Psychology:Memory

Encoding, Storage, Retrieval: Short-Term Memory: Duration: Up to 30secs. Capacity: 7+/-2digit span; can be increased with chunking. Encoding: Visually and Acoustically.

Bower and Springston (1970)

Aim: To test the effects of chunking.Method: 2 groups of ppts. Control group presented letters such as: C, I, B, F, D, P, H, etc. The experimental group was presented the same letters but in groups of 3, such as: FBI, PHD, CIA, etc. When arranged these letters make sense and so we automatically chunk Results: The experimental group recalled more letters than the control group.Conclusion: The researchers conclude that chunking increases the capacity of STM. These groups of three letters refer to things we already know, and so we store them in our LTM.

Long-Term Memory:Duration: Potentially unlimited.Capacity: Potentially unlimited.Encoding: Visually, Acoustically and Semantically.Murdock (1962)

Aim: To investigate free recall and its effect on a persons memory.Method: Ppts were given words to remember and he asked them to recall as many as possible, in any order.Results: The first words to be recalled were those the ppts heard last; the recency effect, evidence that the last words are stored in the STM. The other words recalled were then heard first; the primacy effect, stored in the LTM. Conclusion: When we are asked to recall a list of words we mainly remember the first and last words. This is because the first words have been stored in the LTM while the last words are still in the STM.

Explanations of Memory

Multi-Store Model:Evidence:Murdock (1962) - suggests there are multiple stores where information such as words are stored. Atkinson and Shiffrin

Beardsley (1997) the hippocampus and the prefrontal lobe suggests that there are physical stores as well.

Evaluation:+ Provides simple description of memory process.+ Atkinson and Shiffrin used a scientific approach to carry out research.+ There is research to support the MSM.- Criticised for its focus on memory of new facts, doesnt explain everyday experiences with memory.

Levels of Processing:Developed by Craig and Lockhart. Agreed with MSM except they said that the ability to remember information is based on how we process it. Deep processing processing at a deeper level, e.g. thinking about meaning.Shallow processing- processing a shallow level, e.g. rhyming words.Craik and Tulving (1975)

Aim: To see if the level at which information is processed has an effect on a persons memory.Method: Told ppts their study was to test speed of reaction and perception. They were presented a word, very quickly, then a question about the world. There were 3 different questions to test the levels of processing concept: structural level; capital letters, phonetic level; does the word rhyme with ____, semantic level; does the word fit in this sentence? They were then asked to recall all of the words. Results: Structural level - 18% words recognised.Phonetic level - 50%. Semantic - 80%. Conclusion: More words were recalled on a semantic level showing that if information is processed at a deeper level it is more likely to be remembered.

Evaluation:+ Great deal of support.+ Used a scientific approach to carry out research. - Majority of research conducted was laboratory based, so it could be artificial.- Doesnt explain why deeper processing improves memory.- Deeper processing takes longer than shallow processing, this might be the reason why it improves memory.

Reconstructive Memory:Schema - a pocket of associated information. Bartlett (1932)

Aim: To test the idea that people use existing knowledge to understand new information.Method: Ppts were given The War of the Ghosts to read. Once they had read it they were asked to recall everything they could about the story (over varying periods of time, serial reproduction).Results: The majority of people added their own meaning to the story and reconstructed their memories to try to make sense of the story. He noticed that they:- Missed out some details and added new ones.- Added emphasis to some parts.- Changed the order of incidents.Conclusion: We use schemas to help us fill in gaps in our memory.

Evaluation:- Very dated and other theories have taken a more scientific approach.- The research is artificial and not an everyday experience of memory, when researchers have asked people to recall real experiences their recollections were very similar.

Explanations of Forgetting

Interference Theory:Retroactive interference - new information interferes with the ability to remember old. Proactive interference - old information interferes with the ability to learn new. Evaluation:Underwood and Postman (1960)

Aim: To test the retroactive theory in an experimental set up. Method: Ppts asked to learn a list of paired words, e.g. cat-tree, book-tractor. Half of the ppts had to learn a second list e.g. cat-bananas, book-pony. The first word stayed the same whilst the second word was different. Both groups were then asked to recall the words in the first list.Results: Ppts in the control group were more accurate than the ppts which had to learn two lists.Conclusion: Learning items in the second list interfered with the ppts ability to recall the first list, showing retroactive interference.

+ May explain why people find it different to learn two similar languages.- Majority of research conducted was laboratory based and involved artificial tasks and not an everyday experience of memory, therefore results cannot be generalised to other people, places and settings.

Amnesia:Retrograde - cannot remember events what occurred before the development of amnesia. Anterograde - a loss of memory of what happens after the development of amnesia.

Case Study of HM- H.M was epileptic, at 27 he underwent surgery to try and cure his epilepcy.- The hippocampus was removed from both sides of his brain causing anterograde amnesia.- His memory of events prior to surgery were near normal but he couldnt remember anything after the surgery e.g. he didnt recognise people. - His short term memory was working and so could recall facts, but couldnt transfer information into his LTM.

Eyewitness Testimony

Face Recognition:Bruce and Young(1998)Developed a model that suggest how facial perception and our memory of faces work.

Reliable?+ The model shows that we can look up the face and remember it how we saw it before.- Our correct perception of things can be influenced by our own experiences.- The face is not just a collection of features as it carries information about other things such as age and emotion. - Photofit is used to put a collection of features onto a face, however Bruce and Young say that it is the interaction between the features that is important and so does not work effectively.

Leading Questions:The idea that the recall of an event can change by the way in which the question is asked. Loftus and Palmer (1974)

Aim: To test the effect of leading questions on a persons recall of an event.Method: Ppts were split into 3 groups; one being a control. They all watched a film of a traffic accident. After watching the film they were asked a number of questions about the film, all groups got asked the same questions except for obe question about the speed of the cars when the accident happened. The IV in this case was the verb used in the question; either being hit or smashed. The question was How fast were the cars going when they hit/smashed the other car? The control group were not asked.Results: The results show that ppts with the verb smashed reported seeing the car going faster.One week later the ppts answered another series of questions. One key question this time was whether there was any broken glass (there wasnt). The control group was asked also and the results were as follows:

Conclusion: Peoples memory of an event can be influenced by the questions they are asked about it. Some of the control group still reported glass as the question led them to believe there was glass there.

Memory Improvement

Organisation:Bousfield (1963)

Aim: To see if people organise information in the LTM.Method: Ppts were shown 60 randomly presented words and then asked them to recall the words in any order they wanted; free recall. Words came from 4 categories: vegetables, animals, professions and names. Results: The order ppts recalled the words were in clusters from these categories. Conclusion: Concluded that people spontaneously organised by meaning.

Context:Godden and Baddeley (1975)

Aim: To see if context improves a persons memory.Method: Deep-sea divers were asked to memorise a list of words. There were 2 groups; one learnt the words on a beach and the others learnt them 5metres under water. These 2 groups were then split into 2 sub-groups (into halves). One half was asked to stay put while the other went to the opposite place, e.g. if they learnt on the beach they would recall underwater and vice versa. This was a free recall test and a field experiment.Results: Those who recalled in the same environment as that in which they had learned the words recalled 40% more than those recalling in a different environment. Conclusion: The recall of information is improved if it occurs in the same context it was learnt.

Elaboration:We process the information deeply and so elaboration improves our ability to recall.

Psychology:Research Methods

Methods of Investigation1:Aims and Hypothesis:Aim - a general statement of why the study is being carried out.

A hypothesis is:- A clear statement- A prediction- Testable- Created at the beginning of the research process.Directional - states there will be a difference in results and predicts this difference. E.g. females will score higher than males in the test.Non-Directional - states that there will be a difference in results. E.g. There will be a difference in score between males and females on the test.Null Hypothesis - written alongside the main hypothesis and predicts that any differences or similarities in results are due to chance alone; as we can never rule out this as a possibility.

Variables:Independent Variable - the variable which researchers manipulate and is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable.Dependent Variable - the variable that is affected by the change in the independent variable. Operationalizing the variables - knowing how to measure the variables such as in mph.

Quantitative Research Methods:MethodDescription/UseAdvantagesDisadvantages

Laboratory ExperimentThe psychologists decide the location, time, participants and can use a standardised procedure. All variables are controlled and can manipulate the IV.+ High level of control.+ Easy to replicate.+ Quantitative data which is easy to analyse.- Setting can intimidate ppts.- Demand characteristics can occur.- Issues of ecological validity.

Field ExperimentDone in a public place but the IV is still manipulated.+ More likely to produce natural behaviour.- Less chance of demand characteristics.- Deception.- Cant get informed consent.

Naturalistic Experiment The independent variable occurs naturally meaning the researcher does not control it they just notice it. + Allows researchers to investigate behaviours that may be unethical to otherwise study or create.+ Low chance of demand characteristics.- IV is not controlled and so less control from researchers point of view.

Research Design:DesignDescriptionAdvantagesDisadvantages

Independent GroupsTesting separate groups of ppts, each group tested in a different condition.+ Avoids order effects.- More people needed compared to repeated measures.- Differences between ppts may affect results.

Repeated MeasuresTesting the same group of ppts in different conditions. + Avoids difference in ppts.+ Fewer people needed.- Order effects are likely to occur.

Matched PairsTesting separate groups of ppts but each member in one group has a pair in the other matched based on things such as age, sex or social background.+ Reduces ppts variables.+ Avoids order effects.- Time consuming finding pairs.- Almost impossible to match people exactly.

Sampling:SampleDescriptionAdvantagesDisadvantages

Random SampleEvery member of target population has equal chance of being selected. E.g. names in a hat.+ Provides unbiased, representative sample of the target population.- Can be time consuming and is often impossible when there is a very large target population.

Opportunity SampleUsing anyone in the target population who is available at the time. E.g. the first people in the lunch hall.+ Quick.+ Cheap.- May not be representative of target population in general.

Systematic SampleSelecting ppts at fixed intervals. E.g. selecting every 10th person on a register.+ Fairly quick.+ Fairly cheap.+ Can eliminate biased.- Need to ensure the list does not contain a hidden order.

Stratified SampleA proportional sample. The categories which you split ppts into have an equal number in the sample. E.g. if you wanted to test womens attitudes towards childcare and if it differs with job type you might take 30 self-employed and 30 unemployed. + Very representative sample. - Time consuming.- Expensive.

2:Qualitative Research Methods:MethodDescription/UseAdvantagesDisadvantages

InterviewResearcher asks questions face to face. + Can obtain detailed information.+ Avoids having to simplify complex issues.+ Greater attention to individuals point of view.- May feel need to give desirable answers.- Difficult to analyse if unstructured. - Can be time consuming and expensive.

QuestionnaireA set of questions that are designed to investigate a specific topic.+ Quick and easy.+ Large sample can be used.+ People who are geographically distant can be studied.- Sample is biased; relies on people returning it. - Respondents may not give accurate answers, possibly because of misunderstanding or boredom.

Naturalistic Observation Researcher watches peoples behaviour and measures specific aspects as precise as possible. + More natural behaviour. + Good way to observe people in natural environment.- Unable to give consent.

Case StudyAn in depth description/observation & analysis of one person or situation. + Rich, detailed data.+ Can study a topic which may be unethical to study via an experiment. + Permits study over time.- Researcher can be bias.- Results cant be generalised.- No control over extraneous variables.

Confounding Variables

Standardised Procedure:To ensure that all participants are tested in the same way the researcher must make sure that:- The investigation is in the same place, with the same equipment and materials placed in the same way.- The investigation is under the same conditions, including level of lighting, noise and heat. - The investigation is done at roughly the same time, as many people behave differently if tested at 9am rather than 5pm.

Controlling Variables:If variables are not controlled, they can make the results invalid. A confounding variable is something that can affect the results. In order to control variables, all participants must undergo the same experience.

Standardised Instructions:Participants must be given the same instructions in the same way. It is often better to write down instructions rather than to read them out loud as this eliminates bias in terms of accent and reading speed. Instructions must be clear, simple and unambiguous.

Data1:Descriptive Statistics:Allows data to be described an presented, providing a summary of data gathered in the form of tables, graphs, averages, etc.

Measures of Central Tendency:Mean - all scores in a group are added together and divided by the total number of scores.Median - the central value of a set of scores after they have been put in chronological order.Mode - the most commonly occurring value in a set of scores.

Measures of Dispersion:How spread out the scores are.Range - the difference between the highest and lowest score.Percentages - divide the score by the total maximum score and multiply by 100.Graphical Representations - used to display data so it is easy to read.

2:Correlational Studies: Used to access the strength of the relationship between variables. Often used when it is inappropriate or unethical to use an experiment.

Ethical Considerations

Ethics:Confidentiality - ppts information must not be shared unless agreed to by the ppt. Withdrawal - the ppts have the right to quit the experiment at any point.Distress - researchers must ensure that ppts are not caused any physical or mental harm.Deception - intentionally misleading/misinforming ppts with regards to the aim of the study.Informed Consent - ppts must be given information about the experiment to decide whether to take part or not.Debriefing - ppts are given enough information as possible after the experiment and given the option to discuss the experiment to ensure they leave in the same emotional and physical state as before.

Psychology:Non-Verbal Communication

What Is Non-Verbal Communication?

Definitions:Non-verbal communication - a process of communication in which we send and receive messages without using words.Verbal communication - a process of communication in which we send and receive messages using words.Paralinguistic - the stress you place on certain words to change their meaning.

Functions of Non-Verbal Communication

Functions:Argyle (1988) concluded that there are 5 functions of non-verbal communication:Presentation of ones personality.To express emotions.To accompany speech in managing the cues of interaction between speakers and listeners.Rituals (greetings).To express interpersonal attitudes.

Interaction between VC and NVC to Regulate Conversation:Repeating - our gestures may strengthen or repeat what we are saying.Regulating - assisting turn taking, extending or shortening conversations.Conflict - our non-verbal communication does not match what we are saying.Complementing - when our NVC complements what we are saying. Substituting - using NVC instead of saying something.

Eye Contact:Eye contact can indicate whether someone is interested. Pupil size can indicate emotion as it changes depending on your mood. Argyle created a list of function of eye contact:Reaction of the listener.Interest of the listener in the conversation.Make turn taking easier.To show emotion.

Facial Expressions

Universal:Ekman (1972) suggested there are 6 universal facial expressions:SadnessAngerDisgust FearSurpriseHappinessSAD FiSH with no eyes!

Composites:Sackheim (1978)

Aim: To test whether different sides of peoples faces display similar levels of emotion.Method: Ppts were given images of human faces posing 6 distinct emotions, plus a neutral expression, and their mirror reversals were split down the middle and left side and right side composites were created.Results: Subjects judged left side composites as expressing emotions more intensely than right side composites.Conclusion: The findings indicate hemispheric asymmetry in the control over emotional expression of the face. The left side displays emotion more intensely than the right.

Body Language

Posture:Posture TypeDescriptionWhat Does It Tell Us?

Postural EchoPeople copy each others posture; often between friends.Conveys message of I am similar to you.

Open PostureWhen you are not touching similar body parts and closing yourself in with body parts.Positive person, persuasive, welcoming.

Closed PostureWhen you are touching similar body parts and closing yourself in with your body parts.Shy, not positive, wants to be left alone.

Gestures:A form of NVC made with movement of part of the body. Often combined with speech for emphasis.Body Gestures:Humans often push their chest out and tilt their heads up to express superiority.Facial Gestures:E.g. eye rolling, nodding, head shaking, etc.Hand Gestures:E.g. a thumbs up, peace sign, etc.

Argyle, Alkema and Gilmour (1971)

Aim: To investigate communication of friendly and hostile attitudes by verbal and non-verbal signals.Method: Three verbal statements; friendly, hostile and neutral in content. These were delivered to ppts in one of three non-verbal styles:- Friendly; soft tone, open posture, smiling.- Hostile; harsh tone, closed posture, frowning.- Neutral; neither friendly nor hostile cues.Ppts then had to rate how hostile or friendly they perceived the messages.Results: The non-verbal message greatly outweighed the verbal one.Conclusion: NVC is 12.5 times more powerful than verbal communication in terms of communicating and identifying friendliness and hostility.

Personal Space

Distances:Personal space - an emotionally charged bubble surrounding a person into which we dislike people entering.Hall (1966) defined 4 distances/zones of personal space each which we associate with different social interaction. ZoneSize of DistanceSocial Uses

Intimate Distance0 - 0.5mIntimate relationships.

Personal Distance0.5 - 1.5mClose friends.

Social Distance1.5 - 4.0mFormal situations.

Public Distance4m+Distance between one person and a group.

Research:There are 3 main ways to investigate personal space:> Simulation technique; a situation of personal space is simulated through the use of dolls. The ppt is asked to move the doll to a location where they would feel comfortable.+ Avoids emotional strain. - May not place accurately as they arent in the situation themselves.> Questionnaire; ppts complete a series of questions asking them about their feelings towards a variety of situations. + Anonymous, so more likely to be honest.- Closed questions only provide a limited number of answers which the person may not otherwise choose.> Field experiments; a confederate invade the personal space of ppts without their knowledge and observe their responses and sometimes give questionnaires afterwards to assess how the person reacted. + Response in a real setting.- Can cause distress to ppts.

Felipe and Sommer (1966)

Aim: To investigate effects of invasion of personal space.Method: PART 1; In the grounds of a mental institution, when a man sat alone on a bench a confederate would come and sit next to him 15cm apart. If the ppt moved along the bench so did the confederate keeping the 15cm distance. Observers took note of how long it took for ppts to leave. This was compared to a control group who were left to sit on the bench alone. PART 2; In a library, people sitting by themselves were approached by a confederate who sat in the chair next to them, moving the chair closer to the ppt. The time taken for the ppt to leave was recorded and compared with a control group. Observations were also made of their body language and movement of possessions.Results: PART 1; After 1 minute 20% of the group which had been invaded left the bench compared to 0% of the control group. 50% of the invaded group left after 9mins compared to only 8% of the control group. PART 2;After 30mins 70% of the invaded group left compared to 13% of the control group. Many ppts changed the angle they were sitting at, pulled in their elbows and used their belonging as barriers. Also, they tended to lean away from the confederate.Conclusion: Invading personal space makes people feel uncomfortable, as a result of this they are more likely to walk away or create barriers.

Cultural Differences:Hall (1966) conducted cross-cultural research into personal space. Cultures with high levels of sensory contact such as Spain and Greece had smaller personal space distances than countries with low level of sensory contact such as England and America.

Location:Baxter (1970) found that personal space not only differs with culture but location too. He found that African-Americans interacted more closely in indoor settings than outdoor ones whilst Mexicans did the opposite.

Gender Differences:Fisher and Byrne (1975) investigated differences in personal space between males and females. They arranged a confederate to sit either next to or opposite the ppt. After a few minutes the confederate would leave and another would approach the ppt asking for the ppts impression and opinions on the invasion. They found that males disliked people sitting opposite them whereas females disliked people sitting next to them. They also found that males were more likely to place belongings in front of them and females were more likely to place theirs to the side; showing that we try to create barriers to protect our personal space.

Status Differences:The higher a persons status the more personal space commanded by them.