Putting Professional Development into Practice · Putting Professional Development into Practice: ... Putting Professional Development into Practice 62 ... assisting them in implementing

Emily J. Klein & Megan Riordan

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Teacher Education Quarterly, Fall 2009

Putting Professional Development into Practice:

A Framework for How Teachersin Expeditionary Learning Schools

Implement Professional Development

By Emily J. Klein & Megan Riordan

Introduction The current small schools reform movement has increased the number oforganizationsseekingtochangeeducationwithdesignsthatrequireeducatorsto

Emily J. Klein is an assistant professor in the Department of Curriculum and Teaching of the School of Education and Human Services at Montclair State University, Montclair, New Jersey. Megan Riordan is a school designer with Expeditionary Learning Schools Outward Bound, New York, New York.

rethinktheirunderstandingsofcurriculum,teaching,and learning (McDonald, Klein, & Riordan, 2009;Klein,2008).Thekeytothesuccessoftheseschoolsishowwelltheteacherscanlearnandimplementthedesign,layingaheavyburdenontheschools,or,theintermediaryorganization,toprovideadequatepro-fessionaldevelopment.Manyoftheseorganizationshaveinvestedheavilyinprofessionaldevelopmentasameansofensuringthattheteachingintheirschoolsisconsistentwiththevisionoftheorganization.Althoughresearchhighlightsqualitiesofeffectiveprofessionaldevelopment,thereislittleresearchabouthowitisincorporatedinteachers’curriculumandinstructionandhoworganizationsuseprofessionaldevelopmenttoimplementtheirvisionofschooling,whilebuildingnewknowledgeaboutteachingandlearning(McLaughlin

Putting Professional Development into Practice

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&Talbert,2006).Manyteachersreportchangesintheirpracticefollowingprofes-sionaldevelopmentbutthosereportsmaynotbereliableasfurtherinvestigationdemonstratesfewdeeplevelchanges(Cohen,1990;Loucks-Horsley,Love,Stiles,Mundry&Hewson,2003;Weiss&Pasley,2006). Thisarticlepresentsfindingsabouthowteachersinonesucheducationalor-ganization,ExpeditionaryLearningSchoolsOutwardBound(ELS),transformedprofessionaldevelopmentexperiencesintolearningexperiencesfortheirstudents.WechoseELSbecauseofitsemphasisonprofessionaldevelopmentasastrategyfororganizationalsuccessandbecauseitsprofessionaldevelopmentprogramem-bodiesseveraldistinctaspectsthatcanaffectteacherpracticeandstudentlearning:coaching,training,extendedtimedevotedtolearningnewcontentandpedagogy,andopportunitiesforreflectionwithpeers(Killion,1999).In1999,theNationalStaffDevelopmentCouncil(NSDC)ratedELSastheonlyprogramtomeetall27NSDCstandardsforstaffdevelopmentwhichmadeitalogicalcandidatewhenlookingatprofessionaldevelopmentimplementation(Killion,1999). ELStracesitsrootsbacktotheideasofGerman-borneducator,KurtHahn,founderof OutwardBound1wildernessprograms.Hahnbelievedthatmoraldevelop-mentshouldaccompanyacademiclearning,andembracedaphilosophyofimpellingstudentsintoexperiencesthatpushedthemtodiscovertheircapabilities.BuildingonHahn’sOutwardBoundphilosophy,ELSpromotes“rigorousandengagingcurricu-lum;active,inquiry-basedpedagogy;andaschoolculturethatdemandsandteachescompassionandgoodcitizenship.”(ExpeditionaryLearningSchoolsOutwardBound,n.d.).ELStargetsitsprofessionaldevelopmenttodevelopingteachers’pedagogyandassistingtheminimplementingcommunity-basedlearningexpeditions. Significanttotheorganization’smissionofteachingandlearning,expeditionsare “long-term investigations of important questions and subjects that includeindividualandgroupprojects,fieldstudies,andperformancesandpresentationsofstudentwork”(ExpeditionaryLearningSchoolsOutwardBound,n.d.).Expedi-tions,asdescribedbyELS,areknowledgecentered,learnercentered,assessmentcentered,andcommunitycentered(Bransford&Darling-Hammond,2005).Weexpectedthatasthecoreofitscurriculardesign,PDrelatedtoexpeditionswouldbeanespeciallysalientformofELS’sPDandwouldhelpustosee—ornot—itsreflectioninteachers’practice. Weaskedthefollowingquestions:

1. How do teachers narrate their experiences of ELS professionaldevelopment?

2.HowareELSteachers’learningexperiencesreflectedincurriculumandinstructionviainterviewsandobservableclassroompractices?

3.Whatdotheseexperiencesofferusintermsofaframeworkforprofes-sionaldevelopmentimplementation?


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Whilepolicymakersandeducatorsareunderstandablyconcernedaboutthelinkbetweenprofessionaldevelopmentandstudentlearning,wesoughttoexaminetheintricaciesofprofessionaldevelopmentimplementationnotmerelyforwhetherornotwesawareflectionofprofessionaldevelopmentinteachers’practicebutmoreimportantly,howwesawitimplementedbyteachersandthecontextandqualityofthatimplementation.Webelievethatthislinkbetweenprofessionaldevelopmentandstudentlearningiskeyfororganizationsfocusingondevelopingtheskillsandknowledgeofclassroomteachers.

Professional Development and Teacher Implementation Mosteducatorsbelievethathighqualityprofessionaldevelopmentgroundsteachersinbothpedagogyandcontent,offersthemopportunitiestopracticethoseideasincontextssimilartotheirclassrooms,issustainedovertime,offersacom-munityofpeersandcoachesthatprovidesupportandopportunitiestocollaborate,andisresourcerich(Ball&Cohen,1999;Borko2004;Elmore,2002;Hawley&Valli,1999;Lieberman&Grolnick,1996;Lieberman&McLaughlin,1992;Loucks-Horsleyetal,2003;McLaughlin&Talbert,2001;2006;WarrenLittle,1999;Weiss & Pasley, 2006;Wilson & Berne, 1999). Ball and Cohen (1999)emphasizethedevelopmentalnatureofprofessionaldevelopment,asopposedtothe“oneshotworkshop”modelthathasdominatedthefield.Theyalsostresstheimportanceofcreatinga“pedagogyofinvestigation”throughdeveloping“com-munitiesofpractice”(p.13). Thereissomeresearchshowinghowprofessionaldevelopmentaidsteachersinimplementingnewideasaboutcontentandpedagogy(Borko,2004).Inparticular,Cohen&Hill’s(2001)studydetailingasignificantshiftinCalifornia’smathpolicyoffersinsightintothekindofprofessionaldevelopmentthatsupportsteacherchange.Theyfoundthatwhenteachershad“extendedopportunitiestostudyandlearnthenewmathematicscurriculumthattheirstudentswoulduse,theyweremorelikelytoreportpracticessimilartotheaimsofthestatepolicy”(3).Theauthorsemphasizetheimportanceofparticularaspectsofthelearningopportunitiessupportingimplemen-tationincluding,“sessionsinwhichteacherswoulddothemathematicsthemselves,talkwitheachotheraboutthecontent,andobserveexamplesofstudentworkonthematerials”(4).Cohen&Hillalsofoundevidenceofpoorimplementationwhenteacherswerenotaffordedthosekindsofopportunities. Asresearchersandpractitionerswewereinterestedinexaminingsuchsubtletiesandvariationsofprofessionaldevelopmentimplementation.AssuggestedbyCohen&Hill’swork,weexpectedthatbecauseELSprovidedsustainedlearningopportuni-tiesthatweregroundedincontent,pedagogy,andpedagogicalcontentknowledge,wewouldseemorecurricularpracticesalignedwithELS’visionofteachingandlearning.HoweverbecauseweknewfromCohen’s(2001)workthatteachersexposedtonewknowledgeandskillsoften“cobblenewideasontofamiliarpractices”(460),


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wealsoexpectedtoseesuchhybridpractices.Similarly,WeissandPasley’s(2006)studyofhowprofessionaldevelopmentimpactshighqualityinstructionrevealedthat,“teachersintheearlystagesoflearningweremorelikelytousematerialsmechanically,ortomodifytheminappropriately”(7).Thusweexpectedtoseeimplementationofprofessionaldevelopmentthatvariedfromsuperficialtomeaningfulandthatpossiblydemonstratedmisunderstandingsonthepartoftheteachers.

Methods Forthisstudywechosequalitativecasestudyasourmethodologicalapproach.Yin(1993,1994)deemsacasestudymethodappropriateparticularlywhenthere-lationshipbetweenphenomenonandcontextareblurredorintersect.Thecomplex,dynamicnatureofprofessionaldevelopmentdesign,experiences,andimplementationmakeitbestunderstoodusingthesemethods.Casestudiesprovidedesignadvantagesfortheresearcherinthattheyenabletheresearchertoincorporateavarietyofdocu-mentsintotheanalysis,includingobservations,interviews,andwritings(Merriam,1988;Myers,M.,2000;Yin,1984).Additionally,focusedstudiesoffermoredetailedunderstandingsofparticularphenomenon,contributingtoresearchers,stakeholders,ororganizationsknowledgeof‘why’or‘how”phenomenaoccur;suchisthecaseofourELSresearchinwhichwestudyanorganization’sprofessionaldevelopmentsothatitmaybegeneralizedtootherschoolreformorganizationswhosedesignsrelyonteachers’implementationofamodel.

Setting ELShasover140schoolsacrossthecountryinurban,rural,andsuburbanset-tings.ThisstudyfocusedontheNewYorkELSchools.Atthetimeofourstudy,thereweresevenELSchoolsinNewYorkCity,sixofwhichwerehighschoolsandoneofwhichisamiddleschoolscaling-uptoahighschoolbeginningwitha9thgradeclassintheFallof2008.TheyarelocatedinBrooklyn,theBronx,andManhattan.

Participants TheresearchteamselectedeightteacherparticipantsfromtheNewYorkCityELSchoolstostudyin-depth.Weopenedrecruitmenttoallteachersfromfiveschoolsupandrunninginthewinterof2007,fromapossiblepoolofapproximately80teachers.Teacherswerebothmaleandfemaleandrangedinagesfrom23to35.Becauseexpeditionsarecross-disciplinaryandallteachersareofferedthesameprofessionaldevelopmentrelatedtoexpeditions,werecruitedteachersofvarioussubjectareasincluding:Math,English,SocialStudies,ELL,andmusic.

Data Collection and Analysis Thefollowingdatasourcesaredividedintodirectandindirect.Directsourcesarethosethattheresearcherstakeresponsibilityforgenerating;indirectarethose


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thatELSNewYorkCitygeneratesforitsownmanagementpurposes,andtowhichitgrantstheresearchteamaccess(SeeFigure1).Wecollectedhard-copymaterials,studentwork,andotherartifactstwiceoverthecourseofthestudy.Researchersconducted twotofourfull-dayclassroomobservationsatpre-determined timeswithparticipantconsent.Weaskedparticipantstoalertustotimeswhentheywereimplementingsomethinglearnedinprofessionaldevelopmentactivitiesorrelatedtoexpeditions.WetranscribedinterviewsandloggedallinterviewandfieldnotesintoAtlasti, a program used for qualitative research data storage and analysis.Atlastiallowsresearcherstoinputandcategorizedata,pull-outrecurringthemes,andidentifylinkswithinmultipledatasources.Fortheresearchers,thiscomputerprogrameffectivelyreplacedthehardcopymethodofpenandpapernotesforthepurposeofmakingsenseofthedata. Theresearchteamengagedinanongoingandrecursiveanalysisofdata,aimedatsharingandtestingemergingunderstandings,clarifyingmethodsandassump-tions,identifyingfindingsrelatedtotheresearchquestions,arrangingforfurthertestingofthesefindings,revisingquestionsandfociasneeded.AsdatawasloadedontoAtlasti,researchersbegancreatingearlycodes.Bothresearchersnegotiatedanddefinedcodesinacodebookandtheneachresearcherseparatelycodedalldata.Afteralldatawascoded,researchersreviewedthecodestogetherandmadedecisionsabouthowtocodewheredisagreementsexisted.

The Research Team and Trustworthiness Theresearchteamconsistsoftwoprincipalinvestigatorswithdistinctroles:Dr.Riordan,aninsidestaffmemberatELSandDr.Klein,anoutsideresearcheratanearbyuniversity.RiordanworksatELSasaSchoolDesignerinNewYorkCity,andservedastheinsidecoordinatorofresearchactivitiesandasourceofinsiderperspective.Shealertedtheotherresearchertodata-richcollectionopportunities;

Figure 1: Data Sources.

Direct Indirect

Site Visits to professional development and Web based documents.networking activities: 20 days of visits.

One hour interviews of teachers: Each teacher PD Materials and descriptions: includingwas interviewed 4x over the course of a year. agendas and planning materials.

Student test data in literacy and mathematics. LEO (online expedition and planning tool).

Artifacts collected by teachers related to School designer updates.professional development.

Student work related to expeditions: writing Other relevant ELS and schooland project samples, reflections, and other documents, “filtered out” by internalwork teachers direct us towards. research team member.

Classroom observations: 2-4 per teacher.


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translatedELSlingoandwaysofthinking;servedastheconnectoramongtheschools,ELS,andtheresearchers;andfilteredoutfromalargecollectionofdocumentarydatathosedatathatseemedrelevanttotheresearchfociandquestions.Klein’sstatusasanoutsiderhelpedbalancetheinsiderperspective,askingdifferentquestions,offer-ingalternativeperspectives,andaskingclarifyingquestionsthatmakeexplicittacitunderstandings:whatSaul(1992)referstoasthe“faithfulwitness.” Bothresearchersinterviewedparticipantsandconductedobservations.Allpar-ticipantswerealertedtoRiordan’sinvolvementinthestudyintheinformationlettersenttoteachersandbeforetheyvoluntarilycontactedoneoftheresearchersaboutparticipating.Participantswereadvisedthattheycouldwithdrawanystatementorcompleteparticipationinthestudyatanytime.Riordanhadnocontactasaresearcherwithschoolsorteacherssheworkswithinthenormalcourseofherjob.

Findings InourfindingswefirstexploretheprofessionaldevelopmentpracticesatELS,followedbyananalysisofhowteachersinourstudyreportedontheirimplementa-tionofthosepractices.Weincludedescriptionsandanalysisofhowvariationsinimplementationplayedoutaswellasthefactorsthatinfluencedimplementation.

Professional Developmentat Expeditionary Learning Schools Outward Bound

KeytounderstandingprofessionaldevelopmentwithinELSisunderstandingtheorganization’sorigin.Asindicatedearlier,ELSisgroundedinthephilosophyofKurtHahnandtheOutwardBoundwildernessexperience.“OutwardBound”isthenauticaltermforthemomentwhenashipleavesthesafetyoftheharbor,ametaphorsuitabletodescribetheworkofteacherprofessionaldevelopmentandchange.ThisconceptisillustratedthroughtheOutwardBoundprocessmodel(Walsh&Golins,1976),whichdepictstheeducational,experientialapproachofOutwardBound.Themodelisrecursiveratherthanlinear,encouragingparticipantstocontinuallyengageinchallengingexperiencesthatnudgethemoutsideoftheircomfortzones,andthenreflectandtransfertheirlearningfromthoseexperiencestoreallife(seeFigure2). TheOutwardBoundProcessModelservesasaframeworkforlearning—bothforstudentsandteachers—withintheELSdesign.Teacherprofessionaldevelopment(andstudentlearningexpeditions)islaunchedwitha“mysterypiece,”inwhichparticipantsviewapicture,listentoanaudiotape,visitasite,orreadashorttextintendedtosparkcuriosityandinquiryintoanevent.Thisstepcorrespondswiththe“adaptivedissonance”stageoftheProcessModel.Thereisuncertaintyaboutthetopic,morequestionsthananswers,andlackofdeepknowledge.WhatunfoldsnextmirrorsthenextseveralstepsoftheOutwardBoundProcessModel:learn-ersengageina“BuildingBackgroundKnowledge”workshop(BBK),inwhichtheyreadcommontextstogroundtheminparticularcontent.Contentisexplored


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throughdiscussionandwritingaswell,andparticipantslearnpedagogicalstrategiesandskillsthroughexperiencingtheworkshop.Additionaltexts,video,sitevisits,field-work,conversationand/orimagesprovideparticipantswithricherinsightsintocontent,thuspromotingstrongerskillsandpromptingareorganizationofwhatteachingandlearningcanlookandfeellike.Reflectionanddebriefingthenleadstotransferandapplicationofthelearner’sexperience.ThismodelgivesusinsightintohowELSconceivesofitsdesignforteacherprofessionaldevelopment. TeachersatELSparticipateinextensiveprofessionaldevelopmentuponbeinghiredtoteachatanELSschool.Thecornerstoneoftheprofessionaldevelopmentisthesummerinstitutewhichoccursinoneofthreelocationsacrossthecountryandinvolvesallnewteachersandnewsupportstaff.Forfivedays,newELSteacherscometogethertotakepartinthisInstitute.Teachersparticipateinacompressedversionofanexpedition,generallyreferredtoasa“slice.”Thesummerofthisresearch,inBoston,scienceandmathteachersspenttheweeklearningaboutlobsters.Teachers

Figure 2. The Outward Bound Process Model.


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wereinitiatedintotheinstitutebybeingpresentedalivelobsterandaskedtodrawit(mysterypiece).Thiswasfollowedbyabuildingbackgroundknowledge(BBK)workshopaboutlobsterslivesandhabits.Laterintheweekteachersvisitedthelocalaquariumtoengageinfieldworkinordertoacquireinformationaboutlobstersfromlocalexpert.Finally,teacherscreatedskitsthatrepresentedtheirlearningaboutlobsters.TeachersinthehumanitiessliceexploredthetrialofSaccoandVanzettiinparalleltypesofactivities.SaccoandVanzetti,twoItalianimmigrantsaccusedofmurderinthecourseofarobbery,allowedteacherstoexploreissuesrelatedtoimmigration,anti-anarchistandanti-communistsentimentintheinterwarperiod.MorningsatthesummerinstitutearespentinworkshopslearningaboutotherareasofELSdesignincluding:assessment,learningtargets,crew,andLEO—theonlineexpeditionplanner.Afternoonsfocusparticularlyonthecontentandfieldworkoftheexpeditions.SuchcontentforthehumanitiesteachersincludedtranscriptsfromthetrialofSaccoandVanzetti,mapsrelatedtothecrimestheywereaccusedof,historiesofItalianimmigrantslivingintheNorthEndofBoston,picturesfromthetrialsandtheneighborhoodsthedefendantscamefrom,atriptotherarebookssectionofaBostonlibrarytoexaminenewspaperaccountsaswellaslettersfromthedefendantstotheirfamilies,aswellasnovelssuchasRagtimethatportrayedthecomplexsocialissuesofthetimeperiod. Newteachersalsoparticipateinweeklongsummerworkshopsinreadingandwriting, regardlessof theircontentareabackground.NYCteachers in theELSnetworkalsoengageinaoneweekexpeditionplanninginstitute.Therearesomeopportunitiesforcontentspecificprofessionaldevelopmentinmathaswellasanadvancedreading/writingworkshop.Duringtheacademicyearteacherscanpar-ticipateinregionalprofessionaldevelopmentinassessment, gradingandreporting, targetedleadershipinstitutesforprincipals,andcontentareainstitutesinscienceandmath.SchoolbasedprofessionaldevelopmentisspearheadedbyInstructionalGuides[IGs]whoactason-siteschoolcoaches.

A Continuum

for Professional Development Implementation Inthissectionwefocusonhowteachersimplementedprofessionaldevelopment,boththroughthedescriptionoftheirexperiencesintheprofessionaldevelopmentactivitiesaswellashowtheirlearningexperienceswerereflectedincurriculumandinstructionviaobservableclassroompractices,interviews,andstudentwork.ELSprovidedteacherswithprofessionaldevelopmentthatwashighqualityasdefinedbytheliterature.Bythiswemeanthatteachershadopportunitiesindifferentcontextstobuildcontentandpedagogicalcontentknowledge.Theyworkedcollaboratively,focusedonissuesofcurriculumandinstructionandhadongoingsupportthroughSchoolDesignersandInstructionalGuides.Yetoncebackintheclassroom,howteachersmadeuseoftheprofessionaldevelopmentexperiencesdiffered.Infact,


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teachers’ practices fell on a “continuum of implementation,” ranging from noimplementation/rejectiontofulladaptation(SeeFigure3).Weneededaframeformakingsenseofwhatteachersdidwiththeprofessionaldevelopment.Literature,referencedinourtheoreticalframework,offeredussomeideasforcreatingthatframeandweexpandontheseideashere. Wedevelopedthiscontinuumfromourobservationsofteacherspracticeandexaminationofcurriculum,aswellasthroughourinterviews.Thecontinuumisnei-therhierarchicalnorlinear;teachersdidnotnecessarilybeginatoneendandwindupattheotherthroughtimeandexperience.Theliteraturesuggestedthatteachersatearlystagesoflearningmightfindthemselvesimplementingprofessionaldevelop-mentinsuperficialways.Rather,wefoundteachersseemtomovebackandforthbetweenpointsalongthiscontinuum,anditwasoftendifficulttoteaseapartwhy.ManyspokeeloquentlyabouttheirunderstandingoftheELphilosophyandoftheirfaithinitseffectivenessforstudentengagementandlearningyetstillchosetomakeinstructionaldecisionsthatwereinconsistentwiththisphilosophy.Inthefollowingsectionweexplicatethecontinuum,illustratingitwithexamplesfromourdata,andinthefinalsectionweexplorethefactorsthatinfluenceteachers’locationsonit.

No Implementation/Rejection Atthisstagetheteacherconsciouslyrejectsaparticularprofessionaldevelop-mentpracticeandinthefollowingsectionofthisarticlewehighlightthereasonsteachersarticulatedfortheirrejection.Formostteachersthedecisionnottoimple-mentprofessionaldevelopmentrevealedsomeconflictforparticipants—althoughtheygenerallybelievedinthemajorprinciplesofELSandtheoreticallyunderstoodwhyapracticewaspromoted,theyrationalizedthattheircontextwasuniqueandnotconducivetoapplyingtheELSstrategy. Foroneofourparticipants,Amy,conflictingbeliefsaboutherstudents’abili-tiesandideasaboutmotivationinfluencedherdecisionabouthowtoimplementexpeditions.Originallyexcitedaboutexpeditionbasedlearning,shelaterdecidednottoimplementtheminherclasses.HerdecisionnottoimplementthisfundamentalpieceofELSdesignwasbasedonherbeliefthatherstudents’skilllevelswerenotsufficientlyadvancedenoughalthoughsheacknowledgedthatshemightbeableto

Figure 3: Continuum of Implementation

No Implementation/Rejection

Token Implementation

Mistaken Implementation

Direct Implementation

Adaptation Level I: Tinkering

Adaptation Level II: Crafting and Jiggering


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bothbuildskillsandimplementexpeditionssimultaneously:“Andideally,Iwouldbeabletodothatinthecontextofanexpedition.There’snothingtosaythatIcouldn’tdothatwithwhateverexpeditionweweredoing…”Whenpushedtoarticulatethecompatibilityofthetwoshelatersuggestedthatperhapsskillbuildingdidneedtohappenfirst:“Ithinkifwedon’thavethoseskillsthenitdoesn’tmatterhowinterest-ingtheprojectsare.Thekidswillnotbeabletoreadthematerialthat’sinfrontofthemandtheywillfailtests,andthey’regoingtokeepfailingtests.Anditbecomesreallydifficultforthemtoworkindependently.”Amy’sdoubtsaboutherstudents’abilitiestobuildskillswhilealsoengaginginin-depthexpeditionsaswellasapolicyenvironmentthatemphasizesstandardizedtestscoresareattheheartofherdecisiontorejectaprimarypieceoftheELSdesignandprofessionaldevelopment. ThismayspeaktoGuskey’s(1989)theorythatengagingteachersinsuccessfulinstructionalpracticeschangesbeliefs.Elmore(2002)writesthat“AnimportantimplicationofGuskey’stheoryisthatinstructionitselfisprobablythemostpotentformofprofessionaldevelopmentavailabletoschools”(19).Similarly,researchonteacherchange“indicatesthatchangesinbeliefsoftencomelaterwhenteachersuseanewpracticeandseethebenefitstotheirstudents”(Loucks-Horsleyetal.,2003,p.48).AnimplicationofthisforELSisthattheorganizationmayneedtoprovidemorestructuredopportunitiestopracticenewskillslearnedinprofessionaldevelopment.Adding“teacherhat”timemayhavesomeimpactonhowteachersnegotiatetheirconcernsbutthisteacherhattimeshouldspecificallybringteachersasclosetoactualpracticeaspossible.

Token Implementation Thesecondtypeofimplementationwesawwaswhatwecalltoken imple-mentation.Here the teacheruses“ELSspeak,”suggestinganunderstandingofELSphilosophyandideas,butthespeechandtheteachers’actionsdonotalign.Shemayspeakaboutactive pedagogyasanimportantELSprinciplebutshownoevidenceofimplementingthisprincipleintoherpractice. Melissa,anEnglishteacherwhohadbeenwithELSforthreeyears,evidencedtokenimplementationindescribingherspringexpedition.Whenaskedwhatele-mentsofELSprofessionaldevelopmentsheusedinhercurriculumandinstructionshespokeaboutanexpeditionshedevelopedwithaSocialStudiesteacheraboutEnglandinthetimeofKingArthur.SheinitiatedtheexpeditionwithaBBKwork-shopbutwhenaskedaboutwhatthatentailedsheadmittedthatshehadsimplyshownamovieversionofThe Sword and the Stone. Asthestudentswatchedthefilmtheycheckedoffcharactersastheyappeared,checkedoffvocabularyastheyheardit,andansweredsomeplotbasedquestions.Whentellingmeabouttheclassshemadequotationmarkswithherfingerswhenshecalledthisactivitya“BBK.”BuildingBackgroundKnowledgeworkshopsareintendedtosparkstudentcuriosity(andsomeinitialadaptivedissonance)aboutatopicwhilethenbuildingthenecessarybackgroundknowledgeneededfortheexpedition.InthiscaseMelissausedELS


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terminologybutsignaledthroughherquotationmarksthatsherealizedthisreallydidnotconstituteaBBKasELSintendedittobe.OriginallywhenwesawexamplesofthiswewonderediftheywereexamplesofmisunderstandingsbutinfactmanytimestheteachersunderstoodthattheywereusingELSterminologyincorrectly. ELSemphasizes“ELspeak” in itsprofessionaldevelopmentas ameansofinitiatingteachersintodiscoursecommunities.TeachersfeelsomepressuretoshowevidenceofELSdesignelementsintheirpracticeandusingELspeakevenwhentheirpracticedoesnottrulyalignwiththemodelallowsthemtosignalmembershiptothecommunity.Obviouslyindicationsofimplementationmustbeexaminedcloselyandshouldbehandleddifferentlythanthetruemisunderstandingswedescribenext.

Mistaken Implementation MistakenimplementationdrawsspecificallyonCohen’swork(1990).Bymistakenimplementationwerefertofusionsofoldandnewpracticesinwaysthatarelessef-fectivethantheconventionalpractice.Hereteachersmakeattemptsatimplementationthatatfirstglanceappeartobeadaptationsbutactuallydistortthedesign. Oneschooldesigner reportedan instanceofmistaken implementationwhileobservingawriter’sworkshop ina teacher’sclass.This teachermisunderstoodacrucialpieceofinformationaboutthewriter’sworkshop—thatstudentsneedtoap-plythetechniquelearnedtotheirownwriting.Withoutthatstep,whatthestudentswereexperiencingwasaguidedmini-lessonwithpractice—notacompletewriter’sworkshop.Othermisunderstandingsoccurredwhenteachersattemptedtoimplementexpeditionswithadaptationstheyfeltwerenecessarytomeettheneedsoftheirstudents.However,theseadaptationsoftenmeantthatafundamentalelementoftheexpeditionwasmissing.Teacherscreatedexpeditionsthatlackedessentialcomponentssuchasonethataskedstudentstocreatetheirowncity-statesforaunitonGreece.Althoughtheteachersinvolvedincreatingtheexpeditionusedactivepedagogy,therewasnofieldworkoruseofexperts.Neitherdidstudentsengageincreatingproductsforaudiencesbeyondtheclassroom.Unliketeachersdemonstratingtoken implementa-tion,teachersheregenuinelythoughttheywereimplementingELSdesignelementsfaithfully.Theyfailedtoseehoworwheretheirworkmissedthemark. Tosomedegreetheseadaptationsreflectedambiguityonthepartoftheor-ganization,notonlyinarticulatingwhatconstitutesanexpedition,butabouthowmuch adaptation can occur without demonstrating a misunderstanding on thepartoftheteacher.OneteacherwhoconductedtwoMath-basedinvestigationsintoalgebraicconceptswhileteachingstudentsaboutencryptionanddecryption,wroteinanemailtous,“Forexample,whenItalkaboutmySecretsfromtheCryptexpe-dition,somepeoplethinkthatit’snotanexpeditionbecausetherewasnoauthenticpresentationofthework,nofieldwork,andnoservice—whileothersthinkthatitisamathexpedition.”Feelingthisambiguity,ELSinNewYorkCityhasbeguntoclarifyexpectationsintheirpartnershipswithschools—byclearlyarticulatingthatexpeditioncomponentsincludethreein-depthinvestigations,fieldworkandexperts,


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andbyestablishinganexpectations andaccountabilitydocument for schools. Inarticulatingwhatconstitutesanexpeditionwithpartnersonmultiplelevelstheymayhelptocircumventsomemistakenimplementation.Thisaccountabilityistrickyforprofessionaldevelopmentonafewlevels.Forinstance,how,exactly,areschoolsorleadershipteamsheldaccountableforimplementationoftheELSdesign?Howmuchtimeareaschoolandstaffgiventodemonstrateprogresstowardsimplementationortoillustratefullimplementation?Astheorganizationcontinuestoscale-upitsdesign,suchquestions—andtheircorrespondinganswers—takeongreaterpotency.

Direct Implementation/Replication Direct implementation describesprofessionaldevelopment implementationwheretheteachertransfersanactivityandmaterialsexactlyasexperiencedtoherclassroom.Whilemostteachersinourstudyshowedevidenceofnumerousformsofimplementationintheirpractice,direct implementationwas oftenastartingpointforteachersimplementingprofessionaldevelopment. Onefirst-yearELSteacherusedaworkshopfromthesummerliteracyinstituteabouttheTriangleShirtwaistFactoryFireinherclassroom.Withminorvariationstothematerialssheandafellowteacherusedidenticalactivitiesfromtheinstitutetoengagestudentsinlearningaboutimmigrationandworkingconditions.Whileprofes-sionaldevelopmentmusthelpteachersmovebeyondthiskindofexactreplicationinclassroomsitoftenseemstoscaffoldteachers’learning,inmanywaysservingasanotherformofprofessionaldevelopmentalaGuskey.Loucks-Horsleyetal.(2003)writethat,“Fundamentalbeliefsareformedthroughactiveengagementwithideas,understandings,andreal-lifeexperiences”(p.49).Hereteachersexplicitlytransferwhattheyhavelearnedandgettotryontheideasusingmaterialsthattheyknowareeffective.Itallowsthemtobuildconfidenceinthestrategiesandbegintoexplorehowtheymightadaptthemtotheirownclassroom.Thisinadvertentscriptprovidespositivereinforcementandthusmakesitmorelikelythatteacherswillcontinuetousetheprofessionaldevelopment.

Adaptation Level I: Tinkering Atthislevelofadaptationteachersbegintomakesomeadaptationstoprofes-sionaldevelopmentactivitiestheyhaveexperienced,generallyintermsofmaterialsandbasedonparticularcurricularneeds.Teachersheremaypracticevariationsonaprofessionaldevelopmentactivity;however,thevariationstendtobeonesthattheyhaveexperiencedindifferentprofessionaldevelopmentsessions. Forexample,ELSusesmultiplevariationsontheBBKinitsprofessionaldevel-opmentandmostteachersinourstudydescribedusingoneormorevariationintheirclassroomssimplymakingchangestothematerialsbasedoncurricularneeds.TheBBKinvolvessparkingstudents’curiositybystartingwithamystery piece.InELSprofessionaldevelopment,thismightbeagallery walkwhereparticipantslookatpicturesandjotdowncompellingnoticingsandwonderings.Manyteachersadapted


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theirclassroom-basedBBKactivitiesbyvaryingthemystery piece,andusingatext,shortvideoclip,oraudiofiletopeakstudents’interest.Oneteachertoldus,“Itrytoadaptasmuchofthehumanities/sciencematerialasIcanformathbytweakingproducts,applyingliteracystrategiestowordproblemdecoding,andlogicalreasoningsequencing.Onespecificexampleisanote-catcherthatIadaptedfroma4cornerboxcharttohelpstudentssolvewordproblems.”Similarly,othersmighttinkerwithanassessmentpracticemakingsuperficialchangestoarubrictoaccommodatestudentability.Thistinkeringmayseemlikereplicationbutthevariationsmayalsomarkanimportantexperimentinhelpingteachersinternalizeprofessionaldevelopment.Forsomeorganizationsthiskindofadaptationmightrepresentthebestwaytoensurefidelitytothedesign.However,thedangerinsuchfidelitymaylieinaccommodatingtheneedsofindividualstudentsandlocalcontexts.Ifteacherscontinuallymakeonlyminoradjustmentstoprofessionaldevelopmentactivitiesintranslatingthemtotheirclassroomoutofanxietyabouthowtousethoseactivities,theymaynotbemeetingdifferentiatedneedsoftheirstudents.

Adaptation Level II: Crafting and Jiggering The final form of professional development implementation we describe isjiggeringorcrafting.Jiggeringisdefinedastheoperationofbringingashapedtoolintocontactwiththeplasticclayofapieceunderconstructioninordertoenhanceitsdesign,andwebelievethemetaphorsuitsthekindofimplementationwesawatthislevel.Wefoundevidencethatteachersadaptinginthiswaydidsobasedontheneedsoftheirstudentsandoftenmadeadaptationstheyhadnotwitnessedinprofessionaldevelopment.TheycreatedexpeditionsthatinvolvedmanyoftheelementsoftheELSmodelbutincludedadaptationsrelevanttotheirparticularteachingcontext. Oneteacherinourstudywantedtoengageherstudentsinanexplorationofanoldaqueductlocatednearbytheschool.SheworkedwiththescienceandEnglishteacherstocreateaunitaroundthefocusingquestion:“Whyiscleanwateressentialtohumanlife?”Fieldworkincludedvisitsto:theNewYorkHistoricalSociety,HighBridgePark,OldCrotonAqueduct,CentralParkReservoir,theMuseumoftheCityofNewYork,theNewYorkHistoricalSociety,theNewYorkCityWaterTreatmentPlant,andtheKensicoReservoir.TheyalsohadvisitsfromRiverkeepers,theDepart-mentofEnvironmentalProtectionspecialists,ColumbiaUniversityspecialists,andFriendsoftheOldCrotonAqueduct.StudentscompletedanumberofassessmentsindifferentsubjectareasincludingaconceptmapofNewYorkCity’sdrinkingwaterinfrastructure,anessayonthehistoryofNewYorkCity’sdrinkingwatersupply,anexpeditionjournal,andapower-pointpresentationgivenatanin-schooltownhallmeeting.Duringavisittotheclassroombyoneoftheresearchers,studentsmadeconnectionsbetweentheirstudyofRomeandtheRomanaqueductswiththeirlearn-ingabouttheCrotonaqueductandNewYork’swatersupply.StudentsexplainedhowwatermovedfromthemountainstoRome—aconcepttheyunderstoodbecausetheyhadacteditoutinclassusingtubingandblueGatorade.


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Manyprofessionaldevelopmentorganizationsmayseethislevelofimplementationastheirgoalforteachers.OurassumptionwhenwesawthislevelofimplementationwasthattheseteachershadadeepunderstandingofELSprofessionaldevelopment.Yettheywerejustaslikelythefollowingsemestertoshowevidenceofotherpointsonthecontinuum.Weaskedourselveswasthisaregressiontomoreconventionalteachingpractices—aback-slidingofsorts?Wasthereonlysomuchexperimentationateacherwaswillingorabletoengageinduringthesemester?Forsomeitseemedexhausting—theamountofwork andcreativity required to implement full scaleexpeditionswasoverwhelmingandotherprioritiescontinuedtopresentthemselves.Ontheotherhand,someteachersseemtoidentifysomepracticesasmorebeneficialthanothersandmovethosetotheforefrontoftheirpracticewhileothersmovedtothebackground.Forinstance,wenoticedteachersemphasizingstudent-friendlyLearningTargetsbasedonstandards,BBKs,literacypractices,andusingpeer-critiqueswhileatthesametimefieldworkandstudentreflectionfadedintothebackdrop.

Factors Influencing Implementation Weexaminedhowteachersnarrated theirexperiences inELSprofessionaldevelopmentandwhatthefactorstheyhighlightedassignificantimplementationinfluences.Wesought tounderstandhow thesame teacherendedupondiffer-entplacesonthecontinuumseeminglydependentontheday.Thefollowingarewhat theteachers identifiedas thefivemostsignificant influencesonhowtheyimplementedprofessionaldevelopment.WebelievethatteacherstakeacomplexviewofELS’philosophy.Whatmayseemfromanorganizationalperspectivetobeatightlyinterconnectedpackageofbeliefsaboutteachingandlearning,werenotsototeachers.LikeCohen&Hill(2001)wefoundteacherstobe“internallydivided,too,agreeinganddisagreeingwiththemselves—andsittingontheirownfences—sometimeswithregardtothesameideas”(70).

Engagement Ateacher’slevelofengagementandexcitementabouttheprofessionaldevelop-mentexperienceslargelyhadapositiveimplicationforhowmuchheorsheadoptedoradaptedthemodelinhisorherownpractice.MostteachersspokeaboutthesummersecondaryschoolinstituteasthemostsignificantprofessionaldevelopmentexperiencewithELS.Onemathteacherwhoparticipatedinthemath/sciencepartoftheinstitutetoldmeshereportedthinking,

WhyamIsointothisthingwiththelobsters,becauseIam?!Everybodyinthisgroupiscrazyaboutlobsters!Whenwedidourshow…wewerebehindthisthingandhadthesepaperlobstersanddidthemusicandIwaslike…literally,itwasoneofthemostfunthingsIdidallsummer.IreallylikedthepeopleIwaswith…AndIthinkthatwewerejustengaged.AndsoeverytimeIwasreallyengagedandthenIthoughtaboutwhatmademeengaged,thosewerethethingsthatIwanttodo[withmystudents].


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Otherparticipantsinoursamplespokeofthehighlevelofinterestthatthesecond-aryschoolinstituteengenderedandsimilarlyspokeofwantingtheirstudentstohavesuchexperiences. Muchofthemotivationfordoinglongtermexpeditionsseemsrelatedtotheirown level of engagement at institutes or other ELS professional development.Theexperienceofpassionseemstobeavaluableoneevenwhenit’soutsideofateacher’scontentareaasitwasforoneofthemathteachersinourstudy.Still,wefoundthatpassionandmotivationaremostusefuliftheyareimmediatelycon-nectedtocurriculumdevelopment.Fourmonthsintoasemestertheexcitementateacherfeltfromasummerinstitutemaynotsustainthemthroughthepullofhisorherparticularschoolandclassroomcontext.Theenergycreatedbypowerfulprofessionaldevelopmentexperiencesmustbedeftlymanagedbeyondthattimeifteachersaretotransferittodeeperlearningexperiencesforstudents.

Content Area Beliefs and Knowledge InchoosingELSastheorganizationforthisstudy,weexpectedthatteacherswhohadoptedtoteachatanELSschoolwouldfindthephilosophyandcentraltenetsofthedesignappealing.However,westillfoundthatteachers’beliefsabouttheircontentareaseemedtohavedirectimplicationsforhowmuchtheyimplemented.Thiswasspecificallytrueinthecaseofmathematics.Ofthethreemathteachersinthestudy,teacherswithsimilarstate,policy,andstudentcontexts,wefoundthatdifferentbeliefsinthenatureofmathimpactedhowteachersviewedtheirsubjectinrelationtoELSphilosophyandcurriculumdesign.Oneteacherviewedmathassomethingthatdidnotallowforlongterm,interdisciplinaryinvestigationsthatcharacterizeELS’schooldesign. Another teachersawmathasconducivetocasestudy-basedlearningandbelievedthatmathcouldserveasthebasisforrichcross-curricularexplorationsofmathematicalconcepts.Thisteacherofferedavaryingview,explaining:“TherearetonsofwaystotieMathintootherdisciplines,especiallyScience.MathcouldmakeSciencemoreexplicit—makeconnectionsmorevisible,likeusinggraphsandscatter-plots.”Thethirdteachersidedwiththesecond,stating,“IdobelieveintheELScurricularmodel—therearegreatstructurestousecontentincontext…Ifeellike75%oftheskillsIteachcanbetaughtwithincontent;it’ssomethingIworkfor.”Allteachersspokeabouthowtheircontentarealimitsorencouragesadaptationofcertainpiecesofthemodel.Teachers’beliefsabouttheircontentareaalsoseemedtobeinfluencedbythepolicycontext—bothintermsoftestingandcurriculum.Theirnotionofwhattheirsubjectareawouldallowwasrelatedtotheirfeelingsaboutwhetherornottheyhadtheabilitytoimplementexpeditions. Theroleofprofessionaldevelopmentinchangingteachers’practiceiscomplex.Asitscalesup,theELSorganizationislookingtodevisemathprofessionaldevel-opmentthatsupportstheimplementationoflearningexpeditionsandinquiry-basedin-depth investigations that tie to standards.However, its currentmath specific


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professional development support is limited, leaving teachers to navigate theirownwaysofteachingandlearningandimplementingmathematicalknowledge.OneMathteacherindicated,“IntermsofthekindofprofessionaldevelopmentandsupportI’dliketoseehappen,sincethereare7schoolsinNewYorkCity;itwouldbewonderfultohaveonedayamonthoronedayeverytwomonthstomeetandshare,talkaboutstruggles,orofferideasabouthowtodoELSinMath.” Theroleofcontentknowledgewasalsoimportantinhowteachersusedtheinstructionalguides(IGs)orschoolcoaches.WhentheIGssharedcontentareabackgroundwiththeirteachers,thelatterseemedtobemorelikelytouseIGsinplanningandimplementingexpeditions.TeacherswantedtheirIGstohaveparticularexpertiseintheircontentarea.Oneteacherexplained,“Ihavenobodytogotoformath(content).”Lackingthementorsupportshewanted,thisteachercreatedanon-lineGooglegrouptosupportregionaleffortstoimplementmathexpeditions.Whilethisattemptisadmirableitistooearlytoseeifitwillbeeffectiveinsup-portingtheseteachers. Thissuggeststhattheorganizationmightwanttoconsiderrotatinginstructionalguideswhomightprovidecontentareaexpertisetoteachersindifferentschools,particularlyifitwantstohavemorecontroloverhowtheseteachersimplementprofessionaldevelopmentintheircontentareas. AsecondimplicationfromthisfindingisthatteachersneedtimeincontentareacohortstodiscussnotonlytheimplementationofprofessionaldevelopmentbuttheirunderlyingbeliefsandunderstandingsabouthowtheirsubjectarearelatestoELScurriculumdesign.Yetwereturnagaintotheideathatpracticechangesbeliefsaswell.Wethinkthishasimportantimplicationsfortheareaofmaterialsforteachersparticularlyintheareasofmathematics.Cohen&Hill(2001)foundthatteachersexposedtomathmaterialsthatprovided“concreteguidance”aboutstudentthinkingandhowtotieabstractprinciplesintopracticeweremorelikely“toreportideasaboutmathematicsteachingandlearningthataccordedwiththeframeworks”(111).Materialsmaybeanimportantlinkinhelpingorganizationsmanagethecontentareabeliefsthatlimitthedegreeofimplementation.

Assessment Just as beliefs about content influence implementation, knowledge aboutpolicyrelatedassessmentandhowitworksintheNewYorkCityschoolsystemimpactsimplementationofELSpractices.MostteachersfeltthattheELSmodelwasatoddswiththeNewYorkCitygradingsystemtheycontendwithandspokeofthepressuresstateassessmentsplacedontheminregardstomeetingtheneedsoftheirstudents.Allarguedthatwhetherornottheythoughtthetestswerevalu-abletheyhadanethicalobligationtopreparetheirstudentstosucceedinthem.ThustheywereoftentornbetweenwhatELSbelievesaboutassessmentandtheirresponsibilitiestotheirstudents.Forinstance,oneteacherexplained,“IlikethatELSassessesusingvariedmethods,likerubrics,anddemonstrationofmastery,butIstillhavetodosomeconcentratedtestprepwithstudentsthat’snot‘EL.’”Thisis


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consistentwithresearchsuggestingthatthecontextofstudentsisthemostimpor-tantoneforteachersinthinkingaboutwhattheydointheirclassrooms(Olson&Kirtman,2002).ItalsomayhelpexplainwhythesameteachermightdemonstrateAdaptation Level IononedayandToken Implementationonanother—competingandconflictingloyaltiesresultinvaryinglevelsofimplementation. TheimplicationsforELSaresignificantifitwantstorecognizetheseconflict-ingpullsforteachersandhelpthemmanagetheassessmentdilemma.Forinstance,oneteacherattendingaNewYorkCitybasedAssessmentInstitutecommentedthather“grade-bookwasnotconducivetocompilinganecdotalevidenceonstudents’learningbecauseitonlyprovidessmallboxesforcheckmarksorlettergrades.”Sherecognizedthatthekindofdatasheneededtocollectwasbeyondtheparametersofthesmallspacesshehadgrownaccustomedtousing.ELS’professionaldevel-opmenthasbeguntorespondtoteachers’needsforenhancedassessmentmodelsand strategiesbydevelopinga three-partAssessment Institute series:LearningTargets,CreatingAssessmentPlans,andGradingandReporting.Wenotedthatoftenteacherswerebalancingworkonexpeditionswithworkgearedtowardsstateassessment—rarelyintegratingthetwo.Manysuggestedaneedformoreprofes-sionaldevelopmentgearedtowardshelpingthemintegrate.Inparticulartheneedformaterialsasakindofprofessionaldevelopmentthathelpteachersvisualizehowtothinkaboutnon-traditionalformsofassessmentareimportant.

Differentiation ManyoftheteachersinourstudycametoELSwithprofessionaldevelopmentexperiencesintheircontentareasalready.Also,severaloftheteachersinthisstudyhadmorethanoneortwoyearsofteachingexperience.Oneimportantconcernprofessional developers must contend with is how to differentiate professionaldevelopmentforteachersindifferentcareerstages.Despiteourknowledgethatstudentsrequiredifferentiatedinstruction,teachersalmostalwaysattendthesameworkshops,andthereareoftenfewopportunitiesforteachersatmoreadvancedstagesoftheircareerstobechallengedinnewways.Onemajorcritiqueofprofes-sionaldevelopmentfromteachersinourstudywasbeenthatthereisnotenoughopportunityfordifferentiatedprofessionaldevelopment.Muchofhoworganiza-tionshavedealtwiththisistoturnmoreexperiencedteachersintoprofessionaldevelopmentleaders(Klein,2008).Whilemakingthelearnertheleaderisalwaysaneffectivewayofpromotinglearning,thereshouldalsobeopportunitiesforthoseleaderstoparticipateaslearners.Likealllearners,teachersfeltmostengagedwhentheywerelearningintheirzoneofproximaldevelopment.(Vygotsky,1978)andhadopportunitiesfordifferentiationandself-direction(Knowles,1975). RecentlyELShasattemptedtoimplementsomedifferentiatedprofessionaldevelopmentwithpositiveresults.Inthesummerof2007,theorganizationrolledoutAssessmentII,AssessmentIII,andReading/WritingIIforteacherswhohadbeenthroughtheearlierinstitutesandwerelookingtoexpandtheirknowledgein


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theseareas.Theremightbeotherwaysfortheorganizationtothinkaboutdifferen-tiationaswell.AnumberofparticipantspointedtoexamplesofotherorganizationsorprofessionaldevelopmentopportunitiesthatwouldberelevanttoELSteachers.Giventhechallengesmoreandmoreeducationalorganizationsfaceinmeetingthediverseneedsofteachersforprofessionaldevelopment,itmightbeusefultoseewheretheorganizationcaneffectivelyfarmoutdifferentpiecesofprofessionaldevelopmenttothosewithgreaterexpertiseinthoseareas.ELSsignaledamoveinthisdirectionbycreatingaseriesoffoursessionsfortheSchoolDesignersandIGsledbyNationalSchoolReformFacultyandurgeteacherstoattend“FacingHistory”andHeidiHayesJacobscurriculummappingworkshops.

Implications WeofferinsightsaboutELSprofessionaldevelopmentforthoseengagedinschoolreformthatreliesonsuccessfulprofessionaldevelopmentandinformationabouttherelationshipbetweenprofessionaldevelopmentandteacherpractice.Inparticularourstudyillustrateshowthecontentandpedagogyteacherslearnoutsideofschoolstransferstotheirworkwithstudentsinsideoftheclassroom.Weexaminethesubtledifferencesofhowteachersimplementprofessionaldevelopmentdesignandsuggestaframeworkforthekindsofimplementationthoseengagedinteacherprofessionaldevelopmentarelikelytosee.Weoffersomeideasaboutwhythatvariationoccursandtheimplicationsofthesedifferencesforprofessionaldevelopment. Thecontinuumweproposeforunderstandingteacherimplementationissig-nificantforthefollowingreasons:First,toooftenthoseengagedinprofessionaldevelopment—researchers,policymakers,administrators,andteachers—believeteacherseitherembraceorrejectprofessionaldevelopment.Inordertomakecon-nectionsbetweenprofessionaldevelopmentandstudentlearningitisessentialtounderstandthesubtletiesofhowitisimplemented.Ourresearchsuggestsitisnotasclearas“implemented”or“notimplemented”butthatimplementationhappensinavarietyofwaysandthatthesewaysarenotlinear. Second,inorderforprofessionaldevelopmentfacilitatorsandmentorstoun-derstandhowtheirworkisbeingusedbyteacherstheyneedframeworksthathelparticulatewhat theyareseeing inclassrooms.All,especially teachers, shouldbeinvolvedintheconversationabouthowprofessionaldevelopmentimplementationhappens.Bynamingimplementationpointswecanhelpeveryonereflectonhowitoccursandhowtosupportteachersinricherandmoreconsistentimplementation. Third,fororganizationstodesignrelevantanddeepprofessionaldevelopmentthatmeetstheneedsofteachersasadultlearners,acknowledgestheirpriorexperi-ences,differentiates,andallowsforopportunitiesforcontinuedprofessionalgrowth,theyshouldbeguidedbyprinciplesofadultlearning(Knowles,1984),structuringopportunitiesforteacherstoconnecttotheirownclassroomcontentandpracticenewpedagogicalstrategies.


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Finally,fororganizationstoassesshowtheirphilosophyisbeingexpressedinschoolstheytooneedframeworksthathelpthemseewhatisandisnothappeninginordertomakesenseoftheeffectivenessoftheirdesign.Weseeourframeworkasmovingtowardsatheoryofprofessionaldevelopmentimplementationthatcanbeusefulforbothresearchersandpractitionersinthefield.

Note 1OutwardBoundwasfoundedinWalesin1941byKurtHahn.Hahnbelievedthatplacingpeopleinchallengingoutdoorsituationshelpedthemtogainconfidence,redefinetheirpercep-tionsoftheirabilities,demonstratecompassion,anddevelopaspiritofcamaraderiewiththeirpeers.HahnspreadhisideasofexperientialeducationthroughoutEurope,andinthe1950s,JoshMiner,anAmerican,begantheprocessofbringingOutwardBoundtotheUnitedStates.

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