectual property pro-tection for its own discoveries. In doing soit should set the example in terms of ben-efit sharing with poor indigenous farmers,and also to consider the possibility for thepublic sector to obtain intellectual prop-erty protection to have bargaining chips tonegotiate strategic alliances with multina-tional companies.

For national governments, it would bedesirable to design Trade-Related Aspectsof Intellectual Property Rights-compliantlegislation in a way that is beneficial totheir agriculture, maintaining the possi-bility for a multilateral regime for germ-plasm acquisition and transfer. Legislationshould be supplemented with improvedcapabilities in the courts, the law firms,and the law schools, so that the law can beused effectively. There is a real possibilitythat an antitrust code can be negotiatedand this is almost certainly beneficial fordeveloping countries.

Developing countries could also seekways to use the intellectual property sys-tem to encourage research for their needsby giving incentives, such as market pro-tection, to encourage private-sector re-search on products of benefit to thedeveloping world, in a manner analogousto the Orphan Drug legislation. All suchlegislation should be the result of substan-tive public discussion and be adopted in atransparent fashion.

Part 2 Enabling Technologies

12

Evolution of Modern Genetics

Gregor Mendel, the father of modern ge-netics, published his work on inheritancepatterns in pea in 1865, but it took 35 yearsfor others to grasp their significance. Since1900, there has been steady progress in ourunderstanding of the genetic makeup of allliving organisms ranging from microbes tohumans. A major step was taken in the1920s when Muller and Stadler discoveredthat radiation can induce mutations in ani-mals and plants. In the 1930s and 1940s,several new methods of chromosome andgene manipulation were discovered, com-mercial exploitation of hybrid vigor inmaize commenced, and techniques such astissue culture and embryo rescue were used

to obtain viable hybrids from distantly re-lated species.

The double helix structure of DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid), the chemical sub-stance of heredity, was discovered in 1953by James Watson and Francis Crick. Thistriggered rapid progress in every field ofgenetics, leading to a rapid transition fromMendelian to molecular genetic applica-tions in agriculture, medicine, and indus-try (see Box 2).

The most striking differences betweenthe techniques of modern biotechnologyand those that have been used for manyyears in the breeding of new strains of cropsand livestock improvement lie in the in-creased precision with which the new tech-niques may be used (see Figure 4).

Box 2Box 2Box 2Box 2Box 2 Recombinant DNARecombinant DNARecombinant DNARecombinant DNARecombinant DNAtechnologiestechnologiestechnologiestechnologiestechnologies

In the 1970s, a series of complementary ad-vances in the field of molecular biology pro-vided scientists with the ability to identify,clone, and move DNA between close andmore distantly related organisms. This recom-binant DNA technology has reached a stagewhere a piece of DNA containing one or morespecific genes can be taken from nearly anyorganism, including plants, animals, bacte-ria, or viruses, and introduced into any otherorganism. This process is known as transfor-mation. The application of recombinant DNAtechnology has been termed genetic modifi-cation. An organism that has been improved,or transformed, using modern techniques ofgenetic exchange is commonly referred to as

a genetically improved organism or a living modi-fied organism. The offspring of any traditionalcross between two organisms also are geneti-cally improved relative to the genotype of ei-ther of the contributing parents. Strains thathave been genetically improved using recom-binant DNA technology to introduce a genefrom either the same or a different speciesalso are known as transgenic strains and thespecific gene transferred is known as atransgene. Not all genetically improved organ-isms involve the use of cross-species geneticexchange. Recombinant DNA technology alsocan be used to transfer a gene between differ-ent varieties of the same species or to modifythe expression of one or more of a given plant’sown genes, such as the ability to amplify theexpression of a gene for disease resistance(Persley and Siedow 1999).

PART 2 ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES 13

Gene Transfer Technologies

Two primary methods currently exist forintroducing new transgenic genetic mate-rial into plant genomes in a functionalmanner. For plants known as dicots(broad-leaved plants such as soybean, to-mato, and cotton), transformation is usu-ally brought about by use of the bacteriumAgrobacterium tumefaciens. Agrobacteriumnaturally infects a wide range of plants byinserting some of its own DNA directly intothe DNA of the plant. By taking out theundesirable traits associated with Agro-bacterium infection and inserting a gene ofinterest into the Agrobacterium DNA thatwill ultimately be incorporated into theplant’s DNA, any desired gene can be trans-ferred into a dicot’s DNA following bacte-rial infection. The cells containing thenew gene subsequently can be identifiedand grown using plant cell culture tech-nology into a whole plant that now con-tains the new transgene incorporated intoits DNA (Persley and Siedow 1999).

Plants known as monocots (grass spe-cies such as maize, wheat, and rice) are notreadily infected by Agrobacterium so theexternal DNA that is to be transferred intothe plant’s genome is coated on the surfaceof small tungsten balls and the balls arephysically shot into plant cells. Some of theDNA comes off the balls and is incorpo-rated into the DNA of the recipient plant.Those cells can also be identified andgrown via cell culture into a whole plantthat contains added DNA.

Understanding Plantand Animal Genes

The 1990s have seen dramatic advances inour understanding of how biological or-ganisms function at the molecular level, aswell as in our ability to analyze, under-stand, and manipulate DNA molecules, thebiological material from which the genesin all organisms are made. The entire pro-cess has been accelerated by the Human

Figure 4 Differences between conventional breeding and genetic engineering

Source variety/species Commercial variety Result

Conventionalplant breeding

Modernbiotechnology

Desiredgene

Source variety/species Commercial variety Result

14 PROMETHEAN SCIENCE AND THE POOR

Genome Project, which has invested sub-stantial public and private resources intothe development of new technologies towork with human genes (Smaglik 2000).The same technologies are directly appli-cable to all other organisms, includingplants, animals, insects, and microbes.Thus, the new scientific discipline ofgenomics has arisen, which has contributedto powerful new approaches to identify thefunctions of genes and their application inagriculture, medicine, and industry.

Genomics refers to determining theDNA sequence and identifying the locationand function of all the genes contained inthe genome of an organism. The advent oflarge-scale sequencing of entire genomesof organisms as diverse as bacteria, fungi,plants, and animals, is leading to the iden-tification of the complete complement ofgenes found in many different organisms.

This is dramatically enhancing the rate atwhich an understanding of the function ofdifferent genes is being achieved. This newknowledge will radically change the futureof breeding for improved strains of crops,livestock, fish, and tree species (Box 3).

The present major technical limitationon the applications of recombinant DNAtechnology to improving agriculture is in-sufficient understanding of exactly whichgenes control agriculturally important traitsand how they act to do so. This is why newdevelopments in understanding gene func-tion and linking this new information withbreeding and genetic resources conserva-tion programs is so important.

Research in plant genome projects, forexample, is showing that many traits areconserved (that is, shared) within and evenbetween species. The same gene(s) (DNAsequences) may confer the same trait in dif-

Box 3Box 3Box 3Box 3Box 3 New technology developmentsNew technology developmentsNew technology developmentsNew technology developmentsNew technology developmentsin genomicsin genomicsin genomicsin genomicsin genomics

• Rapid developments in DNA sequencingtechnology have made the acquisition ofwhole genome sequences a reality. Suchdata, when interpreted using new ana-lytical tools, give a complete listing of allthe genes present in an organism, thusproviding a genetic blueprint of it.

• Several technologies are being developedfor genome analysis that allow rapidgenotyping and gene expression studies. Itshould become possible to scan rapidly thegenomes of different organisms and to de-velop a systematic approach for mappinggenetic traits, both complex (controlled bymultiple genes) and single gene traits.

• Advances in bioinformatics may allow theprediction of gene function from gene se-quence data. Given a listing of the genesof an organism, it may become possibleto build a theoretical framework of thebiology of that organism.

• The comparison of physical and geneticmaps and DNA sequences across differ-ent organisms will reduce significantlythe time frame for the identification andselection of potentially useful genes. Thusthe gene discovery process becomesshorter through comparative genomics,because many genes are conserved (i.e.the same) between different organisms.

• The new genomics and new technologi-cal developments will accelerate the ac-quisition of fundamental knowledgeabout biological systems. Genomes willchange the approaches used to solve bio-logical problems, which will result innovel uses of biotechnology to developand improve agricultural productivity.

• Marker-assisted selection will link withmore efficient gene-assisted selection,and will greatly facilitate and acceleratethe characterization of crop and livestockgenetic resources, so they can be moreeffectively deployed in different ecosys-tems.

PART 2 ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES 15

ferent species. Thus, a gene for salt toler-ance in fish may confer salt tolerance if itis transferred and expressed in rice. A genefor drought tolerance in millet may alsoconfer drought tolerance if transferred tomaize. These advances in genomics shouldlead to a rapid increase in the identifica-tion of useful traits that will be available toenhance crop plants and livestock in thefuture. In other areas such as animal health,knowledge of the genome of a parasite suchas Theileria parva should assist in the iden-tification of essential proteins of the para-site against which an immune response canbe targeted and hence may accelerate ef-fective vaccine development when com-bined with the necessary biology andimmunology (see Box 4).

Platform Technologies

Rapid advances are occurring in threemajor areas: DNA sequencing, genomeanalysis, and computational biology (bio-informatics). First, developments in DNAsequencing have made the acquisition ofwhole genome sequences possible. Thesedata, when interpreted with bioinformatics,can provide a complete listing of all thegenes present in an organism, the so-calledgenetic blueprint of an organism. Rapidprogress is being made in the Human Ge-nome Project, by both public and privatelaboratories. The first genome sequence ofan organism more complex than a virus waspublished in 1996. Already 23 genome se-quences are available, and some 60 or moregenome sequencing projects of a wide va-riety of organisms, including plants, ani-mals, parasites, and microbes, are underway (see The Institute for Genomic Re-search web site at http://www.tigr.org/).

Second, different types of technologieshave been developed for genome analysis,which speed up the process. With the im-mense increase in the amount of DNA se-quence data available, it is possible to scanwhole genomes rapidly and to develop asystems approach for mapping genetictraits.

It is also possible to use the new devel-opments in bioinformatics to understandthe complex genetic interactions involvedin growth, development, and environmen-tal interactions. Developments in bio-informatics are allowing the prediction ofgene function from gene sequence. Thusfrom genome sequences of DNA it is pos-sible to build a theoretical framework ofthe biology of an organism. This forms apowerful base for further experimentation.In addition, as the numbers of physical andgenetic maps of different species increase,it becomes possible to compare these acrossdifferent organisms (comparativegenomics), be they microbes, plants oranimals, and to significantly reduce thetime required to identify important genes.These technologies allow novel approachesto addressing biological problems, whichare just beginning to be understood.

Functional Genomics for TraitDiscovery

Much of the discussion about molecularbiology today is focused on the opportu-nity and risks associated with gene trans-fer through transformation and the risksto human health and the environment as-sociated with the use of such living modi-fied organisms. The same science bringsnew tools to assist plant and animal breed-ers to identify and transfer genes through

16 PROMETHEAN SCIENCE AND THE POOR

Box 4Box 4Box 4Box 4Box 4 Fighting East Coast FeverFighting East Coast FeverFighting East Coast FeverFighting East Coast FeverFighting East Coast Fever

Parasitic diseases of livestock caused byTheileria species lead to annual losses esti-mated at US$1 billion worldwide. The mostimportant of this group of parasites in Africais Theileria parva. This parasite causes EastCoast Fever in cattle, which occurs in 11countries of sub-Saharan Africa and killsabout 1 million animals annually. Farmerswho own only a few cattle are disproportion-ately affected, because of the high percent-age mortality in affected herds. Also, they areless likely either to be able to afford or haveaccess to present control methods of chemi-cal dips for stock, or the presently availableinfection/treatment vaccine, which costs ap-proximately US$25 per dose.

A robust and affordable vaccine to pro-tect cattle against East Coast Fever in Africawould be of great benefit to small-scale live-stock producers. Integrating the new find-ings in genetics, immunology, molecularbiology, and genomics offer promising newstrategies for vaccine development.

East Coast Fever has a two-stage infec-tive process. One prospective candidate an-tigen (p67) has been identified byInternational Livestock Research Institutescientists through molecular biology andimmunology approaches. It is active at thefirst transient stage of infection and gives par-tial but not sufficient protection to infectedanimals. It seems likely that an effective EastCoast Fever vaccine will need to be effectiveagainst both stages of the disease.

In the second stage of the infective pro-cess, the parasites invade the host cells andcause infected cells to behave like cancercells. The parasites induce host cells to pro-liferate. The parasites attach to the cellulardivision apparatus and so divide in syn-chrony with host cells, resulting in huge in-creases in parasite numbers. New methods

of disease intervention may arise from study-ing this phenomenon and the molecules thatmediate the process. This research may alsocontribute to human medicine, particularlyin leukemia research, by contributing to agreater understanding of the molecularmechanisms of some human cancers.

The major mechanism of immunityagainst T. parva infection is known to be theaction cytotoxic T cells. Each T cell recog-nizes a small fragment of a parasite antigen, apeptide fragment about 9 amino acid residueslong, that is displayed on the surface of theinfected cells in association with major his-tocompatibility antigens. Identifying thesepeptide antigens directly is technically verydemanding.

As part of its strategy for East Coast Fe-ver vaccine development, the InternationalLivestock Research Institute is now collabo-rating with The Institute for Genomic Researchto determine the DNA sequence of Theileriaparva. It is estimated that the genome is about10Mb and contains 5000-6000 genes (Neneand others 2000).

From the genome sequence of the para-site, all the genes encoded within the genomemay be able to be identified using bio-informatics. From these data and the avail-able knowledge about the types of desirableprotein antigens it should be possible to iden-tify additional candidate vaccine antigens.Using in vitro screens, it should then also bepossible to identify which ones to take fur-ther in terms of animal experiments.

The two collaborating institutes intend toplace the genome sequence data for T. parvain the public domain, as it becomes available.In this way, it will be accessible to other re-search institutes concerned with developingnew vaccines for more effective control of T.parva and related parasites, such as T. annulata,Babesia, Eimeria, Plasmodium, and Toxoplasma,that cause disease in livestock and humans.

PART 2 ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES 17

conventional approaches. In many environ-ments, future gains in productivity willdepend to a large extent upon manipula-tion of complex traits, such as drought orheat tolerance. These are often difficult toidentify and utilize in a conventional breed-ing program without the additional helpof modern science. For future crop im-provement, plant genomic projects will bethe engine to drive trait discovery and helpsolve intractable problems in crop produc-tion and protection.

A completely sequenced plant genomesuch as rice, for example, will provide anenormous pool of genetic markers and genesfor rice improvement through marker-as-sisted selection in conventional breeding,and/or the introduction of specific genesthrough transformation (see Box 5).

To fully exploit the wealth of molecu-lar data it is necessary to understand thespecific biological functions encoded byDNA sequence through detailed geneticand phenotypic analyses. Thus unlike ge-nome sequencing per se, functionalgenomics requires diversity of scientificexpertise as well as genetic resources forevaluation. In many important food cropsnational and international public sectorresearch has a large investment in geneticresources and breeding materials, and along history of understanding biologicalfunction and genotype x environment in-teractions. These scientific and biologi-cal resources will become increasinglyimportant in gaining knowledge aboutthe function of genes and in developing

molecular markers to assist the breedingprocess.

Previously, the genetic resources wereprovided largely by developing countries,and bred in publicly funded crop and live-stock breeding programs, the outputs ofwhich were publicly available. Now, theadvent of private investments in researchand development and strong intellectualproperty protection has radically changedthis relationship. A new compact is re-quired to address the current imbalance.

The gathering and provision of somuch sophisticated genetic information incomputerized databases, by both the pri-vate and public sectors, and the patentingof genes and enabling technologies requirea new paradigm for using new biotechnolo-gies to improve crops and livestock, espe-cially in developing countries where foodneeds are most urgent. This paradigm re-quires public and private partnershipsamongst farmers, consumers, genomicsspecialists, breeders, and scientists knowl-edgeable about the species and the envi-ronments upon which the world dependsfor food.

These new technologies and theassociated explosion of information

have major implications for the futureresearch and investment strategy ofthe CGIAR system, and its role in

harnessing modern science to increasesustainable productivity of agriculture

in the developing world.

Part 3 Putting Technologies to Work

18

Crop Improvement

The applications of modern biotechnologyto crops are in:

• Improved diagnosis of pests and dis-eases

• Tissue culture/micropropagation tech-niques

• The construction of transgenic plantswith improved yields, disease, pest, andstress resistance, and/or nutritionalquality

• The use of genetic markers, maps, andgenomic information in marker-as-sisted and gene-assisted selection andbreeding.

Diagnostics

The use of monoclonal antibodies andnucleic acid technologies has improved thespecificity, sensitivity, and ease of diagno-sis of plant pests and pathogens. These newdiagnostics have also greatly assisted in thestudy of the ecology of pests and diseases,their more rapid identification in quaran-tine, and in the propagation of disease-freeplanting material.

Micropropagation Techniques

Tissue culture and other in vitro micro-propagation technologies provide a practi-cal means of providing disease-freeplantlets of current varieties with signifi-cantly improved yield gains by the removalof pests and pathogens. Micropropagation,

when linked with new diagnostics, hasbeen especially useful in vegetatively propa-gated crops such as sweet potato and ba-nana and for the rapid propagation of treespecies. Tissue culture is also a critical stepin the construction of transgenic plants byenabling the regeneration of transformedcells containing a novel gene.

Modern Plant Breeding

The application of biotechnology to agri-culturally important crop species has tra-ditionally involved the use of selectivebreeding to bring about an exchange of ge-netic material between two parent plantsto produce offspring having desired traitssuch as increased yields, disease resistance,and/or enhanced product quality. The ex-change of genetic material through conven-tional breeding requires that the two plantsbeing crossed be of the same, or closelyrelated, species. Such active plant breed-ing has led to the development of superiorplant varieties far more rapidly than wouldhave occurred in the wild due to randommating.

Traditional methods of gene exchange,however, are limited to crosses between thesame or closely related species. It can takeconsiderable time to achieve desired re-sults, and frequently, genes conveying de-sirable traits do not exist in any closelyrelated species. Modern biotechnology,when applied to plant breeding, vastly in-creases the precision and reduces the timewith which these changes in plant charac-teristics can be made, and greatly increases

PART 3 PUTTING TECHNOLOGIES TO WORK 19

the potential sources from which desirabletraits can be obtained.

The application of recombinant DNAtechnology to facilitate genetic exchangein crops by transformation techniques hasseveral features that complement tradi-tional breeding methods. The exchange isfar more precise because only a single spe-cific gene that has been identified as pro-viding a useful trait is being transferred tothe recipient plant. There is no inclusionof ancillary, unwanted traits that need tobe eliminated in subsequent generations,as often happens with traditional plantbreeding. There has been some debate overthe transfer of antibiotic marker genes withthe single trait gene, and considerable re-search has now gone into eliminating theantibiotic marker genes from the final prod-ucts prior to commercial use. Better still isto use markers that do not require antibi-otics, such as new sugar-based markers.

The technical ability to transfer genesfrom any other plant or other organism intoa chosen recipient means that the entirespan of genetic capabilities available amongall biological organisms has the potentialto be genetically transferred or used in anyother organism. This markedly expands therange of useful traits that ultimately canbe applied to the development of new cropvarieties.

The use of genetic markers, maps, andgenomic information will improve both theaccuracy and time to commercial use ofsingle and polygenic traits in plant breed-ing (for example, the use of marker-aidedselection in breeding for disease resistancein rice is illustrateded in Box 5).

The present major technical limitationon the application of recombinant DNAtechnology to improving plants is insuffi-cient understanding of exactly which genescontrol agriculturally important traits and

how they act to do so. This is the constraintthat can be addressed through studies ofplant genomes, as an aid to crop improve-ment.

The rapid progress being made ingenomics should greatly assist conven-tional plant breeding, as more functions ofgenes are identified and able to be manipu-lated. This may enable more successfulbreeding for complex traits such as droughtand salt tolerance. This would be of greatbenefit to those farming in marginal landsworldwide. Breeding for such complextraits has had limited success with conven-tional breeding in the major staple foodcrops.

Another important trait of great poten-tial benefit to smallholder farmers wouldbe apomixis. This is the ability to propa-gate plants asexually through seed. Thiswould confer the benefits of hybrid vigorwithout the need to purchase new seed eachseason. Research is underway by scientistsat CIMMYT, Mexico, working with othercollaborators in France and the USA, toidentify the genes conferring this trait.

Commercial Applications ofGenetically Improved Crops

Substantial commercial cultivation of thefirst generation of new genetically im-proved plant varieties commenced in themid-1990s. In 1999, approximately 40 mil-lion hectares of land were planted world-wide with transgenic varieties of over 20plant species, the most commercially im-portant being cotton, corn, soybean, andrapeseed (James 1999). These new cropvarieties are planted in Argentina, Austra-lia, Canada, China, France, Mexico, SouthAfrica, Spain, and, predominantly, theUnited States. Approximately 15 percent of

20 PROMETHEAN SCIENCE AND THE POOR

Box 5Box 5Box 5Box 5Box 5 Molecular brMolecular brMolecular brMolecular brMolecular breeding:eeding:eeding:eeding:eeding:biotechnology at work for ricebiotechnology at work for ricebiotechnology at work for ricebiotechnology at work for ricebiotechnology at work for rice

Marker-assisted selection is the application ofmolecular landmarks-usually DNA markersnear target genes-to assist the accumulationof desirable genes in plant varieties. There aremany reasons why molecular markers areuseful in plant breeding. Improved diseaseresistance in rice is a good example.

Bacterial blight is a widespread diseasein irrigated rice-growing areasand can causewidespread yield loss. The incorporation ofhost-plant resistance through conventionalbreeding has been the most economical meansof control, and has eliminated the need forpesticides. There are now over 20 genes avail-able for use in rice improvement, but not allof these genes are equally effective in differ-ent environments. The pathogen eventuallyovercomes the resistant gene. Using conven-tional approaches the plant breeder must becontinually adding and changing genes justto maintain the same level of resistance. Breed-ing effort spent in “maintenance” is a poten-tial loss to gains in other traits.

A more sustainable system can be devel-oped by deploying more than one resistancegene at a time. The challenge is to find theright combination of genes and put them intovarieties most suitable for local production.When two or more genes are incorporatedinto a variety it is called “gene pyramiding.”Up to four genes for bacterial resistance havebeen pyramided in rice, and there is evidencethat collectively they are more effective thanwould be ascribed to their additive effects.Because each gene may mask the presence ofanother gene, it is difficult to pyramid morethan two genes by conventional breeding andselection; but it can be done with molecularmarkers.

Over the past several years, scientists atthe International Rice Research Institute andits national partners in the Asian Rice Bio-technology Network have applied DNAmarker technology to address the bacterial

blight problem. First, DNA markers are usedto tag nearly all the bacterial blight resistancegenes in available genetic stocks. Second,DNA markers are used to describe the com-position of pathogen populations unique toeach region. This parallel analysis of the hostand the pathogen has enabled scientists todetermine the right combination of genes touse in each locality.

In Asia, a number of resistance genes(Xa4, xa5, Xa7, xa13, Xa21), all with molecu-lar tags, have been introduced in various com-binations into locally adapted varieties

The Asian Rice Biotechnology Networkis promoting sharing of these elite lines andgene pyramids from different countries withother countries in Asia. This will allow theuseful marker-assisted selection products tobe rapidly disseminated through collabora-tive field testing across the region.

Marker-assisted selection has deliveredsome of the promises of biotechnology, andthere are other examples of use in rice. Theimpact of new selection techniques will con-tinue to be significant, particularly in an in-creasingly intellectual property-consciousenvironment. Marker technology is based onknowledge of endogenous DNA sequences;this has important practical implications, asthe rice genome will be completely sequencedby an international effort, led by the RiceGenome Research Program of Tsukuba, Japan.As long as there is a public commitment tomaintain all rice sequences in the public do-main, useful genes for marker-assisted selec-tion should be readily accessible to nationaland international rice breeding programs.Thus, because of their relative simplicity, easyintegration into conventional breeding, andminimal background intellectual property,DNA marker technology and marker-assistedselection are expected to be strong drivingforces in crop improvement in the future.

Ken Fischer, Hei Leung and Gurdev Khush(International Rice Research Institute,

Philippines)

PART 3 PUTTING TECHNOLOGIES TO WORK 21

the area is in emerging economies. Thevalue of the global market in transgeniccrops grew from US$75 million in 1995 toUS$1.64 billion in 1998.

The traits these new varieties containare most commonly insect resistance (cot-ton, maize), herbicide tolerance (soybean),delayed fruit ripening (tomato) and virusresistance (potato). The main benefits ofthese initial varieties are better weed and in-sect control, higher productivity, and moreflexible crop management. These benefits ac-crue primarily to farmers and agribusinesses.There are also economic benefits accruingto consumers in terms of maintaining foodproduction at low prices. Benefits also ac-crue to the environment through reduceduse of pesticides, and the reduction in car-cinogenic mycotoxins caused by fungalcontamination in food crops.

Other crop/input trait combinations pres-ently being field-tested include virus-resis-tant melon, papaya, potato, squash, tomato,and sweet pepper; insect-resistant rice, soy-bean, and tomato; disease-resistant potato;and delayed ripening chili pepper. Researchis aimed at modifying the oil content (rape-seed), increasing the amount and quality ofprotein (maize), or increasing vitamin con-tent (rice) (James and Krattiger 1999).

Much greater emphasis is now beinggiven to improving the nutritional valueof foods. There also is work in progress touse plants such as corn, potato, and ba-nana as bio-factories for the production ofvaccines and biodegradable plastics.

Characterizing Biodiversity

Genes and gene combinations selected inthe past in nature and by humans will re-

main a vital source for germplasm improve-ment. They need to be conserved in seedbanks, and in situ where possible and de-sirable. Genomics can play a key role inthe characterization and conservation ofgenetic resources. It can be used to deter-mine which genes and chromosome seg-ments are duplicated, which are unique,and how easy it will be to recreate the vari-ous combinations of chromosome seg-ments in modern plant breeding programs(Flavell 1998).

Comparative genetics can enhanceexploitation of genebank collections. TheCGIAR has an opportunity to become animportant player in the field, by exploit-ing its own comparative advantages ofgermplasm management and enhance-ment and its international network of re-search centers and collaborators. Thelocation of the Centers and their inter-national network of collaborators coin-cide well with the centers of origin of theworld’s major food crops (see Map).Jointly, the CGIAR, national programs,and advanced laboratories now have anhistoric opportunity to work together tomake optimal use of new developmentsin science, for the molecular character-ization of agriculturally important spe-cies and their wild relatives amongstplant, livestock, and microbial genetic re-sources to achieve their goals.

The application of comparative stud-ies to enhance the use and management ofplant germplasm collections was the focusof an international workshop in The Haguein August 1999. It was co-organized by theInternational Rice Research Institute andthe International Service for National Ag-ricultural Research through the System-Wide Genetic Resources Program.

22 PROMETHEAN SCIENCE AND THE POOR

The major finding was that theCGIAR centers must take advantage

now of the latest technologies ingenomics research to apply compara-

tive genetics to the germplasmcollections that they hold in trust(System-Wide Genetic Resources

Program 1999).

The principal conclusions from theworkshop were that:

• Comparative genetics can provide themost precise, unambiguous and com-prehensive tool for germplasm charac-terization

• Cross-species comparisons will allowidentification of the germplasm sourcesof superior, potentially optimal geneticsources for specific traits. Comparativegenetics will provide a multilateral flowof knowledge between major and mi-nor crops

• CGIAR centers need to take the initia-tive to develop comparative geneticsresearch for several crops, includingcereals, roots/tubers, and legumes

• Use of comparative genetics will helpreposition CGIAR genebanks for thefuture and enhance use of germplasmin crop improvement programs

• The strong comparative advantage ofCGIAR centers to conserve, phenotype,and use germplasm should be linkedwith expertise in comparative geneticsexisting in many laboratories worldwide.This will require innovative investmentand institutional arrangements

• Additional investment by the CGIARin comparative genetics and bio-informatics will ensure that the resultsand benefits are available as interna-tional public goods.

The initial potential of comparative ge-netics may best be demonstrated with traitswhere gene action is simple and well un-derstood, such as resistance to some pestsand diseases, submergence tolerance,starch accumulation, nutritional qualities,phosphate uptake, resistance to soil toxic-ity, weed competitiveness, and floweringresponse. Comparative studies may facili-tate:

• The systematic search for useful genesthat contain these traits in germplasmaccessions without having to discoverthe genes for each crop

• Identification of genetic resources con-taining useful genetic combinations

• Understanding of the genetics under-lying important traits

• Better understanding of the structureof biodiversity that will enhance man-agement of germplasm collections.

Comparative genetics provides the po-tential for trait extrapolation from a spe-cies where the genetic control is wellunderstood, and for which there are mo-lecular markers, to a species that has a lim-ited amount of information. Rice, forexample, is regarded as a model for cerealgenomics because of its small genome. Thesimilarity of cereal genomes means that thegenetic and physical maps of rice can beused as reference points for the explora-tion of the much larger and more difficultgenomes of the other major cereal crops,and be applied to the minor cereals. Con-versely, decades of breeding work and mo-lecular analysis of maize, wheat, and barleycan now find direct application in rice im-provement. These studies are much moreadvanced for cereals than for roots/tubers,and legumes. This reflects the large public

PART 3 PUTTING TECHNOLOGIES TO WORK 23

and private sector investments in the ricegenome project, coordinated by Japan. Thishas recently been strengthened by the de-cision of Monsanto to donate its knowl-edge on the rice genome to the public sectoreffort. Other investments on the maize andwheat genomes in Europe and NorthAmerica are making rapid progress.

The opportunities to apply compara-tive genetics now are furthest advanced inthe cereals in which considerable researchinvestment has already been made.

Investment in other agriculturally im-portant species, especially for tropical cropssuch as cassava, banana, and food legumes,is limited. Without significant investmentin the immediate future, the research gapbetween the CGIAR centers, nationalresearch institutes, and advanced labo-ratories already heavily involved incomparative genetics will widen. Collabo-ration with advanced laboratories is essen-tial to exploit fully the potential ofcomparative genetics on all the agricultur-ally important species.

Bioinformatics

The CGIAR centers have gathered a hugeresource of phenotypic data through thegermplasm collections and the crop im-provement and international testing pro-grams conducted over the past 30 years.Research in molecular biology, genome se-quencing, functional genomics, and com-parative genetics are producing largeamounts of new genomic data. Bio-informatics is essential for the manage-ment, integration, and analysis of pheno-typic and genomic data if the promise ofmolecular biology for genetic improvementis to be realized.

New discoveries in comparative genet-ics indicate a high degree of conservationof genetic material across the genomes ofmany species. This applies in terms of geneorder and gene structure and has impor-tant implications for the ability to trans-late findings in molecular biology in onespecies to others. This process will not bepossible unless the bioinformatics tools arealso compatible across species.

Numerous research projects worldwideare collecting genomic data. These are of-ten made available for bioinformatic analy-sis in public databases. The task of linkingthese data resources, integrating theCGIAR’s own contributions, and analyzingthe products is too great for any one CGIARcenter to handle. People with skill and ex-perience in this new and rapidly changingfield are rare and dispersed.

The CGIAR centers have a unique roleto play in the design and deployment of abioinformatics system for use by the inter-national centers and their collaborators.CGIAR centers need to work together andwith advanced research institutes andNARS partners to develop, deploy, and ex-tend an integrated bioinformatics systemfor the major food crops. This will requirenew investments, new skills, and innova-tive organizational arrangements that cutacross traditional commodity, discipline,and Center responsibilities.

Livestock Improvement

Constraints to Livestock Productivity

Three groups of technical constraints needto be overcome to improve livestock pro-ductivity in the developing world. Theserelate to improvements in genetic potential,

24 PROMETHEAN SCIENCE AND THE POOR

health, and management practices, includ-ing nutrition. In some cases these constraintsare specific to tropical and subtropical envi-ronments, such as specific diseases andstresses. In others, the constraints are sharedby industrial and developing countries.

Infectious diseases of livestock notpresent in the industrial countries, and forwhich there are as yet no sustainable meansof control, present a formidable barrier toincreasing the efficiency of livestock pro-ductivity in developing countries.

Disease is one of the major factorscontributing to poor productivity oflivestock in developing countries. Insub-Saharan Africa, animal lossesdue to disease are estimated to be

US$4 billion annually, approximatelya quarter of the total value of

livestock production.

Tsetse fly-transmitted trypanosomosisand tick-borne diseases are the most im-portant disease problems in developingcountries. Therapeutic agents are availablefor some of these diseases, but problemsremain. Chemotherapy, based on the useof trypanocides, has problems due to tox-icity, residues in milk and meat, and theexcretion of large quantities in feces thatare then applied to crops. Some of thetrypanocides are potential carcinogens andwould not be licensed for use in industrialcountries. Intensive application is creatingdrug-resistant organisms.

Current drugs have been in use for over30 years. The problem of drug resistanceis becoming acute in some regions, and thelikelihood that new drugs will be devel-oped is low due to development costs andlack of return on investment. Vaccinationoffers a potentially more effective and sus-

tainable method of disease control(Morrison 1999), but technical challengesremain to be resolved.

There has been limited success in ex-ploiting the genetic potential of indigenouslivestock breeds to resist disease and envi-ronmental stresses and to better utilize theavailable natural feed resources. Furtherimprovements in livestock genotypes nowneed to relate more to the quality of thefinal product and the efficiency of its pro-duction rather than simple increases inquantity. Improvements in animal healthare moving from interventions at the levelof the individual animal to interventionsat the herd and flock health level, with afocus on prevention rather than treatmentand subclinical rather than clinical disease.Vaccines play an important role in diseasemanagement by developing herd immunityto target diseases

Applications

The main applications of new biotechnolo-gies to livestock are in the areas of geneticimprovement, reproductive technologies,and animal health. These new technologiesspeed up the reproductive process in ani-mals and enable the more efficient selec-tion of breeds with improved productivity.Animal genome projects are also shorten-ing the gene discovery process and dem-onstrating many potential applicationswhere the manipulation of the genome maybe useful in livestock improvement.

The fundamental differences in repro-duction between plants and animals arereflected in the significant differences inthe costs and efficiency of effecting pro-duction increases through breeding pro-grams. These differences favor investmentsin crop rather than livestock breeding and

PART 3 PUTTING TECHNOLOGIES TO WORK 25

for short-term rather than long-termreturns.

Phenotypes of commercial livestockbreeds that are highly productive in tem-perate climates and intensive productionsystems do not realize their productionpotential in subtropical/tropical productionsystems. This is due to a number of factorsincluding dietary constraints, adaptabilityto local environmental conditions, andsusceptibility to disease.

National structures in developingcountries, whether public or private, haveoften been unsuccessful in commerciallyexploiting the production capacities of in-digenous livestock, which are adapted tothe local environment and diseases, by se-lective breeding or some form of cross-breeding with exotic genotypes. This hasbeen due to the need for long-term invest-ment in such breed improvement programsand their complexity of management, es-pecially when only small numbers of live-stock are present on individual farms.Performance recording schemes are diffi-cult to initiate and maintain, making breed-ing, selection, and expansion of improvedlivestock an expensive and inefficient pro-cess (Doyle 1993).

Molecular Breeding

Advances have been made in overcoming thegenotypic constraints to increased produc-tion efficiency. Improvements have beenmade both in genetic characterization at themolecular level, and in technology to expandrapidly the available numbers of improvedgenotypes. In molecular characterization,linkage maps of sufficient resolution for usein breeding improvement schemes based onmarker-assisted selection are now availablefor cattle, pigs, poultry, and fish. These mapsare being refined, and the process of identi-

fying molecular markers with desirable bio-logical and commercial traits is under way.The applications of these technologies to fishare illustrated in Box 6.

Another example of the use of molecu-lar markers has been in tracing the originsof different cattle breeds. Genomes containthe history of the origin and evolution ofthe different cattle breeds and modernmolecular techniques have been used torapidly decipher their story (Bradley andothers 1996; Hanotte and others 2000).

The physical location of individualgenes on chromosome maps is also welladvanced. The rapid development of bothlinkage and physical maps of the genomesof domestic livestock is a clear example ofhow the large investment in basic biology(the construction of genetic maps of mouseand humans) can effectively and economi-cally be captured to the benefit of domes-tic livestock improvement.

The International Livestock ResearchInstitute (and previously the InternationalLaboratory for Research on Animal Dis-eases) has been involved for the past de-cade in a worldwide collaborative effort tocreate and improve the genetic maps of thebovine genome and to identify markers as-sociated with genetic resistance to trypa-nosomosis. The use of such maps willsignificantly reduce the generation time fordeveloping improved breeds, as comparedto conventional breeding procedures basedsolely on phenotype selection. The deter-mination of genetic distances, together withgenetic maps, also will increase the effec-tiveness of measures for conservation of en-dangered livestock species by allowingcharacterization at the genetic rather thanphenotypic level.

The application of comparativegenomics between breeds and species maymean that such selection strategies in one

26 PROMETHEAN SCIENCE AND THE POOR

species/breed may be more easily adaptedto that of other species/breeds, when look-ing for similar traits. However, because ofthe high cost, genomics technology is pres-ently being applied more to the lucrativemarkets, breeds, species, and productionenvironments of the industrial world thanto the needs of livestock improvement inthe developing countries.

The concerted application of modernbreeding strategies for livestock of

relevance to smallholder productionin developing countries is unlikely tooccur in the absence of major public

sector initiatives.

This is because of present lack of fund-ing, the low commercial value of the breeds,lack of effective conventional breeding pro-grams in developing countries, and the re-quirements to conduct selection in therelevant production environments due tohigh genotype x environment effects inanimal breeding.

The applications of biotechnology tofisheries and aquaculture offer the prospectof increasing the efficiency of protein pro-duction, and the speed of conversion offeed to protein. They may also enable eco-nomically efficient protein production inenclosed aquaculture, and reduce prob-lems of effluent disposal (see Box 6 forapplications).

Box 6Box 6Box 6Box 6Box 6 Applications of biotechnologyApplications of biotechnologyApplications of biotechnologyApplications of biotechnologyApplications of biotechnologyin fisheries and aquaculturin fisheries and aquaculturin fisheries and aquaculturin fisheries and aquaculturin fisheries and aquacultureeeee

There is growing importance of molecularmarkers for biodiversity research, genomemapping, and trait selection in fish and otheraquatic organisms. International groups arealready collaborating on developing geneticmaps of tilapia, common carp, salmonids,catfish, zebrafish, and pufferfish. Maps forcommercially important invertebrate speciesincluding shrimp and oysters are beinginitiated.

The feasibility of developing and usingtransgenic species of fish is being exploredby several research institutes and companiesin the fisheries and aquaculture sectors onvarious species including tilapia and salmon.It is anticipated that there will be an increasein the number of species and strains intowhich genes are introgressed, and the num-ber of gene constructs available for trans-genesis (governing biological functions inaddition to growth) will also be increased.Transgenesis may become a cost-effectivemeans of enhancing indigenous species im-portant to one or a few countries and notcovered by international breeding efforts.

Sex manipulation (for example the pro-duction of all male populations of fish, es-pecially tilapia) is also an active area ofresearch, designed to avoid the detrimentalproduction effects of early maturation andcessation of growth. In carp species, how-ever, all-female populations are required. Itis also anticipated that sex reversal will beused more widely in breeding programs toincrease the speed of production of inbredlines. Haploid fish will be important forsimilar reasons.

A wide range of new molecular diag-nostic techniques is being developed for ap-plications such as disease diagnosis, sexingof juvenile fish, and for assessing progenyrelationships in large populations of fishraised together to reduce environment-spe-cific variations in production. Other tech-niques include tissue culture, or othermanipulations of embryos or embryoniccells, for the isolation of viruses, bacteria,and fungi pathogenic to fish.

Source: International Center for Living AquaticResources Management.

PART 3 PUTTING TECHNOLOGIES TO WORK 27

Transgenic Livestock

Technology exists for the creation oftransgenic livestock including mammals,birds, and fish. Practical applications of thetechnology are presently restricted to pro-duction of human biological pharmaceu-ticals in the milk of sheep. Small herds oftransgenic animals are likely to be able toproduce sufficient quantities of high-valuebiological products, such as pharmaceuti-cals, in the immediate future. There has alsobeen work on the creation of transgeniclines of virus-resistant poultry, which con-tain a modified virus gene that confers dis-ease resistance. A similar strategy hasproved useful to introduce virus resistancein plants.

In the future, transgenic pigs may beused as a source of tissue and organ trans-plants to humans, provided safety and ethi-cal concerns are met. The major healthissue for review and research at present isthe possible trans-species movement of vi-ruses from pig tissue to humans.

The impact of transgenic animals onanimal breeding and production is pres-ently limited by the dearth of single genetraits in livestock, and the fact that thepropagation process of a transgene in ananimal population is relatively slow(Cunningham 1999). There is also a riskthat the desired gene may not be inheritedby subsequent generations or may beturned off in the offspring from a transgenicanimal.

If desired genes controlling a trait canbe identified and transferred, their expres-sion physiologically controlled and the traitis heritable, then a quantum leap in im-provements in livestock productivity canbe envisaged.

Livestock Genetic Resources

There is potential to find genes for diseasetolerance and other adaptive traits such asheat tolerance in wildlife and transferringthese to domestic livestock. In disease re-sistance, for example, this would havegreater impact in developing than in in-dustrial countries.

There are possible opportunities for thedeveloping countries, through the analy-sis of the genomes of their unique animalgenetic resources, to identify genes encod-ing traits that may be of benefit to bothdeveloping and industrial countries. Al-though the animal genetic resources indeveloping countries are plentiful, theyhave not been tapped to any great extent.The characterization of these genetic re-sources may offer opportunities for devel-oping countries to benefit from theirappropriate use and agreed benefit sharing(FAO 1999).

Diagnostics and Therapeutics

Molecular technologies are also applicableto the study of livestock parasites and otherpathogens. They provide effective meansfor identifying, isolating, characterizing,and producing molecules that can be usedto induce protective responses against theparasite (Morrison 1999). The new tech-nologies can also be used to generate prod-ucts and gene sequences, which can formthe basis of improved diagnostics. Theyalso provide effective means of elucidatingthe metabolic pathways of pathogens thatconfer drug resistance or drug sensitivityon these organisms. Genetic markers areincreasingly being used to identify with

28 PROMETHEAN SCIENCE AND THE POOR

greater precision the species, subspecies,and types of pathogenic agents. Recom-binant or genetically modified pathogensalso offer new approaches to vaccine de-livery, as does direct injection of DNA intoanimals.

Disease, however, is the result of theinteractions of two genomes - the patho-gen and the host. To exploit the new tech-nologies, particularly for the developmentof vaccines and for the exploitation of dis-ease resistance traits, it is important to un-derstand the biology of the pathogen aswell as the host.

Vaccine Development

The use of vaccines in disease control hasthe advantage of using an already existingdomestic animal gene pool. From a man-agement/breeding point of view this is lo-gistically easier to consider as a diseasecontrol strategy than using marker- orgene-assisted selection to breed disease-re-sistant strains of improved domestic ani-mals. Vaccines developed using traditionalapproaches have had a major impact on thecontrol of the epidemic viral diseases oflivestock, such as foot-and-mouth diseaseand rinderpest. There are many other im-portant diseases, notably parasitic diseases,for which vaccines have not been devel-oped successfully.

Rapid advances in biotechnology andimmunology over the last two decades havecreated new opportunities to develop vac-cines for parasitic diseases. Initial optimismin the early 1980s that vaccine productswould quickly emerge from applications ofrecombinant DNA technology has not beenfully realized. Subsequent experience hasdemonstrated that, unlike traditional ap-proaches to vaccine development, effective

exploitation of recombinant DNA technol-ogy requires knowledge of the target patho-gens and the immune responses theyinduce, as well as an understanding of howthose immune responses can be manipu-lated. Such information was lacking in theearly 1980s. There has been a series of fun-damental discoveries in immunology thathave led to a detailed understanding of howthe immune system processes and recog-nizes pathogenic organisms, and the dif-ferent ways that infections are controlledby immune responses. This new knowl-edge is directly relevant to all stages of vac-cine development, from identification ofthe genes or proteins that need to be in-corporated into a vaccine, to the design ofa vaccine delivery system that will inducea particular type of immune response.These advances, coupled with further de-velopments in the application of DNA tech-nology, now provide a strong conceptualframework for the rational development ofnew vaccines (Morrison 1999).

Two main approaches are being pur-sued to develop vaccines using recombi-nant DNA technology. The first of theseinvolves the deletion of genes that areknown to determine virulence of the patho-gen, thus producing attenuated organisms(nonpathogens) that can be used as a livevaccine. This strategy is presently moreappropriate for viral and bacterial diseasesthan for protozoan parasites. Attenuatedlive vaccines have been developed for theherpes viruses that cause pseudorabies inpigs and infectious bovine rhinotracheitisin cattle.

The second strategy is to identify pro-tein subunits of pathogens that can stimu-late immunity. This is the preferredapproach to many of the more complexpathogens. It requires knowledge of the

PART 3 PUTTING TECHNOLOGIES TO WORK 29

immune responses that mediate immunity,which helps identify the relevant target pro-teins. The strategy can be illustrated by theapproach taken by the International Live-stock Research Institute to develop a vac-cine against Theileria parva, the parasitethat causes East Coast Fever of cattle in sub-Saharan Africa. Studies of immune re-sponses to the parasite have revealedantibody responses to the tick-derived in-fective stage of the parasite, as well as cell-mediated immune responses against theparasite stages that reside within cattle cells.A parasite protein recognized by the antibodyresponse and the corresponding parasite gene(p67) have been identified. Protein expressedfrom this gene, when used to vaccinate cattleunder experimental conditions, has beenshown to protect a proportion of animalsagainst the disease. Identification of the para-site proteins recognized by the cell-mediatedimmune responses presents a greater chal-lenge, but a number of recently developedmethodologies for this purpose are now be-ing applied to the problem (McKeever andMorrison 1998). As part of its strategy forthe development of a vaccine against EastCoast Fever, the International Livestock Re-search Institute is collaborating with The In-stitute for Genomic Research to map thegenome of T. parva (Nene and others 2000)(see Box 4).

New Vaccine Delivery Systems

Live attenuated vaccines stimulate immuneresponses similar to those induced by theparent pathogen, and usually providelong-lasting immunity. Vaccines usingkilled organisms require incorporation ofadjuvants (agents that enhance immunity-giving characteristics), and the immune

responses they induce are usually more lim-ited and of shorter duration than with livevaccines. Advances in biotechnology haveprovided a number of alternative vaccinedelivery systems for subunit proteins thatovercome these shortcomings and offersome of the advantages provided by livevaccines. Two of the most promising ap-proaches are the use of attenuated organ-isms as live vectors and vaccination withDNA (Morrison 1999).

Live-vectored vaccines involve the in-corporation of a gene encoding a subunitprotein into the genome of an attenuatedorganism, which itself may be in use as anattenuated vaccine. The protein is thenproduced when the organism replicates inthe animal.

A vaccine containing a rabies virusgene has been used to protect foxes

against rabies and its use has resultedin the eradication of rabies from

northern continental Europe.

The use of DNA for vaccination isbased on the discovery that injection ofgenes in the form of plasmid DNA canstimulate immune responses to the respec-tive gene products. This occurs as a resultof the genes being taken up and expressedby cells in the animal following injection.Stimulation of immune responses and par-tial protection have been reported for anumber of pathogen genes in livestock spe-cies, but none of these has yet led to a fullyeffective vaccine. The live vector and DNAvaccination systems are amenable to fur-ther manipulation to enhance the immu-nity-conferring characteristics of the geneproducts. Experimental studies have dem-onstrated that these systems have enor-

30 PROMETHEAN SCIENCE AND THE POOR

mous potential for development of vaccinesthat induce appropriate and enduring im-mune responses.

New vaccines are likely to be producedagainst some or all of the major animal dis-eases, given the necessary scientific and fi-nancial resources. The complexity of theproblems that are being addressed shouldnot be underestimated. The opportunitiespresented by advances in biotechnologycan only be exploited effectively if there isa thorough understanding of the biologyof the target pathogens and the diseasesthey produce. The new technologies allowdetailed studies on the two interactinggenomes, the pathogen and the host, the

identification of genes essential for caus-ing infection and disease and thus the iden-tification of targets for vaccine development.

Vaccine development for domestic live-stock could benefit from technologyspillovers from vaccine development forhumans because the same research con-cepts and approaches can be applied, albeitto different pathogens. Public-private sectorcooperation emerging in the eradication ofpolio, and in the search for a malaria vac-cine, may yield innovative research coop-eration models and knowledge that couldbe applied to vaccine development anddelivery for the benefit of smallholder live-stock producers in the developing world.

Part 4 The Way Ahead

31

The Human Genome Project is pro-viding a major impetus to under-standing the genetic basis of life. It

is, for example, resulting in the early iden-tification of predisposition to genetic dis-eases, such as cystic fibrosis and breastcancer, leading to earlier detection and bet-ter treatments. The applications of mod-ern science are strongest in health carewhere they offer new hope to patients withAIDS, genetically inherited diseases, dia-betes, influenza, and some forms of can-cer. Biotechnology-based processes are nowused routinely in the production of manynew medicines, diagnostics, and medicaltherapies.

These new developments are underpin-ning important new international healthinitiatives, such as the the children’s vac-cine initiative. This will be the basis of fur-ther international health initiatives as neworder vaccines and therapeutics are devel-oped. The important initiatives in the healthsector, such as the “Roll Back Malaria Cam-paign,” are being sponsored by the WorldHealth Organization, the World Bank, andprivate foundations. These initiatives aremobilizing expertise and financial re-sources of governments, internationalagencies, private foundations, and the phar-maceutical industry. They are expected tolead to major improvements in humanhealth over the next decades.

Modern science offers the potential forsimilar major contributions to improvingfood security and nutrition of the poor.However, the large private sector invest-ments in modern bioscience are directed

at traits of interest to producers and con-sumers in industrial countries. The currentdebate over the value of these new prod-ucts is also largely dominated by the per-spectives of civil society in industrialcountries. The potential value of modernscience in producing food for the poor willnot be realized without major additionalefforts involving all stakeholders, includ-ing civil society, small-scale farmers, urbanconsumers, and governments in develop-ing countries.

The need to produce sufficient foodfor the world’s population is urgent,compelling, and complementary to

improving human health.

About 73 million people will be addedto the world’s population every year fromnow until 2020. Much of this populationgrowth will occur in the cities of the de-veloping world. Meeting world food needsrequires increases in production and pro-ductivity, and matching these to dietarychanges, including the rapidly increasingdemands for livestock and fish as sourcesof protein. Demand for meat in the devel-oping world is projected to double between1995 and 2020.

World grain production will need toincrease by 40 percent by 2020, while theincreases in crop yields have been plateau-ing. Neither meat nor cereals productionin the developing world is keeping pacewith demand, and imports are increasing(Pinstrup-Andersen, Pandya-Lorch, andRosegrant 1999).

32 PROMETHEAN SCIENCE AND THE POOR

Under this scenario, food insecurityand malnutrition will persist to 2020 andbeyond. The International Food Policy Re-search Institute predicts that, without sig-nificant new developments in increasingproductivity, 135 million children under 5years of age will be malnourished in 2020,a decrease of only 15 percent on 1995.Approximately 77 percent of these childrenwill live in Africa and South Asia.

The most promising approaches to in-creasing productivity on small-scale farmsare agro-ecological approaches, albeitrecognizing the potential role of modernbiotechnology, and the use of moderninformation technology and precisionfarming. It will require the successful inte-gration of these three approaches to achievethe full potential of modern science andensure the necessary increases in produc-tion while conserving the natural resourcebase.

The initial applications of modern bio-technology to commercial agriculture haveresulted in new genetically improved vari-eties of maize, cotton, rapeseed, soybean,and potato. These were grown on 40 mil-lion hectares worldwide in 1999, increas-ing from 1.5 million hectares in 1996.Fifteen percent of the area is in emergingeconomies of Argentina, China, Mexicoand South Africa. There are also applica-tions to livestock and fish, largely relatedto the production of more productivestrains of commercially important speciesand the development of useful diagnosticsand vaccines.

Several emerging economies are mak-ing major investments of human and finan-cial resources in biotechnology with theaim of using these new developments inscience to improve food security andreduce poverty. They include Argentina,Brazil, Mexico, China, India, Thailand,

Kenya, and South Africa, amongst others(Persley and Lantin 2000).

However. the major research and de-velopment efforts of the private sector inbiotechnology have been directed at op-portunities for introducing traits useful toproducers and consumers in the marketsin industrial countries. This is where bio-science companies hope to recoup theirinvestments. Initial research and develop-ment has concentrated on production traitssuch as insect resistance. More recent em-phasis is on products with improved nu-tritional qualities.

It is the responsibility of civil societyand governments, at the national and in-ternational level, to ensure that develop-ing countries consider the benefits andrisks of the use of modern science. Allstakeholders need to assess the potentialbenefits and risks of new technologies toreduce food insecurity and poverty. Thiswill require communicating about the roleof science in development. It will requirealso mobilizing the expertise and resourcesof both the public and private sector na-tionally and internationally to address thespecific problems that damage humanhealth, constrain agricultural productivityand threaten the environment. New ap-proaches that mobilize both public andprivate resources and involve nongovern-mental bodies are needed if poor peopleare not to be bypassed by the revolutionsin science and information technology.

This strategy of using modern scienceas a component of the overall policy to fos-ter sustainable economic development,reduce inequities, and improve the liveli-hoods and well being of the poor, will re-quire good governance and political skillsand leadership of a high order, and newpolices and actions by governments(Persley 1999; www.ifpri.org).

PART 4 THE WAY AHEAD 33

Food for the Poor

To achieve the required productivity in-creases in crop and livestock productionto keep pace with population growth, thereis a need for a major global effort on Foodfor the Poor. Its purpose would be:

To mobilize the new developments inscience and technology to increase

the productivity of the world’s twelvemajor food crops, five species oflivestock, and fish, that provide

95 percent of the food in thedeveloping world.

Several actions are urgently required toaccomplish this, the most important ofwhich are:

1. Plant and Animal Genomes: Ensurethat the descriptions of genomes of the ag-riculturally important species are mappedand that this information is put in the pub-lic domain, able to be used by scientistsworldwide to generate improved crop va-rieties and livestock breeds adapted to lo-cal ecosystems, and useful biologicalproducts. The species are: banana, cassava,maize (corn), groundnut, millets, oil crops,potato, rice, sorghum, soybean, sweet po-tato, wheat; cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, chick-ens; and fish species.

2. Identify Traits for the Poor: Identifythe genes conferring traits that are impor-tant to poor producers in marginal envi-ronments. It is likely that research willshow that some of these are governed bygenes that are conserved (shared) acrossspecies (for example drought tolerance incereals). This knowledge would greatlyaccelerate breeding for these difficult traits,

increase the productivity of major foodcrops and livestock in the tropics, and en-hance their ability to be more productivein difficult environments.

3. Conserve and Characterize GeneticResources: Maintain and characterize thefarm animal and plant genetic resources ofthe world’s major agricultural species. Thelargest in vitro collections of plant geneticresources are held in trust for the interna-tional community by the CGIAR centers.A recent review commissioned by theCGIAR Technical Advisory Committee sug-gests that it will require US$70 million toupgrade the present plant collections, andthereafter US$8 million per year to main-tain them. Additional investments are re-quired to collect, characterize, and conservefarm animal genetic resources (see FAO1999). The in vitro and in vivo collectionsof plant and animal genetic resources, andthe biological information pertaining tothem, are a vast but underutilized resourcefor genetic studies and the identificationof useful traits.

4. Access Enabling Technologies: Obtain-ing access to key enabling technologies inagricultural biotechnology, many of whichare proprietary technologies held by theprivate sector, is key to the successfulapplications of biotechnology in the devel-oping world. It will enable the character-ization and application of useful geneticinformation for crop and livestock im-provement and the control of the pests,parasites, and pathogens that affect them.The economic concentration of agricul-tural biotechnology is a real issue thataffects the potential beneficial use of newbiotechnologies on the problems of poorfarmers and consumers in developingcountries.

34 PROMETHEAN SCIENCE AND THE POOR

5. Establish Alliances of the Caring: Aconcerted international effort is needed toestablish a new compact between the pub-lic and private sectors of the industrial anddeveloping countries, so that the new de-velopments in genetics and biotechnologyare able to be used more effectively to in-crease agricultural productivity in a sus-tainable way. This could, for example,involve a Food for the Poor initiative,whereby a trust fund is created with pub-lic and private donations, to conserve andcharacterize phenotypically and geneticallythe genetic resources of the world’s majoragriculture species in perpetuity.

New and nontraditional partnershipsamongst public and private sector organi-zations are needed to make best use of allavailable resources involving farmers’ as-sociations, nongovernmental organiza-tions, governments, and private sectororganizations. Some alliances could be for-malized into specific research consortia thataddress specific constraints and are fi-nanced to achieve agreed outputs.

6. Increase Investments in Agriculture:Significant additional investments by thepublic and the private sectors are requiredif agricultural productivity is to increasein the developing world in an environmen-tally sustainable way.

7. Provide Incentives for Private SectorParticipation: Incentives are needed to en-courage the national and international pri-vate sector to address the problems ofagriculture in developing countries. Theseincentives may include improving the en-abling environment for agribusiness indeveloping countries, providing financialincentives for research and developmenton orphan commodities, and incentivesfor entrepreneurs to establish bio-based

businesses in developing countries, as asource of technology, job creation, andwealth.

8. Mobilize the Global Scientific Com-munity to Address the Problems of Food forthe Poor: The CGIAR centers presentlyspend about US$25–35 million each yearon agricultural biotechnology, out of a to-tal budget for all the CGIAR centers ofUS$340 million. These investments areimpressive but insufficient by themselves.The CGIAR centers are also the custodi-ans of the world’s largest in vitro collec-tions of plant genetic resources. TheCGIAR centers and the national agricul-tural research systems are the repository ofa vast array of knowledge of the biology ofthe world’s major food crops, livestock,fish, and tree species, and their associatedpests and pathogens. The CGIAR centersoperate long-standing crop improvementprograms and international testing pro-grams, located throughout the world’s ma-jor ecosystems. In combination, thesescientific, biological, and financial re-sources are a powerful platform. However,the agricultural research efforts in the de-veloping world now need to be mobilizedwith the global scientific community innew and imaginative ways, if a quantumleap is to be made in producing food forthe poor by 2020.

It is here that the newly created GlobalForum for Agricultural Research must beseen as an important new vector for bring-ing about the necessary collaborationamongst farmers, producer and consumerorganizations, public and private compa-nies, nongovernmental organizations, na-tional agricultural research systems,advanced research organizations and inter-national agricultural research institutes, in-cluding the CGIAR centers.

PART 4 THE WAY AHEAD 35

9. Identify Desired Outputs: Innova-tions that will be required to contributeto improved food security and to createwealth in the poorer regions of the worldinclude:

• Improved genotypes and better agri-cultural practices to ensure sustain-able increases in productivity of theworld’s agriculturally important com-modities.

• New biological products, such as vac-cines, biocontrol agents, and diagnos-tics, for the control of major endemicdiseases of crops and livestock. Illus-trative priority species, constraints, andtargets on which additional research isurgently needed are shown in Box 7.

Development of these outputs will re-quire marshalling and directing financial andscientific resources in new ways, both nation-ally and internationally. This will have pro-found implications for the CGIAR if it is torecognize and respond to these challengeswith the appropriate strategy and tactics.Note, however, that whatever research anddevelopment work is being advocated onthe genetic side must be seen, along withother crop, livestock and fish productivitywork, within the context of improvedagroecological, socioeconomic and gender-sensitive approaches.

10. Challenge to the CGIAR: The CGIARhas a challenge to invest in and mobilizethe necessary human, financial, and bio-

Commodity

CrCrCrCrCropsopsopsopsops

Banana/plantainCassavaMaize

Millets

Sorghum

Rice

Wheat

LivestockLivestockLivestockLivestockLivestock

Cattle

SheepGoatsChickenPigs

Constraint

Black Sigatoka diseaseCassava mosaic virusApomixis (all cereals)Quality protein maizeDrought

Blast resistancePhotoperiod response

Drought, heat tolerance

Blast, submergenceVitamin A contentYield potential

Heat toleranceDrought/salinity tolerance

TrypanosomosisEast coast feverHeat tolerance, helminthsHelminthsNewcastle virusViral diseases

Regions

GlobalAfricaGlobal

l

Africa/South AsiaGlobal

Africa/South Asia

Global

Africa/Asia

GlobalAfricaGlobalGlobalGlobalGlobal

Box 7Box 7Box 7Box 7Box 7 Illustrative examples of some priority constraints able to be addrIllustrative examples of some priority constraints able to be addrIllustrative examples of some priority constraints able to be addrIllustrative examples of some priority constraints able to be addrIllustrative examples of some priority constraints able to be addressedessedessedessedessedthrthrthrthrthrough biotechnologyough biotechnologyough biotechnologyough biotechnologyough biotechnology

36 PROMETHEAN SCIENCE AND THE POOR

logical resources to address the productionand sustainability problems of agriculturein new and exciting ways. This will requirethe CGIAR to:

• Invest more, and with a greater senseof urgency, in science to solve prob-lems, marshalling the new in-depthunderstanding of the agroecologicalissues with the new opportunities ofmodern genetics and biotechnology

• Build on traditional strengths in breed-ing, biology, and genetic resources

• Analyze, interpret, and make more ac-cessible its wealth of biological data,using new tools in biotechnology andinformation technology

• Access new skills in the global scien-tific community to achieve new goals

• Form new strategic (in addition toproject-specific) alliances to achievecommon objectives

• Create more flexible and innovativeinstitutional arrangements that cutacross traditional Center boundaries

• Provide financial incentives for inno-vation and reward success.

Epilogue

Prometheus changed the world foreverwhen he unleashed the forces of innova-tion and creativity. The Promethean schol-ars of today seek to use the new discoveriesin molecular biology and genetics to un-derstand and protect the natural world andto improve the productivity of agriculturalsystems. These developments are beingdriven by the scientific and industrialwealth of the industrial world. It is here

that the early benefits of biotechnology areaccruing. It is also where the debate as tothe wisdom of using modern biotechnol-ogy at all is fiercest.

Modern biotechnology offers prom-ise to increase the productivity of the agri-culturally important species in developingcountries. However this is unlikely tohappen in time if present trends con-tinue. The development of relevant andappropriately fine-tuned applications indeveloping countries will be hamperedby a lack of access to the necessary sci-entific and financial resources. Thismeans that the potential of the human andnatural resources of the developing coun-tries will not be fully realized and the worldwill be a poorer place.

The present economic concentration ofinvestment, science, and infrastructure inindustrial countries and the lack of accessto the resulting technologies are major im-pediments to the successful applications ofmodern biotechnology to the global prob-lems of the Age, namely the need to guar-antee food security to all people and tocreate wealth for the presently poor peopleand countries.

Creativity in finding solutions to thesepolicy and institutional impediments toinnovation are as important and challeng-ing as new scientific discoveries, if thepromises of Promethean science are to berealized. Even more, the ability to link thefindings and techniques of the new bio-logical and genetic sciences within a frame-work that respects the agro-ecology ofsmallholder farming systems, and integrat-ing all of that with the wisdom of the farm-ers themselves is the key to where a betterfuture for all lies.

Glossary of Terms

37

Apomixis: reproduction (e.g. parthenogen-esis) involving specialized generativetissues but not dependent on fertiliza-tion.

Bioinformatics: the assembly of data fromgenomic analysis into accessible forms.It involves the application of informa-tion technology to analyze and man-age large data sets resulting from genesequencing or related techniques.

Diagnostics: more accurate and quickeridentification of pathogens using newdiagnostics based on molecular char-acterization of the pathogens.

Functional genomics is the knowledge thatconverts the molecular informationrepresented by DNA into an under-standing of gene functions and effects:how and why genes behave in certainspecies and under specific conditions.To address gene function and expres-sion specifically, the recovery and iden-tification of mutant and over-expressedphenotypes can be employed. Func-tional genomics also entails research onthe protein function (proteomics) or,even more broadly, the whole metabo-lism (metabolomics) of an organism.

Gene chips (also called DNA chips) ormicroarrays. Identified expressed genesequences of an organism can, as ex-pressed sequence tags or synthesizedoligonucleotides, be placed on a ma-

trix. This matrix can be a solid sup-port such as glass. If a sample contain-ing DNA or RNA is added, thosemolecules that are complementary insequence will hybridize. By making theadded molecules fluorescent, it is pos-sible to detect whether the sample con-tains DNA or RNA of the respectivegenetic sequence initially mounted onthe matrix.

Genomics: the molecular characterizationof all the genes in a species.

High throughput (HTP) screening makesuse of techniques that allow for a fastand simple test on the presence or ab-sence of a desirable structure, such asa specific DNA sequence and the ex-pression patterns of genes in responseto different stimuli. HTP screeningoften uses DNA chips or microarraysand automated data processing forlarge-scale screening, for example toidentify new targets for drug develop-ment.

Insertion mutants are mutants of genes thatare obtained by inserting DNA, for in-stance through mobile DNA sequences,transposons. In plant research, the ca-pacity of the bacterium Agrobacteriumto introduce DNA into the plant ge-nome is employed to induce mutants.In both cases, mutations lead to lack-ing or changing gene functions that arerevealed by aberrant phenotypes. In-

38 PROMETHEAN SCIENCE AND THE POOR

sertion mutant isolation, and subse-quent identification and analysis areemployed in model plants such asArabidopsis and in crop plants such asmaize and rice.

Molecular breeding: identification andevaluation of useful traits usingmarker-assisted selection.

Parthenogenesis: reproduction by develop-ment of an unfertilized (usually female)gamete that occurs especially amonglower plants and invertebrate animals.

Shotgun genome sequencing is a sequencingstrategy for which parts of DNA arerandomly sequenced. The sequencesobtained have a considerable overlapand by using appropriate computersoftware it is possible to compare se-quences and align them to build largerunits of genetic information. This se-quencing strategy can be automated

and leads to rapid sequencing informa-tion, but it is less precise than a sys-tematic sequencing approach.

Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) arethe most common type of genetic varia-tion. SNPs are stable mutations con-sisting of a change at a single base in aDNA molecule. SNPs can be detectedby HTP analyses, for instance withDNA chips, and they are then mappedby DNA sequencing.

Transformation: introduction of singlegenes conferring potentially usefultraits.

Vaccine technology: using modern immu-nology to develop recombinant DNAvaccines for improved control of ani-mal and fish disease.

(Source: Biotechnology and DevelopmentMonitor 1999)

Alston, J.M., M.C. Marra, P.G. Pardey, andT.G. Wyatt. 2000. “Research ReturnsRedux: A Meta-analysis of the Returnto Agricultural R&D.” Australian Jour-nal of Agricultural and Research Eco-nomics 44(2) (June-in press).

Barton, J.H. 1999. “Intellectual PropertyManagement.” Brief 7 of 10 in: G.J.Persley, ed., Focus 2: Biotechnology forDeveloping-Country Agriculture: Prob-lems and Opportunities. Washington,D.C.: International Food Policy Re-search Institute.

Bradley, D.G., D.E. McHugh, P.Cunningham, and R.T. Loftus. 1996.“Mitochondrial Diversity and the Ori-gins of African and European Cattle.”Proceedings of the National Academy ofScience (USA) 93: 5131-5.

Conway, G. 1997. The Doubly Green Revo-lution – Food for All in the Twenty-FirstCentury. Harmondsworth, U.K.: Pen-guin Books.

Cook, R.J. 2000. “Science-Based Risk As-sessment for the Approval and Use ofPlants in Agricultural and Other Envi-ronments.” In G.J. Persley and M.M.Lantin, eds., Agricultural Biotechnologyand the Poor: Proceedings of an Interna-tional Conference, Washington, D.C., 21-22 October 1999. Washington, D.C.:Consultative Group on InternationalAgricultural Research.

Cunningham, E.P. 1999. Recent Develop-ments in Biotechnology as They Relateto Animal Genetic Resources for Foodand Agriculture. Rome: FAO. CGRFABackground Study Paper No. 10.

Delgado, C., M. Rosegrant, H. Steinfeld, S.Ehui, and C. Courbois. 1999. Livestockto 2020: The Next Food Revolution.Washington, D.C.: International FoodPolicy Research Institute.

Doyle, J.J. 1993. Livestock Research in theCGIAR: The Past, Present, and the Fu-ture. Nairobi, Kenya: InternationalLivestock Research Institute.

Doyle, J.J., and G.J. Persley. 1996. Enablingthe Safe Use of Biotechnology: Principlesand Practice. Environmentally Sustain-able Development Studies and Mono-graphs Series No. 10. Washington,D.C.: The World Bank.

FAO. 1996. Investment in Agriculture: Evo-lution and Prospects. World Food Sum-mit Technical Background DocumentNo. 10. Rome: Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations.

____. 1999. Global Strategy for Farm Ani-mal Genetic Resources. Rome: Food andAgriculture Organization.

Flavell, R. 1998. Report of the CGIAR Panelon General Issues in Biotechnology. April1998. Washington, D.C.: ConsultativeGroup on International AgriculturalResearch.

Hanotte, O., C.L. Tawah, D.G. Bradley, M.Okomo, Y. Verjee, J. Ochieng, andJ.E.O. Rege. 2000. “Geographic Distri-bution and Frequency of a Taurine Bostaurus and an Indicine B. indicus? Spe-cific Allele Amongst sub-Saharan Afri-can Cattle Breeds.” Molecular Ecology9(4): 387-96.

IFPRI. 1997. The World Food Situation: Re-cent Developments, Emerging Issues, and

References

39

40 PROMETHEAN SCIENCE AND THE POOR

Long-term Prospects. Washington, D.C.:International Food Policy ResearchInstitute.

James, C. 1999. Global Review of Commer-cialized Transgenic Crops: 1999. ISAAABrief. Ithaca, N.Y.: International Servicefor the Acquisition of Agribiotech Ap-plications (ISAAA).

James, C., and A. Krattiger. 1999. “The Roleof the Private Sector.” Brief 4 of 10 inG.J. Persley, ed., Focus 2: Biotechnol-ogy for Developing-Country Agriculture:Problems and Opportunities. Washing-ton, D.C.: International Food PolicyResearch Institute.

Leisinger, K.M. 2000. “Ethical Challengesof Agricultural Biotechnology for De-veloping Countries.” In G.J. Persleyand M.M. Lantin, eds., AgriculturalBiotechnology and the Poor: Proceed-ings of an International Conference,Washington, D.C., 21-22 October1999. Washington, D.C.: Consulta-tive Group on International Agricul-tural Research.

McCalla, A.F. 1998. The Challenge of FoodSecurity in the 21st Century. Montreal,Quebec: Convocation Address, Facultyof Environment Sciences, McGill Uni-versity, June 5, 1998.

McKeever, D.J., and W.I. Morrison. 1998.“Novel Vaccines Against Theileriaparva: Prospects for Sustainability.”Journal of Parasitology 28: 693-706.

Morrison, W.I. 1999. “Biotechnology andAnimal Vaccines.” Brief 3 of 10 in G.J.Persley, ed., Focus 2: Biotechnology forDeveloping-Country Agriculture. Wash-ington, D.C.: International Food PolicyResearch Institute.

NRC. 2000. Genetically Modified Pest-Pro-tected Plants: Science and Regulation.

Washington, D.C.: U.S. National Re-search Council.

Nene, V., S. Morzaria, L. Baker, A. Odonyo,E. Rege, E. Zerbini, and R. Bishop.2000. “Genomics Research: Prospectsfor Improving Livestock Productivity.”In: G.J. Persley and M.M. Lantin, eds.,Agricultural Biotechnology and the Poor:Proceedings of an International Confer-ence, Washington, D.C., 21-22 October1999. Washington, D.C.: ConsultativeGroup on International AgriculturalResearch.

Nuffield Council on Bioethics. 1999. Ge-netically Modified Crops: The Ethicaland Social Issues. London, U.K.:Nuffield Council on Bioethics.

Persley, G.J., ed. 1999. Biotechnology forDeveloping-Country Agriculture: Prob-lems and Opportunities. Focus 2, Briefs1 to 10, October 1999. Washington,D.C.: International Food Policy Re-search Institute.

Persley, G.J., and M.M. Lantin, eds. 2000.Agricultural Biotechnology and the Poor:Proceedings of an International Confer-ence, Washington, D.C., 21-22 October1999. Washington, D.C.: ConsultativeGroup on International AgriculturalResearch.

Persley, G.J., and J.N. Siedow. 1999. Appli-cations of Biotechnology to Crops: Ben-efits and Risks. Council for AgriculturalScience and Technology Issue PaperNo. 12.

Pinstrup-Andersen, Per, and M.J. Cohen.2000. “Modern Biotechnology for Foodand Agriculture: Risks and Opportu-nities for the Poor.” In G.J. Persley andM.M. Lantin, eds., Agricultural Biotech-nology and the Poor: Proceedings of anInternational Conference, Washington,

REFERENCES 41

D.C., 21-22 October 1999. Washington,D.C.: Consultative Group on Interna-tional Agricultural Research.

Pinstrup-Andersen, P., R. Pandya-Lorch,and M.W. Rosegrant. 1999. WorldFood Prospects: Critical Issues for theEarly Twenty-First Century. Washing-ton, D.C.: International Food PolicyResearch Institute.

Serageldin, Ismail. 1999. “Biotechnologyand Food Security in the 21st Century.”Science 285: 387-9.

Smaglik, P. 2000. “Critics ChallengeCelera’s Claims over Human GenomeSequence.” Nature 404: 691-2.

World Bank. 1997. World Development Re-port 1997. The World Bank. OxfordUniversity Press.

We cannot prevent this being a worldIn which children suffer,But we can reduce the numberOf suffering children.

If we do not do this,Who else in the world will do it!

Albert Camus

Prometheus, according to Greek mythology, was aTitan, responsible for introducing fire to humans, aremarkable innovation in its time, but having benefits

and risks, depending on its use. Promethean has since cometo mean daringly original and creative.

Today, the Human Genome Project is providing a ma-jor impetus to understanding the genetic basis of life. Bio-technology-based processes are now used routinely in theproduction of most new medicines, diagnostics, and medi-cal therapies that offer hope to people with AIDS, geneti-cally inherited diseases, diabetes, influenza, and cancer. Theyalso underpin new international health efforts, such as thechildren’s vaccine initiative, that are mobilizing expertise andfinancial resources of governments, several internationalagencies, private foundations, and the pharmaceutical in-dustry. These are expected to lead to future major improve-ments in human health worldwide. Modern science offersthe potential for similar major contributions to improvingfood security and nutrition of the poor.

The need to produce and improve access to sufficient foodfor the world’s population over the next 20 years is as urgent,compelling, and complementary to improving human health.

About 73 million people will be added to the world’spopulation every year from now until 2020. Meeting thefood needs of this growing and increasingly urbanized popu-lation requires increases in production and productivity andmatching these to dietary changes, including the increasingdemand for livestock and fish. World grain production alonewill need to increase by 40 percent by 2020. Without newdevelopments in increasing productivity, food insecurity, andmalnutrition will persist to 2020 and beyond. There arelikely to be 135 million malnourished children in 2020, 77percent of whom will be living in Africa and South Asia.

The most promising approaches to increasing produc-tivity on small-scale farms are agro-ecological approaches,albeit recognizing the potential role of modern biotechnol-ogy, and the use of new information technology and preci-sion farming. It will require the successful integration of allthree approaches to achieve the full potential of modernscience and ensure the necessary increases in productionwhile conserving the natural resource base.

Large private sector investments in agricultural biotech-nology are directed at traits of interest to producers and

consumers in industrial countries. The current debate overthe value and safety of these new products is also domi-nated by the perspectives of civil society in industrial coun-tries. The potential value of modern science to agricultureand the environment in developing countries will not berealised without major additional efforts involving all stake-holders, including civil society, producers, consumers, andgovernments.

Several emerging economies (including Argentina,Brazil, China, India, Thailand, Kenya, and South Africa,amongst others) are making major investments of humanand financial resources in biotechnology with the aim ofusing these new developments in science to improve foodsecurity and reduce poverty.

There is a need for major additional global efforts tomobilize the new developments in science and technology that,along with better policies, are needed to increase sustainableproductivity and improve access to food.

In terms of the world’s agriculturally important spe-cies, twelve crops (banana/plantain, cassava, maize, ground-nut, oil crops, millets, potato, rice, sorghum, sweet potato,soybean, wheat), five species of livestock (cattle, goats, sheep,pigs, and chickens), and fish species provide approximately95 percent of the food in the developing world.

Several actions arSeveral actions arSeveral actions arSeveral actions arSeveral actions are ure ure ure ure urgently rgently rgently rgently rgently requirequirequirequirequirededededed:

1. Plant and Animal Genomes: Ensure that the descrip-tions of genomes of the world’s agriculturally important spe-cies are genetically mapped and that this information is putin the public domain, able to be used widely to generateimproved varieties and breeds adapted to local ecosystems,and useful biological products.

2. Identify Priority Traits: Identify the genes conferringtraits that are important to poor producers in marginal en-vironments. Some, such as drought tolerance in cereals,appear likely to be shared across species. This knowledgewould greatly accelerate breeding for these difficult traitsand enhance the ability of the target crops to be more pro-ductive in difficult environments.

3. Conserve and Characterize Genetic Resources: Main-tain and characterize the farm animal and plant genetic re-sources of the world’s major agricultural species. A recent

Background Brief

PROMETHEAN SCIENCE

AGRICULTURAL BIOTECHNOLOGY, THE ENVIRONMENT, AND THE POOR

Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research — CGIARCGIAR Secretariat • Mailing Address: 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. • Office Location: 1800 G Street, N.W.

Tel: (1-202) 473-8951 • Cable Address: INTBAFRAD • Fax: (1-202) 473-8110 • E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected]

review of the CGIAR’s in vitro collections suggests that itwill require US$70 million to upgrade the present plant col-lections, and thereafter US$8 million per year to maintainthem. According to FAO studies, additional investments arerequired to collect, characterize, and conserve farm animalgenetic resources. The collections of plant and animal ge-netic resources, and the biological information pertainingto them, are a vast resource for genetic improvement andthe identification of useful traits. There is an urgent need toensure that these collections are financed in a more sustain-able way so as to ensure that the genetic resources of theworld’s major agriculture species are conserved, character-ized, and accessible for use, in perpetuity.

4. Access Enabling Technologies: Obtaining access to pro-prietary technologies is key to the successful applicationsof biotechnology to agriculture in the developing world. Thiswill enable the characterization and application of usefulgenetic information for crop and livestock improvement andthe integrated control of pests, parasites, and pathogens.

5. Establish Strategic Alliances: A concerted internationaleffort is needed to establish a new compact between thepublic and private sectors of the industrial and developingcountries, so that the new developments in modern scienceare able to be used more effectively.

6. Increase Investments in Agriculture: Significant addi-tional investments by the public and the private sectors arerequired if agricultural productivity is to increase in the de-veloping world in an environmentally sustainable way.

7. Provide Incentives for Private Sector Participation andPartnerships: Incentives are needed to encourage the pri-vate sector to address the problems of agriculture and theenvironment in developing countries, for mutual benefit.

8. Mobilize the Global Scientific Community to Addressthe Problems of Food for the Poor: The CGIAR centers pres-ently invest US$25-35m each year on agricultural biotech-nology, out of a total CGIAR budget of US$340 million.The CGIAR centers and the national agricultural researchsystems are also the repository of a vast array of knowledgeof the biology of the world’s major food crops, livestock,fish, and tree species and their associated pests and patho-gens. International crop improvement programs are locatedthroughout the world’s major ecosystems. These scientific,biological, and financial resources are a powerful platform.They now need to be mobilized with the global scientificcommunity in new and imaginative ways, if a quantum leapis to be made in improving agricultural productivity, foodaccess, and livelihoods by 2020. The Global Forum for Ag-ricultural Research may play an important role here.

9. Identify Desired Outputs: Innovations that are requiredto contribute to improved food security and to create wealth

in the poorer regions of the world include: Improved geno-types and better agricultural practices to ensure sustainableincreases in productivity; new biological products, such asvaccines, biocontrol agents, and diagnostics for the controlof major endemic diseases of crops and livestock.

Achieving these outcomes will require marshalling anddirecting public and private financial and scientific re-sources in new ways, both nationally and internationally.Also, R&D advocated in the area of genetic and other pro-ductivity improvements must be seen in the context ofimproved agro-ecological, socio-ecomonic and gender-sensitive approaches.

10. Challenges to the CGIAR: The CGIAR must seek toinvest in and mobilize the necessary human, financial, andbiological resources to address the production, policy, andsustainability challenges. This will require the CGIAR to:• Identify the researchable constraints• Invest more and with a greater sense of urgency in sci-

ence to solve problems, integrating the new understand-ing of agroecological issues with the new opportunitiesin genetics and biotechnology

• Build on traditional strengths in breeding, biology,genetic resources, and information management

• Analyze, interpret, and make more accessible the wealthof biological data

• Access new skills to achieve new goals• Form purposeful strategic and project-specific alliances• Create more flexible and innovative implementation

arrangements that cut across traditional Center and in-stitutional boundaries

• Provide financial incentives for innovation and rewardsuccess.

EpilogueEpilogueEpilogueEpilogueEpilogue

Prometheus changed the world forever when he unleashedthe forces of innovation and creativity. In considering theapplications of new developments in science, the challengeis to find ways to maximize the benefits, while also seekingto understand and minimize the risks.

The economic concentration of investment, science, andinfrastructure in industrial countries and the lack of accessto the resulting technologies are major impediments to thesuccessful applications of modern biotechnology to theneeds of global food security and to create wealth for thepresently poor people and countries. Creativity in findingsolutions to these policy and institutional impediments toinnovation are as important and challenging as new scien-tific discoveries, if the promises of Promethean science areto be realized.

Promethean Science: Agricultural Biotechnology, the Environment and the Poor (I.Serageldin/G. J. Persley) was published by CGIARSecretariat, World Bank, Washington, D.C. (May 2000). The full text is available at www.cgiar.org. The purpose of this brief isto stimulate discussion on these issues. 05/2000