COACHING YOUNG ATHLETES

Rhodri S. Lloyd, PhD, CSCS*D, ASCC

Sylvia Moeskops, MSc, CSCS

Brendan Cropley, PhD, FBASES

Avery D. Faigenbaum, EdD, CSCS, FACSM, FNSCA

ABSTRACT

Coach John Wooden famously said that a “good coach can change a game, but a great coach

can change a life”. Coaches require a multitude of skills and attributes to effectively coach in

accordance with the needs, goals and aspirations of young athletes. At a first glance, strength

and conditioning coaches need to plan, communicate, observe and ultimately teach young

athletes how to exercise in order to enhance athleticism and reduce injury risk, based on an

understanding of training principles and paediatric exercise science. However, while this is a

challenge in itself, the role of the strength and conditioning coach goes beyond merely

prescribing sets and reps for a given exercise. In addition, the most effective coaches

genuinely care about the welfare and well-being of each individual, and are emotionally

invested in the long-term development of each child. This chapter will document the

theoretical underpinnings of successful coaching principles while also providing a range of

practical strategies that can be used when coaching young athletes.

INTRODUCTION

For strength and conditioning coaches working with young athletes, the goal is clear; to foster

a supportive learning environment that provides an appropriate balance between challenge

and fun, which helps young athletes develop robust levels of athleticism, reduce injury risk,

and enhance health and well-being. It is likely that by achieving this goal, coaches will be

able to support young athletes to participate and perform more safely and more effectively in

sports. In addition, coaches will be able to aid those individuals in acquiring the knowledge,

confidence, skills and physical attributes that facilitate a lifetime commitment to physical

activity. Young athletes are a unique population, with developmental processes during

childhood and adolescence potentially interacting with training-induced adaptations, recovery

rates and healing processes in response to injury, and the development of psychosocial

attributes. While fundamental underpinnings in paediatric exercise science and a sound grasp

of training methodologies are paramount to appropriately plan and deliver training sessions,

the “glue” that holds a training programme together is the ability to coach.

Arguably, the most effective practitioners will be those who seamlessly blend scientific

knowledge with social norms, personal values, experiential understanding, personal and

ethical knowledge and practical coaching skills to form a way of “knowing-in-action” (or

craft knowledge) (22). In doing so, coaches are better able to deliver the most appropriate

training sessions to young athletes that elicit a positive developmental experience. While

traditionally, “practitioners” and “scientists” have been seen as separate (and sometimes

opposing) entities, advancements in the field of paediatric strength and conditioning have

seen a growing number of highly-skilled coaches with advanced levels of understanding of

both training methodologies and developmental physiology. Irrespective of where a

practitioner positions themselves on the practitioner-scientist continuum, the principle

remains the same; developing and delivering well-rounded, holistic programmes that keep the

needs, goals and aspirations of the young athlete at the centre (7).

EFFECTIVE COACHING STRATEGIES

Due to inter-individual differences, all coaches will possess certain philosophies and unique

idiosyncrasies that influence their coaching effectiveness when they interact with athletes

within a given environmental context. For the purposes of this chapter, coaching

effectiveness is considered in light of previous literature (20), which defines it as “the

consistent application of integrated professional, interpersonal, and intrapersonal knowledge

to improve athletes’ competence, confidence, connection, and character in specific coaching

contexts” (p.316). Côte and Gilbert (20) proposed that this characterisation of differentiated

coaching effectiveness includes: coaching expertise (specific knowledge in particular

contexts that forms the foundation for expertise); effective coaches (those able to specifically

apply and align their expertise to particular athletes within a given learning environment to

optimise the athlete’s response); and expert coaches (coaches that demonstrate coaching

effectiveness over time).

The following sections will attempt to highlight key coaching principles for practitioners

within core phases of the coaching intervention process when working with young athletes.

Specifically, principles will be discussed in accordance with: 1) preparation, ii) delivery, iii)

reflection and evaluation. While these will initially be aligned to the arrangement of a

training session, the principles can be refined and replicated over the course of longer

durations of programming (e.g. macrocycles, mesocycles, microcycles).

PREPARATION

Both the knowledge and application of the planning process have been identified as an

integral component of strength and conditioning coaching expertise (27). In order to ensure

that training is being designed to optimise the desired adaptation, it is imperative that

practitioners plan sessions in advance. This is because training is multifactorial, and requires

careful planning to target known principles of biomechanics, physiology, psychology and

sociology (25). Additionally, as is the case with younger athletes, practitioners need to be

aware of the fundamentals of paediatric exercise science (e.g. growth and maturation), which

may impact factors including: movement competency, training responsiveness, rates of

recovery and a range of psychosocial characteristics (e.g. confidence, perceived competence,

motivation) (55). Given that there are a multitude of factors that could influence programme

design (e.g. training history, sex of the individual, growth and maturation, fitness, fatigue,

well-being, scheduling, goal setting, psychosocial maturity), it is imperative that practitioners

retain perspective and clarity amongst all of the potential variables, and continue to value the

knowledge they accrue from their experience and coaching intuition. The old adage of

“coaching what you see in front of you” is vitally important, and thus a one-size-fits-all

approach to practice is not appropriate. Indeed, gathered data on injury history, stage of

maturation, and psychosocial maturity are all important ingredients to consider, but

ultimately once the type of adaptation that is being sought has been identified, decision-

making on programme content will then be dependent on what the athlete is capable of doing.

The planning process should also be aligned with the intended goals (both short-term and

long-term) of the individual (14), their purpose (i.e. what continues to motivate them), and

the athlete’s sport, academic and social scheduling (7, 54). For example, for a 9-year old

child entering a sporting system (e.g. tennis academy), emphasis may be prioritised on using

general physical preparation to develop overall athleticism, while enhancing technical skills,

and exposing the child to a broad range of sports, with less importance placed on competitive

results. In this instance, the programme would be arranged to realise physical adaptation and

enjoyment, as opposed to attempting to seek any form of meaningful “peaking” for particular

fixtures. This approach would be consistent with existing guidelines for long-term athletic

development (54) and should be communicated effectively to technical coaches and parents

to optimise buy-in and autonomy. As players transition through the age grades, eventually

specialising in a sport and approach senior level team representation, naturally the emphasis

of the programme will change to prioritising sporting performance and winning. Irrespective

of the individual needs, goals and aspirations of a given athlete, it is evident that structured

and well-planned training leads to superior results than unstructured training, or no training at

all (54, 62).

Due to the complexities of youth development (e.g. differentiating between individuals at

different stages of maturation or technical ability), training prescription should be

individualised wherever possible. For coaches working with a single athlete, individualised

programming will naturally occur at all levels (e.g. annual plans to individual sessions).

However, for coaches that are responsible for the programming of a large number of young

athletes (e.g. a youth soccer academy or a high school setting), it is more challenging. The

latter scenario does not necessitate individual annual plans for all athletes; instead athletes

could be grouped into 3-4 annual plans that are based around different desired adaptations

(e.g. strength focus, speed focus, endurance focus) and can be individualised further via

exercise selection and technical competency. Programming can still be differentiated within

these ‘generic’ annual plans at more intricate levels of programming, for example

manipulating typical prescription variables within a given session (e.g. volume, intensity,

rest, range of motion). Practitioners should also be ready and willing for young athletes to

transition (i.e. regressions or progressions) across different programmes, dependent on

whether their required adaptation(s) changes over the course of a season. Maintaining an

open dialogue with young athletes (and their parents and technical coaches) about their

programme, rate of development, and future goals is important and the style of

communication should be appropriate for the developmental stage of the athlete(s).

Finally, when preparing training for young athletes, input should be sought from other key

stakeholders within the programme (e.g. technical coaches, medical staff, physiotherapists,

psychologists) and the athletes themselves (7). Crucially, the notion of a truly effective

multidisciplinary team needs to be built on foundations of cooperation and collaboration as

opposed to competition and conflict (65). Similarly, the importance of involving and

interacting appropriately with parents is critical as they are a consistent fabric of a young

athlete’s development (41). Therefore, finding effective communication strategies

(communication platform, frequency of communication, progress report style differentiation)

for parents, stakeholders and the young athlete is imperative. This sentiment underlines the

importance of placing the young athlete at the centre of a holistic, well-rounded development

programme.

DELIVERY

Once deliberations of all the contributing sources of information have been considered (e.g.

desired adaptation, workload monitoring, technical competency, growth and maturation, and

other lifestyle factors such as nutrition, sleep behaviours) and the training session(s) have

been designed, the focus should then turn to the pedagogical skills that will optimize the

effectiveness of the programme. There are a multitude of skills and techniques that can be

used to: i) create a motivational climate within the training environment that facilitates and

enhances athlete learning; ii) promote a sense of exploration and fun; iii) ensure athletes are

self-motivated to apply themselves in training; and iv) ultimately inspire athletes to return the

following session. For the purposes of this chapter, these delivery techniques will be aligned

to the periods before, during and after the training session.

Before the session

Coaches should ensure that they have enough time in advance of the session in order to be

suitably prepared prior to the athletes arriving. Attention should be given to the safety and

suitability of the facility and equipment, and where possible, the training facility should be

arranged to encourage a seamless flow throughout the training session. Additionally, it is

good practice for training sessions to be outlined in a form that is visible to the young

athletes, such as white boards, printed session sheets, or a tablet screen. Invariably, coaches

will need to explain the training session to the athletes to ensure athlete understanding

(especially in the early stages of a programme); however, over time young athletes should be

able to recognise and perform any of the exercises that are programmed from the exercise

library of the strength and conditioning coach. This process of developing ownership and

self-sufficiency in young athletes is an important part of the athlete educational process. From

a practical standpoint, it also alleviates some time and organisational pressures on the

coaching staff.

Greeting the athletes by the door

Assuming that the facility and equipment are ready, coaches should ideally greet the athletes

by their name at the door and observe the manner in which the young athletes enter the

training facility. Research, albeit within a classroom setting, has shown that greeting students

(~11-12 years of age) by the entrance to the learning environment significantly improved

academic engagement and reduced disruptive behaviour (19). Similar case report findings

have been reported in middle school aged children with behavioural problems (2), and have

been shown to reduce latency to task engagement in similarly aged school children (1). While

research specifically examining the effectiveness of greeting young athletes by the entrance

of the training facility is not available, the existing education-based literature (in addition to

anecdotal experience) indicates that the technique may be useful in positively interacting with

athletes to help set expectations, retain control, and begin dialogue with them as soon as

possible. This approach is closely aligned to the concept of building closeness within the

coach-athlete relationship, which can aid the development of mutual trust and appreciation

(46). Additionally, as practitioners form relationships and get to know athletes, observing the

manner in which they approach the training facility may actually help inform them about the

athlete’s readiness to train. For example, a typically enthusiastic and energetic young athlete

who appears disinterested and laboured as they approach the training facility may be

inadvertently showing signs of accumulated fatigue or some form of non-training related

stress. While this does not provide objective data, observations of this nature by the coach

can start a conversation from which decisions could be made about the readiness of the

athlete to train or the potential need to modify training.

Building coach-athlete relationships

Irrespective of the characteristics of the young athlete, practitioners should aim to develop

and maintain meaningful and authentic relationships with their athletes that are based on:

Practitioners should value prescribing “less intense training” for young athletes that are

showing signs of accumulated fatigue, or who need to prioritise physical and

psychological recovery (30). Coaches should consider their initial observations of the

athlete (i.e. their coaches’ eye) in addition to any data obtained from “athlete readiness”

measures (18), and where necessary, adjust training accordingly.

reciprocated respect and trust, a shared passion to see the young athlete experience success

(e.g. reaching certain performance levels, gaining selection, or winning titles), and the goal of

maximising personal growth (e.g. confidence, responsibility, leadership) (45, 66). Within the

literature, this would resemble the notion of developing effective coach-athlete relationships,

whereby a coach’s and an athlete’s cognitions, feelings, and behaviours are mutually and

causally interrelated (47). To that end, the athlete and coach are deemed to need each another

in order to achieve their own measures of success and fulfilment; with coaching perceived as

a dynamic social activity that engages both coach and athlete (23, 24).

Building, and maintaining positive coach-athlete relationships are important given that

coaching environments are dynamic and complex in nature, requiring practitioners to

identify, analyse and control variables that affect the performance of athletes in often highly

reactive and sometimes chaotic situations (10). This is especially true in light of the more

inconsistent behavioural characteristics typically shown by younger athletes. Consequently,

practitioners working with younger populations need to possess a range of interpersonal

qualities such as the ability to interact, communicate, reflect, empathise and comprehend

young athletes that may be experiencing physical, psychological or social changes or

pressures as a result of growth and maturation. For example, strength and conditioning

coaches will need to adapt their coaching in order to meet the unique needs of a group of

immature 7-year old inexperienced gymnasts in an afterschool setting, compared to a mixed

group of 13-year-old boys and girls within a physical education class, or a group of

experienced and well-trained 17-year-old academy soccer players. In any of these scenarios,

fostering authentic coach-athlete relationships is an integral component of establishing and

maintaining effective training environments.

It has previously been documented how athletes appreciate coaches that are “more than just a

coach”, and that also serve as teachers, mentors and friends (6). The process of developing

and maintaining effective coach-athlete relationships requires coaches to invest time to

engage with the athletes outside of purely instructing on exercise prescription (e.g. sets, reps,

loads), utilising more of the humanistic, personable coaching skills to get to know the

younger athlete. Rhind and Jowett (66) proposed a COMPASS model of relationship

maintenance, which incorporated seven strategies commonly used by coaches. Table 5.1

provides an overview of these strategies, descriptions of the themes that emanated from

within the research, and examples of how they can be applied to a strength and conditioning

scenario with young athletes.

[INSERT TABLE 5.1 HERE]

While coaches may instinctively adopt some of the strategies noted in the COMPASS model,

these interpersonal skills are vitally important for strength and conditioning coaches working

with young athletes. Developing these dyadic relationships between coaches and young

athletes builds rapport and trust, attributes that are important to have for the authenticity of

coach-athlete interactions throughout the training programme. For example, a coach taking a

few minutes at the start of the training session to ask a young athlete how their day has been,

how they are getting on at school, or what activities they did at the weekend, shows the

young athlete that the coach has an interest in them as a person, not just an athlete.

Alternatively, coaches are more likely to trust feedback from athletes as part of a daily

monitoring tool (e.g. rating-of-perceived exertion or muscle soreness scores) if a trusting,

mutually respectful coach-athlete relationship has previously been established. While

informal conversations can intentionally be conducted at the start of the session, in an open

and transparent training environment dialogue will often take place naturally throughout a

session.

“Grabbing their attention” : maximising the engagement of young athletes

It is important that young athletes are engaged and in the right frame of mind at the start of

the session in order to ensure that training takes place in a safe, orderly and purposeful

manner. It is always easier to outline goals and set expectations at the start of the session as

opposed to attempting to restore order later on when young athletes have potentially gone off

task. While common goals or expectations can be delivered at a group level, practitioners

would also be well-placed to agree specific session goals for individuals. Preferably these

individualised goals would be task-involved focussing on skill development, effort and self-

improvement, as opposed to ego-involved goals that embody social comparisons and simply

outperforming others (28, 39, 48, 70). Ideally, these goals would be documented within a

printed copy of the athlete’s training session for that day so that the goals remain in view, or

at the very least verbally agreed between coach and athlete. Written goals are better than

verbal goals as verbal goals tend to get forgotten, or changed depending on the outcome of

the situation. The key is not simply that goals are written down, but rather that goals are

available and remain salient to each individual. In addition, written goals provide an accurate

record of goal setting and goal achievement, which can enhance self-efficacy through the

clear presentation of performance accomplishments (75).

The first few minutes of the session can set the stage for desired attitudes and behaviours

for the entire session, so coaches should be ready and prepared to set standards from the

outset.

Within educational research, student engagement has commonly been viewed as a primary

mediator of learning and academic success (8). Engaged learners in effect ‘get connected’

with the lesson (i.e. the training session) and consequently will contribute meaningfully and

with purpose to the set tasks (i.e. exercises) (3). Prior to the main session beginning, another

tool that practitioners can use are ‘engagement tasks’. Engagement tasks are brief activities

(<5 minutes), that require minimal instruction and can provide a degree of physical and

mental challenge and/or opportunities for movement creativity and exploration. For example,

a small obstacle course can allow young athletes an opportunity to explore movement, or

some form of balancing or coordination challenge (Figure 5.1) can help athletes mentally and

physically ‘switch on’. The intended outcome of the engagement task is that after a few

minutes, the young athletes are then ready to begin the main session and receive any

instruction. Coaches can also group athletes according to ability levels and differentiate the

engagement tasks in order to ensure that athletes are being challenged to an appropriate level.

If a task-involved, mastery climate (see Chapter 17) is fostered within the group, success in a

brief engagement task will hopefully acutely increase confidence and motivation for the

remainder of the session.

[INSERT FIGURE 5.1 HERE]

Figure 5.1 Coordination challenge as an engagement task

Task-involved, mastery climates encourage individuals not to distinguish success based on

ability or compare performances against peers, but rather attribute success to effort and

judge performance in reference to their previous personal accomplishments (67).

During the session

Effective communication

When coaching young athletes, practitioners will need to use a range of communication

strategies to ensure understanding and develop motivation in the young athlete, promote two-

way dialogue, and to keep athletes on task (4). The processes of communication can assist or

hinder learning (5), as well as the motivation to engage and strive for goal achievement (57),

especially in youth. Communication can be verbal or nonverbal and, as is the case in any

environment, poor communication can lead to a number of undesirable outcomes (61).

Verbal communication involves speaking and listening, and given that words provoke

specific feelings and emotions and distinct functions in children (4), coaches should be

mindful of what is said to young athletes and the tone in which that message is delivered (5).

When communicating, dialogue should be clear, concise, accurate and polite and messages

should be appropriate for the athlete’s stage of development (e.g. young, immature children

versus older, mature adolescents). Additionally, wherever possible communication should be

positively framed for the target audience. Non-verbal communication often involves body

language and gestures that express feelings and attitudes without verbally speaking (4). Facial

expressions, eye contact, and hand gesturing are some of the nonverbal communication

techniques that help to convey a message. Education-based literature indicates that nonverbal

communication helps to provide clarity to the delivery of instructions or simple messages, as

it functions to gain and retain the attention of students (16).

Varying the tone, volume, rate and pitch of voice projection is also an important pedagogical

skill for coaches to use when coaching young athletes. Tone refers to the emotional content

carried by the voice; volume reflects how loudly or quietly someone speaks; rate indicates the

pace of speaking; while pitch reflects the range of low to high “notes” of voice projection.

Effective coaches will invariably adjust these characteristics of speech based on the athlete(s)

they are working with and the environment in which they are coaching. For example, a coach

may want to speak empathetically, slowly and quietly when conversing with a young rugby

player who turns up for a strength and conditioning session having just found out they were

not selected for the starting XI; whereas, they may need to speak in a louder, faster and more

authoritative manner, when speaking to a large group of players in between sets of field-

based conditioning drills. Crucially, coaches should remember to vary their tone, volume, rate

and pitch both within-session and between-sessions, as monotony of speech delivery can be

tiring (4) and can lead to youth becoming disengaged.

Perhaps one of the most important forms of nonverbal communication is eye contact, which

is gaze directed at another’s eyes; with mutual eye contact transpiring when two people

simultaneously make eye contact (9). Research has shown that the amount of gaze when

conversing changes with age; increasing from 4-6 to 6-9 years, decreasing around 10-12

years, before again increasing towards and during adulthood (53). The “dip” in the amount of

gaze used in conversation around the age of 10-12 years is likely due to an increased self-

awareness and self-consciousness experienced by youth during that stage of development (9,

53). Coaches should be mindful that young athletes will have differing degrees of comfort

with gaze, and should interact in a manner that makes the athletes feel most comfortable.

One technique that can be used by practitioners, which helps with gaze but can also assist in

altering the tone and feel of communication is levelling. This technique involves

manipulating the height from which a message is conveyed to the athletes. For example, if

required to instruct young athletes in an autocratic and controlled manner (e.g. accosting for

poor behaviour) then the coach, who is standing, could sit the athletes down so that the

message is delivered from above their eye-line. If the coach wants to conduct more of an

open, dyadic conversation (e.g. asking the athletes for feedback on a training session), then

the coach might be best placed to kneel so that the message is delivered at eyeline level with

the children. Finally, if the coach wishes to encourage the young athletes and make them feel

as though they have control in the conversation, then they may choose to kneel/be seated,

while the young athletes are standing, resulting in the coach’s message being delivered below

the athletes’ eye level. Much like varying tone or projection of voice, this fluid coaching

technique can be effective and useful for coaches to implement within their coaching

practice.

Humour

While humour can take many forms (e.g. wit, silliness, sarcasm, joke telling), it is generally

accepted that the act of humour involves verbal and nonverbal communication that elicits a

humour response (29) and positive affect (32). Research has examined the effects of teachers’

humour within the educational settings, with data indicating that the use of humour can result

in higher student knowledge, comprehension and exam performance (36). Within the

coaching literature, data indicate that the use of humour by coaches plays a role in athletes’

perceptions of their abilities, and influences the degree to which players like coaches (12).

While humour can facilitate a friendly and unintimidating learning environment that can

Quite often, “less is more” with respect to instruction and demonstration when it comes to

coaching young athletes. Children and adolescents have shorter attention spans and

typically do not respond well to being spoken to for long periods of time. Thus, it is

important to keep verbal communications brief and concise.

enhance student engagement and participation (58), it should be recognised that the art of

using humour within coaching practice requires some form of balancing act (68). Notably,

Ronglan and Aggerholm (68) indicated that humorous coaching involves the delicate

balancing between seriousness and fun, distance and closeness, and authenticity and

performance. For example, coaches are able to use humour to decrease the status difference

between themselves and athletes (i.e. increase closeness), or use it to increase their authority

and gain control (i.e. increase distance). This balancing can regulate power differences

between coaches and athletes, and enables coaches to be seen as both professionally and

socially competent (63). Coaches need to use appropriate and authentic humour with the right

group, at the right time; however, bringing an element of humour to coaching sessions can

help showcase the “human side” of coaches, foster positive coach-athlete relationships, and

ultimately increase the overall enjoyment of the training environment for young athletes.

Demonstrations

Demonstrations have been recognized as a useful tool for helping people learn novel skills. In

addition to providing instructional information, such as key coaching points, some young

athletes can benefit from observing a well-performed demonstration. While research is

somewhat lacking in objectively quantifying the effectiveness of instruction and

demonstration when teaching strength and conditioning related activities to young athletes, it

is generally assumed that coaches should provide some form of instruction alongside a

demonstration. The amount of instruction and demonstration required will likely be

dependent on the task being coached and the skill level of the athlete (42). Demonstrations

may be less important for very simple or very common movements (e.g. single leg balance or

basic gait pattern) as the demonstration would not necessarily provide any new information to

the athlete. However, demonstrations become vitally important when teaching new or more

complex movements (e.g. weightlifting progression or advanced plyometric exercise), as

these are likely to be novel movements to young athletes. Similarly, demonstrations could be

important to correct or illustrate key technical information to a young athlete who is

displaying aberrant movement technique. Coaches may also choose not to use a

demonstration for a particular exercise, but rather encourage young athletes to “explore”

movement (e.g. obstacle course as part of a warm-up). The element of incorporating

opportunities in sessions that require young athletes to be creative and explore movement is

an important component of youth-based training programmes. However, a caveat to this

would be that coaches can still subtly identify or revisit key components of particular

exercises to emphasise key technical aspects (e.g. correct landing mechanics).

Cueing

In addition to initial instruction and demonstrations, coaches are advised to make use of

cueing. Cueing is the use of verbal instruction to direct an athlete’s attentional focus to a

particular feature of movement, thereby influencing the process of motor learning (76, 80).

Within their practice, coaches can make use of internal cues, which encourages athletes to

focus on their body movements, or external cues, which directs attention on the environment

(77, 79). Internal cues will direct attention to the movement process, whereas external cues

will direct attention to the movement outcome. External cues have been shown to be more

effective in modulating jumping performance in adult populations (49); however, less

research has been conducted in paediatric populations and the interaction between physical

and cognitive development and the effectiveness of different types of cueing remains unclear.

Of the available literature, a recent study has shown that external cueing can influence drop

jump performance in young soccer players, with the nature of cue eliciting specific responses

in a range of kinetic variables (59). Specifically, contact cues reduced ground contact time,

height cues increased jump height, while quiet landing cues reduced outcomes associated

with injury.

As with all aspects of strength and conditioning and long-term athletic development, coaches

need to be flexible, willing and able to respond to the dynamic and individualised changes

associated with young athletes. To this end, it is important that coaches revisit their cueing

library, and where necessary, refine their cues to meet the unique needs and demands of the

individual athlete. Coaches may find certain cues to be very effective for some young athletes

and conversely, not at all for others. Furthermore, cues that were effective in the early stages

of learning movements or worked with young and immature athletes, may not continue to

work as those athletes develop. This philosophy is echoed to some degree within the

academic literature. For example, Winkelman and colleagues (77) stated that while external

cueing is preferred due to its ability to focus athletes’ attention on goal relevant movement

outcomes, the relative benefit of external cues over internal cues may reduce over time as

experience increases and motor patterns become more implicit.

Scaffolding

The level of instruction and assistance provided by coaches to young athletes will vary

according to the unique characteristics of the individual and design of the training session.

From a pedagogical perspective, the level of interaction in the initial stages of the learning

process (e.g. learning weightlifting techniques) is likely to be higher. This interaction will be

specific to the needs and preferences of the young athlete being coached, and could include,

for example: reinforcement, instruction, cueing, and exercise modifications (progressions or

regressions where necessary). Ultimately, the coach is required to prescribe the correct

learning opportunities (with the appropriate level of instruction) to assist the athlete in

solving the movement problem, thereby achieving the intended goal. This process is known

as scaffolding, which is used as a metaphor to describe how the learning process can be

supported by the interaction from a coach (44). Much like the construction or repair of a

building, scaffolding (i.e. the level of coach interaction) has often been viewed as a

temporary form of support that is gradually withdrawn once the athlete reaches a stage of

proficiency, a process referred to as ‘fading’ (72). However, given the fluctuating and

nonlinear nature of development and skill mastery in youth, the notion of fading out the

scaffolding (i.e. coach interaction) in its entirety does not hold true for coaching. For

example, strength and conditioning coaches may need to periodically “revisit the

fundamentals” to refine motor skill competence in young athletes as they experience

fluctuations in growth throughout adolescence.

Effective positioning and observation

Correct positioning during a coaching session can increase the ability for a coach to identify

good performance, technical failings, between-athlete interactions, and to help maintain a

safe and effective training environment. The way in which coaches position themselves

during a session will be dependent on the environment and the athletes within the session.

However, as a general rule, coaches should ensure that they position themselves whereby

they are able to see as much of the training facility, and consequently as many of the athletes,

at any given time. In instances where a coach needs to attend to an individual athlete (e.g. to

spot a lift, or to correct technique), they should be brief with their interaction and avoid

spending prolonged periods of time in positions that close them off to the rest of the athletes.

Coaches should typically avoid standing in the middle of a weights room or field, but

rather work around the perimeter of the space, interspersed with moments of individual

attention.

Effective positioning during the session will also help coaches identify moments of good

practice or poor behaviour. Either of these scenarios would be worthy of acting upon. For

example, coaches may want to highlight to the rest of a training group when an athlete shows

excellent movement technique during a change-of-direction cutting action, to reemphasise

good quality movement and standards of training. Similarly, observing the group from the

perimeter can enable a coach to identify poor behaviour and intervene either quietly by

approaching the unruly athlete(s), or projecting their voice to reinforce behavioural

expectations to the entire group. Anecdotal experience suggests that the former is typically

more effective than the latter option; however, certain instances may require the coach to

raise their voice for the purposes of health and safety.

Many sporting movements and those used in strength and conditioning environments (e.g.

sprinting, weightlifting, jumping) occur rapidly. The speed of these movements make

observing technique challenging. Nowadays, coaches have a myriad of technological tools at

their disposal that they can use to assist in coaching. For example, commercially available

mobile phones now enable coaches to record high definition ultra-slow-motion video footage

at 240 frames per second, which can be useful for identifying movement strengths and

weaknesses. However, due to the dynamic environment of strength and conditioning

environments, it is not always possible to use video analysis in situ, and coaches will

frequently need to observe technique and provide appropriate feedback purely from what they

see with their own eyes. This can also occur in instances where larger groups are training,

which again makes the integration of video analysis challenging. When solely using the

“coach’s eye”, a technique that can be used is reference observations; whereby coaches focus

on one area of the body (e.g. head position) for a given repetition or set, and attempt to

identify any limitations or movement deficiencies. If the coach is content with that region of

the body, they can then in turn focus on another region of the body (e.g. torso, hips, knee,

ankles). Ultimately, this process is aimed to help simplify what can often be complex

movements with a number of moving parts. With respect to developing a “coach’s eye” then

there is no substitute for practice, and over time experienced coaches can become very skilled

at identifying the most relevant (and sometimes very intricate) technical issues causing a

breakdown in execution.

Effective feedback

Feedback plays an important role in the learning experience of young athletes. Appropriate

feedback can positively enhance learners’ competence, consistency and confidence, and helps

to consolidate awareness of strengths and weaknesses in individuals which ultimately helps

them understand the gap between their actual and desired performance (40). While athletes

themselves will receive internal feedback (i.e. from proprioceptors and kinaesthesis), coaches

will typically be responsible for providing external feedback. The nature of the external

feedback will either be positive (e.g. praise following a good repetition of a simple drop

landing exercise) or negative (e.g. critical feedback following poor acceleration mechanics).

Additionally, the external feedback provided by coaches can either focus on the outcome (i.e.

result of the action) or the process (i.e. quality of the action). When providing feedback to

young athletes, it is preferable to respond with comments that are positive and constructive

and that are framed around the process of performance rather than outcome. This approach

should help develop a growth mindset and self-determined motivation, while enhancing

perceived competence, confidence and resilience; all of which are attributes that have been

earmarked as important aspects of promoting positive well-being in young athletes (54).

Feedback can also be instructional (e.g. how to perform a movement better) or motivational

(e.g. to enhance arousal and goal-striving behaviours) (26, 64). When providing feedback

coaches should ensure that detail is provided on both positive and negative outcomes. For

example, when coaching an exercise in a particular session (e.g. weightlifting movement), too

often feedback delivered on positive outcomes and/or processes generally lacks detail and is

more motivational (e.g. “well done” or “good”). Conversely, feedback on negative

outcomes/processes tend to be more instructional (e.g. “next time you need to …”), or

stimulate the usage of cues. If young athletes are to truly learn how to replicate the positive

outcomes and/or processes, then coaches need to help them understand what was good about

the movement and how it can be repeated.

In addition to the type of feedback, coaches should also consider the frequency at which

feedback is provided. Excessive feedback can lead to young athletes being confused and

unclear on what it is they should attempt to correct, while feedback that is too infrequent

could lead to a loss of motivation or reduced overall learning. Motor control literature has

shown that while greater feedback frequency is more effective for initially learning new

skills, when athletes become more experienced and develop a greater implicit “feel” for the

movement, self-recognition and self-correction of errors can be more effective (69, 81). Thus,

it could be surmised that high feedback frequency improves initial performance, but reduced

feedback frequency is better for ongoing retention; however, this warrants further

investigation specifically in young athletes.

Effective questioning

Coaches can use questioning either before, during, or at the end of the session to stimulate

young athletes’ recall of prior knowledge, promote deeper understanding, to foster problem-

solving skills, and to check for understanding (74). Questioning can be used to help youth

uncover what they have learned, delve further into the subject matter, and to generate

discussion and peer-to-peer interaction (71). Given the importance of educating young

athletes about the training process and the goal of getting the athletes to understand why they

are performing certain exercises and not just how, questioning is a valuable tool in the

coach’s toolbox. Open-ended questions that require thought and expanded answers, are

preferred to closed-ended questions, which simply require a one-word answer. For example,

instead of asking “did you enjoy the session?”, which would lead to a “yes” or “no”, coaches

could ask “what did you enjoy about the session today and why?”. In addition to open and

closed questioning, coaches should be aware of convergent questioning, which only requires

the recall and relaying of information, whereas divergent questioning requires thought,

problem-solving skills and critical thinking abilities to answer a question or resolve a

scenario (60). Literature indicates that the process of learning is enhanced when using

divergent questioning as individuals develop critical thinking skills (50); however, empirical

research has shown that while the benefits of divergent questioning are established, coaches

in elite youth sport (in this case, soccer) were found to ask more convergent questions (60).

This underlines the importance of coach education and critical self-reflection in order to

optimise pedagogical behaviours when working with young athletes.

After the session

As the session draws to a close (possibly during a cool down), it is good practice to discuss

with the athlete(s) the actions taken during the session, and thus engage in a process known

as reflective practice (15). This is an important process to facilitate experiential learning and

help young athletes develop self-awareness (e.g. of their strengths, areas for development,

and goal-achievement) and augment personal, social and athletic growth (22). During this

time, coaches are able to revisit the predetermined goals of the session with the athlete(s) and

support them through post-performance reflection. This process can be conducted in an

informal and unstructured manner, on an individual basis (where possible), and facilitated by

the coach. As the most beneficial forms of reflective practice include the expression of

feelings (e.g. how did the athlete’s feelings impact on their engagement, performance and

learning), it is important to note that it might take time for young athletes to feel sufficiently

secure within the training environment before meaningful reflection can take place (78).

Research has indicated that young athletes view their parents as great resources for reflection

(43); therefore, it may be prudent for coaches (especially those that coach large numbers of

athletes) to foster positive relationships with parents to facilitate a coordinated and

collaborative reflective process to occur both inside and outside of the training environment.

One practical example of how to facilitate this could be giving young athletes the opportunity

to complete and return feedback forms with their parents which ask questions like ‘what do

you enjoy about training?’ and ‘is there anything you don’t enjoy or you would like to be

included in the sessions?’

The end of the session is also a time in which to collect any basic monitoring data, for

example ratings of perceived exertion (RPE). Research has shown that various session RPE

scales have been used to quantify workload in youth populations during resistance training

(31, 56), jump rope training (11), small-sided games (51), and sport-specific training (37). On

the proviso that a period of education and familiarisation is afforded to young athletes to help

explain the RPE scoring system, getting young athletes to become familiar with this form of

basic monitoring system could not only provide meaningful data, but also help in the ongoing

education and empowerment of the athletes. Ultimately, coaches can be viewed as

gatekeepers who define behaviour expectations during practice and competition (17), and the

end of session provides a good opportunity to reinforce those behaviours.

REFLECTION AND EVALUATION

While it is important for coaches to encourage young athletes to reflect on their efforts and

achievements during a session, the art of reflective practice is also advocated for the

continued development of coaches (34). Sport psychologists have indicated that reflective

practice can improve self-awareness and knowledge-in-action, which can enhance service

delivery (21); and has since been championed to improve strength and conditioning practice

(52). Within the literature, a number of reflective models exist (33, 73) and coaches should

adopt a system of reflection that best suits their preferred style of reflection (22). Irrespective

of the model used, the goal should be to ask questions and stimulate thinking that facilitate

conscious critical reflection of practice to increase knowledge development and coaching

expertise (38). Of note, gaining another viewpoint and sharing coaching practice with a

mentor or coach who has appropriate skills, knowledge and expertise, is a crucial part of the

reflective process and coach’s development (35). Despite the many benefits of reflection,

time constraints are often cited as a barrier for coaches to engage properly with reflective

practice (13). Consequently, coaches need to identify effective and time efficient strategies to

effectively engage with the process. Kuklick and Gearity (52) presented a number of ways to

facilitate reflection which coaches may wish to consider, including: reflective writing,

The end of the session is a time in which to teach young athletes’ good values and

behaviours such as tidying the training facility, engaging in post-session cool downs, or

collecting RPE data. Similarly, coaches can use this stage of the session to announce a

“trainer of the day”, which is awarded based on effort and application (i.e. process) as

opposed to performance (i.e. outcome).

collaborative discussions with peers, coach-to-athlete discussions, concise review cards, and

potentially videotaping sessions.

As part of the reflective process, coaches should constantly review their training programmes.

Reflecting upon and possibly refining programme detail in a flexible and dynamic manner

based on the individual needs, goals and aspirations of the athletes is fundamental to the

success of long-term athletic development (54). Through a constant cycle of reflection (e.g.

action, sense making, evaluation, analysis, conceptualising, and application through future

action) and discussion with other practitioners, coaches may wish to reorganise training

groups or refine training programme content based on a range of variables associated with the

young athlete(s), such as: technical competency, duration of session, workload metrics, levels

of physical fitness, changes in physical and psychosocial maturation, and social interactions.

This reflective process should ideally be performed in collaboration with other stakeholders

in the athletic development programme, for example other strength and conditioning coaches,

technical coaches, medical staff, parents and the athletes themselves.

KEY TAKE HOME MESSAGES

Coaches should attempt to develop expert subject knowledge alongside craft

knowledge and highly proficient interpersonal and intrapersonal skills to optimise the

management of the coaching process.

Coaches should invest time in the design of training programmes, but be ready to

manipulate those programmes in response to the unpredictability of young athlete(s)

and sometimes chaotic nature of the coaching environment.

Coaches should invest time and effort in developing and maintaining meaningful

coach-athlete relationships.

Coaches should consider varying their forms of verbal and nonverbal communication;

‘scaffolding’ their coaching practice; and modifying delivery (e.g. instruction,

demonstration, cueing, positioning, observation, feedback and questioning) to meet

the needs of individual athletes.

Coaches should engage in a process of reflective practice in order to critically reflect

on their coaching practice and to further their knowledge and understanding.

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