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RAJASTHAN ELECTRONICS & INSTRUMENTS LIMITED, JAIPUR Introduction REIL is Rajasthan Electronics & Instruments Ltd. It is a public sector unit and it has a prominent place amongst the electronics industry of Rajasthan. It was established in 1981. It is situated at the Kanakpura industrial area about 12 Kms from Jaipur city. REIL has a joint venture between the Government of India & the Government of Rajasthan, through their respective institutions. Government of India & Government of Rajasthan holds 51% & 49 % share in this company respectively. REIL has completed twenty-five years in service of the nation, especially the rural India, rendering services and products in the technology areas of electronics, renewable energy, information technology and industrial electronics. The products address needs of the dairy sector, rural lighting energy, energy metering and e-governance. REIL subscribes to the belief that the path to social and economic progress of the country lies through the villages and is committed to the upliftment of the rural economy by taking technology to the villages. REIL is an ISO 9001 public sector undertaking started as a joint venture between RIICO (Rajasthan State Industrial Development & Investment Corporation) and Instrumentation Limited, Kota. During my training period I have taken my training in four department of this organization. These are - Agro dairy division, Renewable energy division, Industrial electronics division and Quality assurance department. 2. REIL aims at retaining its primacy in the area of Rural Electronics, Non-conventional Energy Systems and Information Technology by developing, manufacturing and marketing quality products and by offering quality services. The company was conferred the status of a

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RAJASTHAN ELECTRONICS & INSTRUMENTS LIMITED, JAIPUR

IntroductionREIL is Rajasthan Electronics & Instruments Ltd. It is a public sector unit and it

has a prominent place amongst the electronics industry of Rajasthan. It was established in 1981. It is situated at the Kanakpura industrial area about 12 Kms from Jaipur city. REIL has a joint venture between the Government of India & the Government of Rajasthan, through their respective institutions. Government of India & Government of Rajasthan holds 51% & 49 % share in this company respectively. REIL has completed twenty-five years in service of the nation, especially the rural India, rendering services and products in the technology areas of electronics, renewable energy, information technology and industrial electronics. The products address needs of the dairy sector, rural lighting energy, energy metering and e-governance. REIL subscribes to the belief that the path to social and economic progress of the country lies through the villages and is committed to the upliftment of the rural economy by taking technology to the villages. REIL is an ISO 9001 public sector undertaking started as a joint venture between RIICO (Rajasthan State Industrial Development & Investment Corporation) and Instrumentation Limited, Kota. During my training period I have taken my training in four department of this organization. These are - Agro dairy division, Renewable energy division, Industrial electronics division and Quality assurance department.

2. REIL aims at retaining its primacy in the area of Rural Electronics, Non-conventional Energy Systems and Information Technology by developing, manufacturing and marketing quality products and by offering quality services. The company was conferred the status of a "MINI RATNA" by the Department of Public Enterprises, Ministry of Industry, Government of India in 1997 on account of it's good all round performance and excellent products. The company has added another feather in it is cap by establishing a Quality Management system for its operations and has been certified as an ISO 9001 firm w.e.f. 31st July, 1998. The area of business extends to manufacturing and marketing of electronic products are Agro-Dairy division, Renewable energy division or Industrial Electronics division Information Technology. Recognition of REIL’s achievements in the field of rural electronics has come in a variety of ways- in customer satisfaction, in its prestigious establishment of the Rural Electronics Technology Center in 1990 and in an award of the Department of Electronics for excellence in Electronic- now named as department of Information Technology under Ministry of communication and Information Technology, for the year 1991 and 2001. REIL‘s remarkable performance in India and abroad has encouraged the company to its sights on international markets with a renewed thrust. In more then two decades of its existence REIL has played a vital role in the field of rural development in India- bringing appropriate rural electronics technology to thousands of villages all over the country. A highly successful

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company with an excellent track record, REIL combines a commitment to quality with professional excellence. REIL’s products range from Electronic Milk Testers and allied dairy equipment to Solar Photovoltaic modules systems, and Gist Add- OnCard and related software’s. The company has also taken up the manufacture of ambient Air Pollution Monitoring Instruments.

3. The Company, through its market driven in-house Research & Development (R&D), (recognized by the Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India), has developed and introduced a number of new products such as Data Processor Electronic Milk Tester (DPEMT), Electronic Milk Weighed System, Automatic Milk Collection Station, Data Processor Milk Collection Unit (DP-MCU), Raw Milk Reception Dock (RMRD) Automation System, PC based Society Accounting & Management System, Animal Database Management System, Smart Automatic Milk Collection Station (SAMCS), Auto Zero EMT, Solar EMT in the diary sector. REIL is also in the business of Renewable Energy through Solar Photo Voltaic (SPV) Technology where It started its operations, in 1986, with manufacture of SPV Modules and Systems. Since then it has supplied and installed numerous SPV Stand alone Street Lighting System, SPV de-centralized Domestic Lighting Systems, SPV Water drinking Systems, SPV Dusk Dawn Switching Systems, SPV Lanterns, SPV powered Railway Signaling Systems, Microwave Repeater Stations, Satellite Ground Terminals and Grid Interactive Power Plants etc. In this area Company has produced SPV Modules of about 8 MW generating capacity. REIL entered the business segment of voter identity card, in 1994, with state-of-art technology i.e. digital imaging and data processing technology, for large scale production of EPIC cards. It also produced over 60 Lac cards for the state of Gujarat. It is also into development and manufacture of Electronic Energy Meters, for domestic user connection, with diversified range of futuristic products like keypad based pre-paid energy meters and smart card based pre-paid meters. It already supplied about 100000 Electronic Energy Meters to State Electricity Boards

4. The company has a strong in-house Govt. recognized Research & Development Division which has enabled the company to effect considerable improvements in the initial adopted technologies. Indigenisation of the Milk Testing equipment and incorporating the latest State-of-the-Art microprocessor designs over the initial and older LSI designs has enabled more features and new add-on equipment has been developed to provide integrated system solutions. A prestigious collaboration with the Department of Electronics (DoE) in 1990 for the establishment of Rural Electronics Technology Centre and an award from DoE for Excellence in Electronics in 1991, testify REIL's achievements in the field of Rural Electronics. The Consistency in Excellence is recognized with repeated award for Excellence in

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Electronics for the year 2001, given by the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology.

ORGANISATION PROFILE

5. Rajasthan Electronics & Instruments Limited (REIL), as a commercial organization, has been in operation for the past 27 years with a proven track record of profitable performance, professional management and service to the rural masses through electronic products for the dairy/milk cooperatives and renewable energy sectors. REIL commenced its foray in the Dairy sector with the manufacture of Electronic Milk Testers under the technology license from National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), by using the technology developed overseas by Foss, Denmark. The Company entered the area of Renewable Energy through Solar Photo Voltaic (SPV) technology, in the year 1985. The Company started its operations with manufacture of SPV Modules and control electronics for SPV powered village Street Lights.

Product in Which REIL is Involved(a) Electronic Milk Tester(b)Automatic Milk Collection Station (AMCS)(c) Data Processor- Electronic Milk Tester(d)Electronic SNF Tester(e) Solar Photo Voltaic Modules (SPV)(f) Radio Frequency Identification(RFID)(g)Spot Billing Machine(h)3- Phase Static Energy Meter

During my training period I have gone through the four department of REIL these are renewable energy division, agro dairy division, industrial electronics division and

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quality assurance department. I also visit the research & development department of REIL.

RENEWABLE ENERGY DIVISION5. The REIL entered into the Solar Photovoltaic industry in 1985. It started its

operations by setting up a manufacturing facility for SPV modules and has expanded its area of operations through manufacture of Balance of Systems for a large number of applications, utilizing its electronics product manufacturing facility. The Company products are a result of its own in-house development efforts. The Company has a capacity of 2 MW per year on single shift basis.Solar Photovoltaic based application products, sub-systems and integrated systems most of which were developed in-house. In the SPV segment, the Company manufactures SPV modules and application systems including Domestic Lighting System, Street Lighting System, Chargeable Power Packs for the rural, telecom, Railway and Defence sectors.

Solar Photovoltaic Module6. The word Photovoltaic is combination of the Greek word for light and the name

of the physicist Allesandro Volta. It identifies the direct conversion of sunlight into energy by means of solar cells. The conversion process is based on the photoelectric effect. The photoelectric effect describes the release of positive and negative charge carriers in a solid state when light strikes its surface.

7. In renewable energy division REIL offers a wide range of state of the art Solar Photovoltaic module suitable for a variety of applications. These modules are ideal power generation at remote areas, where conventional power is not available or power supply is erratic. It is noiseless, non-polluting and maintenance free source of energy. Photovoltaic are solid-state semiconductor devices that convert light directly into electricity. They are usually made of silicon with traces of other elements and are similar to transistors, light emitting diodes (LEDs), and other electronic devices. The photovoltaic device (usually called a solar cell) consists of layers of semiconductor materials with different electronic properties. Most of the material is silicon. A thin layer on the front of the cell is treated with phosphorous to give it a negative character. The interface between two layers contains an electric field and is called a junction.

8. Light consists of particles called photons. As shown in fig 1: we can easily understand when light hits the solar cell, some of the photons are absorbed in the region of the junction, freeing electrons in the silicon. If the photons have enough energy, the electrons will be able to overcome the electric field at the junction and are free to move through the silicon and into an external circuit. Some of the more commonly available units generate 5W to 10W per square foot of collector surface.

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The direct current (DC) from the solar panel is converted to alternating current (AC) through an inverter.

SILICON9. Silicon is important past of solar cell. Solar cell is made up of silicon. It has some

special chemical properties, especially in its crystalline form. An atom of silicon has 14 electrons, arranged in three different shells. The first two shells, those closest to the center, are completely full. The outer shell is only hall full, having only four electrons. A silicon atom will always look for ways to fill up its last shell (which) would like to have eight electrons). To do this it will share electrons with four of its neighbor silicon atoms. It’s like every atom holds hands with its neighbors, except that in this case, each atoms has four hands joined to four neighbors. Pure silicon is poor conductor of electricity because none of its electrons are free to move about, as electrons are in good conductors such as copper. Instead, the electrons are all locked in the crystalline structure. The silicon in a solar cell is modified slightly so that it will work as a solar cell.

Silicon in Solar Cells10. A solar cell has silicon with impurities other atoms mixed in with the silicon

atoms. Changing the way things work a bit. We usually thin of impurities are actually put there on purposes. Consider silicon with an atom of phosphorous here and there, may be one for every million silicon atoms. Phosphorous has five electrons in its outer shell, not four. It still bonds with its silicon neighbor atoms, but in a sense, the phosphorous has one electron that doesn’t have anyone to hold hands with. It doesn’t form part of bond, but there is a positive proton in the phosphorous nucleus holding it in place.

11. When energy is added to pure silicon, as in the form of heat, it can cause a few electrons to break free of their bonds and leave their atoms. A hole is left behind in each case. These electrons then wander randomly around the crystalline lattice looking for another hole to fall into. These electrons are called free carriers, and can carry electrical current. There are so few of them in pure silicon, however, that they aren’t very useful. It turns out that it takes a lot less energy to knock loose one of our “extra” phosphorous electrons because they aren’t tied up in a bond—their neighbors aren’t holding them back. As a result, most of these electrons do break free, and we have a lot more free carriers than we would have in pure silicon. The process of adding impurities on purpose is called doping and when doped with phosphorous, the resulting silicon is called N- type because of the prevalence of free electrons. N-type doped silicon is a much better conductor than pure silicon. That is only one part of solar cell is N-type the other part is doped with Boron; which has only three electrons in its outer shell instead of four, to become P-type silicon. Instead of having free

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electrons, P-type silicon has free holes. Holes really are just the absence of electrons, so they carry the opposite (positive) charge, they move around just like electrons do.

N-type plus P-type Silicon12. In photovoltaic module both N-type silicon and P- type silicon. Photovoltaic cell

always has at least one electric field. Without an electric field, the cell wouldn’t work and this electric field is forms when the N- type and P-type silicon are in contact. The mechanism of producing electric field is explain by fig 1 the free electrons in the N side looks all holes to fall into, the free holes on P side, and there’s a mad rush to fill them in. Silicon was all electrically neutral. The extra electrons were balanced out by the extra protons in the phosphorous and the missing electrons (holes) were balanced out by the missing protons in the Boron. When the and electrons mix at the junction between N- type and P- type silicon, however, that neutrality is disrupted. At the junction electrons and protons are mix and form a barrier, making it harder and harder for electrons on the N side to cross to the P side. Eventually, equilibrium is reached, and we have and electric field separating the two sides.

Fig 1: Effect of electric field in a Photovoltaic cell

Fig 2: Mechanism of photovoltaic generation

A

+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

B

B

N type Si

P type Si

n-type semiconductor

p-type semiconductor

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Physics of Photovoltaic Generation

Depletion Zone

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Types of Photovoltaic System13. PV systems are categorized into three types: autonomous, hybrid and grid-

connected. (a) Autonomous system Autonomous systems are completely independent of other power sources. Autonomous PV system are shown in fig 3, these type of systems are generally used to power remote homes, cottages or lodges as well as in applications such as remote monitoring and water pumping. In most cases, an autonomous system will require batteries for storage. Such systems are particularly useful and cost- effective for summer applications, when access to a site is difficult or costly, or when maintenance needs to be minimized.

Fig 3: Autonomous PV system with batteries Fig 4: PV hybrid system

(b)Hybrid system Hybrid systems receive a portion of their power from one or more additional sources. In practice, PV modules are often paired with a wind generator or a fuel-fired generator. Such systems usually require batteries for storage. They are most appropriate when energy demand is high (in the winter or year-round), when power must be available on demand, or if your budget is limited.(c) Grid-connected system Grid-connected systems allow you to reduce your consumption from the electricity grid and, in some instances, to feed the surplus energy back into the grid. In some cases, your utility may give you credit for the energy returned to the grid. Since power is normally stored in the grid itself, batteries are not necessary unless you want some form of autonomous power during outages. These systems are used in buildings, homes or cottages already hooked up to electrical grid.

Fig 6: Grid connected PV system

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Solar photo voltaic cell14. Solar cells, also called photovoltaic’s (PV) by solar cell scientists, convert sunlight

directly into electricity. Solar cells are often used to power calculators and watches. They are made of semiconducting materials similar to those used in computer chips. When sunlight is absorbed by these materials, the solar energy knocks electrons loose from their atoms, allowing the electrons to flow through the material to produce electricity. This process of converting light (photons) to electricity (voltage) is called the photovoltaic (PV) effect.

FIG 7: SOLAR CELL

15. REIL are using the conventional resources of energy from many years. But now, they are scarce and may not be available in forgoing decades. Hence company has to switch over to other source of energy. One of these is Solar Energy, which is unlimited. Hence this alternate is the need of future. To utilize this resource of energy, Reil use solar cells, which convert Solar Energy into Electrical Energy. A solar generates approximately 0.5 volts. Higher voltage and current are obtained by connecting these cells in series or in parallel; according to the requirement. This energy is stored in batteries and can be used in night hours.

Types of cells, depending upon the crystal structure of Silicon16. Solar cells can be categorized into five classes, depending upon their crystal

structure. These are as follows.(a) Crystalline Silicon Cell

It has high mechanical strength and these are less degraded with time. This is made using crystallization of Si around one Si crystal; hence it is called Single Crystalline Si Cell. It is best suited for general purpose application.Float zone - efficiency is 23%CZ (commercial) – efficiency is 13%(b)Multi-Crystalline Silicon Cell It is made by crystallization of Si around many crystals of silicon. It has less mechanical strength than single Crystalline Silicon material, efficiency of this cell is 12 %.(c) Amorphous Silicon Cell

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This cell doesn’t have any Si crystal. Simply spreading a layer of p-type Si powder, and then N-type Si powder over it. Its mechanical strength is very low. Efficiency is 20%.(d)Thin Film Silicon Cell It is made by very thin film of Si p-type and n-type materials and is used for special purpose. Efficiency is 25 %.(e) High Efficiency Silicon Cell The purification of Si in this type of cell is very high. Hence its efficiency is high. It is used for laboratory devices having efficiency up to 30%. Example cadmium telluride efficiency is 28%.

TYPES OF DIFFERENT MODULES USED 17. There is different type of solar module which I saw in REIL during my summer

Vocational training period. A group of cells connected in series or in parallel and then properly laminated over a glass after curing is known as module. These modules are then fitted onto the areas receiving sunlight. More often these are placed so that upper part of the module is in the South Direction. Solar modules of different wattage and made as per orders and requirements. These are all designed to charge a 12-V battery. The approximation o/p voltage of a module is 16V-18V. Modules are made of following powers

(a) 18 WATT Module For making this, 36 cut cells are used. They are connected in series. The o/p voltage is approximately 0.45Vto0.5V and the o/p current is approx. 2.2A. To get required power 36 cut cells are connected in series. This 36 cell series is called a string. The o/p of this string, when illuminated by the sunlight is found to be approx. 38watts. It has 4 rows, each containing 9 cells.(b) 75 WATT Module Here also, a total of 36 cells are connected in series, which is called string. But the cells used are Suido-Square having o/p voltage 0.45V-0.5V &o/p current 4.5A. The o/p power of the string is found to be approx. 75 watts. It also has 4 rows, each containing 9 cells.(c) 150 Watt Module These are also designed by Suido-Square cells. A total number of 72 cells are connected in series. The module has 6 rows and each row contain 12 cells. Thus a total of 12*6=72 cells are used. The o/p voltage, current and power of each cell is the same as that of 75-watt module. The total power obtained is approx. 150 watts.

CONSTRUCTION AND PRINCIPLE OPERATION OF SOLAR CELL18. In training period of I learned construction method of solar cell. Solar cell is a

simple p-n junction. It is made up of silicon, since in Si, the minority carrier concentration is low, hence they do not disturb the flow of electrons and holes, generated by the solar energy. Less charge carriers can get recombined due to low minority carrier concentration and we get higher value of current and power. For

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making p-n junction it is doped with gaseous Boron (p-type) from one side and solid phosphorous (n-type) from other side. The doping concentration is taken same for both the impurities. Due to different doping state difference of impurities (i.e. gaseous and solid), a one side shifted p-n junction is formed. This junction is shifted towards the n-side. Hence, the light is always made to incident at the n-side, so that the photons can reach the junction. When the high-energy photons reach the depletion region, they impart sufficient energy to an electron to break its covalent bond. This electron comes in conduction band and begins to behave free electron. At the same instant, a hole is also generated due to broken covalent bond.

19. Hence, we can say that two charge carriers are generated by one high-energy photon. These carriers move to opposite direction due to potential barrier at the junction and constitute a current. One must condition of generation of mobile charge carrier is that the incident photon must have higher energy than the band gap of the semiconductor. The induced current is directly proportional to the surface area of the cell, at which the light is incident. A bare solar cell has some conducting lines made up of Silver oxide for collection of charge carriers from all the portions of the surface. These carriers are supplied to the bus bar. This is the place, from where the external terminals are connected by using copper strips. These cells are made up in different shapes and sizes, like circular, square, suedo-square, cut shaped etc. In these, Suedo-Square is optimized size between circular and square to utilize most of the surface area & for less wastage in the process of shaping. The maximum conversion efficiency for laboratory devices is up to 20%, but for commercial cells, it lies between 10% to 15%.

Process for Production of Solar Photo Voltaic Module20. In duration period of training technical supporter of REIL is get familiar with the

manufacturing of solar module. The manufacturing process for Solar cell module is not much typical but requires a careful handling since the sub-assemblies are costlier. A bare cell is expensive and hence requires a careful handling. The manufacturing process of a solar power module contains the following steps as.

(a). Surface Texturing- Forming pyramid like structure on Si wafer does it. This helps in decreasing the top surface reflection of solar radiation from the cell surface.(b). P-n junction formation- To a p type base of Si wafer, an n type usually phosphorus is diffused on it.(c). Back p+ junction formation- this is done by depositing an Aluminum layer and alloying it to the wafer at about 8000C.(d). Front and back metal contacts- That are formed by screen-printing techniques. The typical width of finger lies between 150 to 300 micrometers.

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(e). Antireflection Layer deposition- It can be deposited before or after the formation of metal contacts. Usually any dielectric material having refractive index between Silicon & glass is used with an optimum thickness of 70nm. Materials used are Titanium Oxide, Tantalum oxide, Silicon Nitride and Aluminum oxide.(f). TABBING This is the process of making terminals of a bare cell by soldering copper strips to the bus bar.(g). ROW MAKING A row of nine cells is made by connecting positive surface of one cell to the negative surface of another cell.(h). STRINGING Four rows are connected in series to give a total of 36 cells in series connection. This assembly is called a string and the process is called Stringing.(i). STRING CHECKING This String is checked visually for any kind of faults, which are as follows-

(i) Reverse String(ii) Dry Point(iii) Dry Soldering(iv) Loose Connection(v) Chip(Micro Broken)

(j). LAY UP Lay Up is a process of placing laminating material to the either side of the string. The laminating materials are as listed

(i) Top Glass (Toughened Glass)(ii) E.V.A. (Ethylene Vinyl Acetate) sheet(iii) Crane Glass(iv) Polyester Taddler

(k). LAMINATION The above laminating materials are attached to the string on both sides by the process of lamination. This process takes place at 110oC in laminating press. The module after Lay Up is placed in the press for 11 minutes, which is equivalent to one cycle of the press. First five minutes, soaking takes place. This is the process to generate true vacuum in the module. Each air particle is stored from the inner part of the module. After these five minutes, heating takes place for three minutes. And for last three minutes, the heated module is pressed to attain a one-piece assembly.(l).CURING This process comes after the lamination to attain the full strength of laminating materials. For this, the module is placed into 120oC temperature for 20 minutes.

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(m). TRIMMING The resultant module from curing process has some extra laminating materials. These materials are then cut and the final module is then obtained.(n). ELECTRICAL INSPECTION This inspection is done to check the output performance of the module(o). CHANNELING Now to provide structural support to the module, channels are fixed around it. These channels prevent any damage to the module. A terminal box is also fitted for external connections and for mounting safety diodes and then the final product is cleaned and sent to and sent to he finished goods store.

Function of Safety Diodes 21. The output voltage of the solar module in the day is approximately 16V-18V and it

is used to charge a 12V battery. But in the night hours, the output voltage of a solar module will be lower than that of battery. Hence a reverse current will flow in this condition from battery to the solar module. Thus to prevent it, we use safety diodes which allows the flow of current in one direction only.

Features of SPV cells(a) High efficiency monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells connected in series.(b) Lamination using TEDLAR, Crane glass and EVA provides environmental protection.(c) Solar cells laminated between UV resistant polymer (EVA) and high transmitivity toughened glass surface.(d) Rugged weather proof nylon terminal box for output connections.(e) Anodized aluminum frame provides structural support for mounting and shock resistance. (f) Manufactured to stringent quality standards and tested to withstand adverse environmental conditions.

Commisioning of Work 23. As shown in fig 9 the procedure for making SPV modules with the help of flow

chart, the first step is preparation of copper strips used for tabbing, which are dipped in flux. These strips are tinned and are tabbed on solar cells for connecting them in series. After tabbing the process of row formation takes place, basically connecting p side of one to n type of next and so on does this. Then these rows are taken and according to power requirement we connect the end cells of these in series and get two terminals out making them to act as single source. Next we do the quality analysis of these strings to check if some cells are left dry soldered or have crack or even for some wrong connections. After going through the QA portion the lay up is done. For this sheet of crane glass, Tedlar and EVA (ethylene

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vinyl acetate) are cut and then a low iron tempered glass is taken and on it different whets and string are placed. Next the lamination of this lay up is done for 8 minutes and then for 20 minutes curing of this module is done. After curing the module is analyzed in Sun Simulator for Quality assurance. During this we get the VI characteristics for the module, which can also be provided to the customer. Lastly the channeling of module is done and terminals for connection are taken out.

SPV MODULE 24. Photovoltaic’s (or PV) is the field of technology and research related to the

application of solar cells for energy by converting solar energy (sunlight, including ultra violet radiation) directly into electricity. Due to the growing demand for clean sources of energy, the manufacture of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has expanded dramatically in recent years. Photovoltaic’s is the direct conversion of light into electricity at the atomic level. Some materials exhibit a property known as the photoelectric effect that causes them to absorb photons of light and release electrons. When these free electrons are captured, an electric current result that can be used as electricity.

25. Photovoltaic cells are connected electrically in series and/or parallel circuits to produce higher voltages, currents and power levels. Photovoltaic modules consist of PV cell circuits sealed in an environmentally protective laminate, and are the fundamental building blocks of PV systems. Photovoltaic panels include one or more PV modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-installable unit. A photovoltaic array is the complete power-generating unit, consisting of any number of PV modules and panels.

Fig 8: process of production solar module

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PROCESS FLOW CHART FOR “SPV” PRODUCTION

PRODUCTION PROCESS INSPECTION STAGE

Fig 9: Process flow chart for SPV production

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Sun Simulator ( PV Module QA Testers)

26. The Sun simulator tests the electrical performance of photovoltaic cells under simulated sunlight. A xenon arc lamp with an optical filter provides a close match to the Air Mass 1.5 Global (AM1.5G) solar spectrum. A filtered pulsed xenon light source closely matches the solar spectrum while avoiding device heating. Sun simulator measures current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of cells with dimensions up to 156 mm x 156 mm at 1 sun intensity. Its high resolution also permits testing of very small area devices. Separate current and voltage probes on the top and bottom of the cell permit four-point (Kelvin) I-V measurements. A calibrated monitor cell is located on the test plane to monitor the light intensity. A computer with user friendly software adjusts the lamp intensity, controls the measurement process, and acquires cell performance data. A programmable electronic load varies the resistance across the cell to measure its I-V characteristics. The computer plots the I-V curve and displays a variety of cell characteristics. Curves and data can be printed and stored on disk.

27. It feature light sources that closely match the solar spectrum while avoiding the excessive solar cell heating caused by continuous sources. Spire's simulators can test either crystalline or thin film modules and can be integrated into your fully automated module production line, or operated in manual mode. In automatic mode, a programmed process sequence provides consistent module testing and offers optional automated loading and unloading of modules. In manual mode, the controls can be operated as desired.

Features and Benefits (a) Large 2m x 2m test area.(b) Illumination uniformity within ±2% at 1 sun(c) Xenon light source filtered to Class A spectrum

(AM1.5G) for intensities from 70 to 110 mW/cm²(d)Measures the following module parameters

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(i) Complete I-V curve (ii) Open circuit voltage, Voc

(iii)Short-circuit current, Isc

(iv) Cell temperature, °C(v) Peak power, Pmax

(vi) Cell efficiency, η(vii) Fill factor, FF (viii) Series resistance, Rs

(ix) Shunt resistance, Rsh

(x) Voltage at peak power, Vmp

(xi) Current at peak power, Imp

(xii) Cell efficiency, Oc

(xiii) Module efficiency, Om

(xiv) Current at load voltage, It

(xv) Power at load voltage, Pl Performance of solar cell

28. The performance of a solar cell is measured in terms of its efficiency at turning sunlight into electricity. Only sunlight of certain energies will work efficiently to create electricity, and much of it is reflected or absorbed by the material that makes up the cell. A typical commercial solar cell has an efficiency of 15%, about one-sixth of the sunlight striking the cell generates electricity. Low efficiencies mean that larger arrays are needed, and that means higher cost. Improving solar cell efficiencies while holding down the cost per cell is an important goal of the PV industry, the first solar cells, built in the 1950s, and had efficiencies of less than 4%.

Effect of temperature on the characteristics of a solar cell

29. Temperature affects the characteristic equation in two ways: directly, via T in the exponential term, and indirectly via its effect on I0 (strictly speaking, temperature affects all of the terms, but these two far more significantly than the others). While increasing T reduces the magnitude of the exponent in the characteristic equation, the value of I0

increases exponentially with T. The net effect is to reduce VOC (the open-circuit voltage) linearly with increasing temperature. The magnitude of this reduction is inversely

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proportional to VOC; that is, cells with higher values of VOC

suffer smaller reductions in voltage with increasing temperature. For most crystalline silicon solar cells the reduction is about 0.50%/°C, though the rate for the highest-efficiency crystalline silicon cells is around 0.35%/°C. By way of comparison, the rate for amorphous silicon solar cells is 0.20-0.30%/°C, depending on how the cell is made. The amount of photo generated current IL

increases slightly with increasing temperature because of an increase in the number of thermally generated carriers in the cell. This effect is slight, however about 0.065%/°C for crystalline silicon cells and 0.09% for amorphous silicon cells. The overall effect of temperature on cell efficiency can be computed using these factors in combination with the characteristic equation. However, since the change in voltage is much stronger than the change in current, the overall effect on efficiency tends to be similar to that on voltage. Most crystalline silicon solar cells decline in efficiency by 0.50%/°C and most amorphous cells decline by 0.15-0.25%/°C.

Effect of series resistance on the characteristics of a solar cell

30. As series resistance increases, the voltage drop between the junction voltage and the terminal voltage becomes greater for the same flow of current. The result is that the current-controlled portion of the I-V curve begins to sag toward the origin, producing a significant decrease in the terminal voltage V and a slight reduction in ISC, the short-circuit current. Very high values of RS will also produce a significant reduction in ISC; in these regimes, series resistance dominates and the behavior of the solar cell resembles that of a resistor.

Effect of shunt resistance on the characteristics of a solar cell

31. As shunt resistance decreases, the current diverted through the shunt resistor increases for a given level of junction voltage. The result is that the voltage-controlled portion of the I-V curve begins to sag toward the origin,

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producing a significant decrease in the terminal current I and a slight reduction in VOC. Very low values of RSH will produce a significant reduction in VOC. Much as in the case of a high series resistance, a badly shunted solar cell will take on operating characteristics similar to those of a resistor.

Effect of reverse saturation current of a solar cell

32. If one assumes infinite shunt resistance, the characteristic equation can be solved for VOC. Thus, an increase in I0

produces a reduction in VOC proportional to the inverse of the logarithm of the increase. This explains mathematically the reason for the reduction in VOC that accompanies increases in temperature described above. Physically, reverse saturation current is a measure of the "leakage" of carriers across the p-n junction in reverse bias. This leakage is a result of carrier recombination in the neutral regions on either side of the junction.

Effect of ideality factor on the characteristics of a solar cell

33. The ideality factor (also called the emissivity factor) is a fitting parameter that describes how closely the diode's behavior matches that predicted by theory, which assumes the p-n junction of the diode is an infinite plane and no recombination occurs within the space-charge region. A perfect match to theory is indicated when n=1.When recombination in the space-charge region dominate other recombination, however, n = 2. Most solar cells, which are quite large compared to conventional diodes, well approximate an infinite plane and will usually exhibit near-ideal behavior under Standard Test Condition (n ≈ 1). Under certain operating conditions, however, device operation may be dominated by recombination in the space-charge region. This is characterized by a significant increase in I0 as well as an increase in ideality factor to n ≈ 2. The latter tends to increase solar cell output voltage while the former acts to erode it. The net effect, therefore, is a combination of the increase in voltage shown for

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increasing n in the figure to the right and the decrease in voltage shown for increasing I0 in the figure above. Typically, I0 is the more significant factor and the result is a reduction in voltage.

Applications of SPV Modules(a) The photovoltaic cells were developed at Bell Labs in 1950 primarily initially for space applications. The Hubbell telescope utilizes solar panels for its energy requirements. (b) Solar panels can power a 17" b/w TV, a radio or a fan.

(c) Some electric lighting systems provide sufficient current for up to 10 hours of lightning each evening.

(d) Locally produced car batteries can provide up to 5 nights of energy for a 8 watt DC fluorescent light. (e) The new Mazda 929 uses solar cells to activate a fan to ventilate the car when the car is idle and parked during a sunny hot day.(f) SPACE AGE TECHNOLOGY - Solar cells, also known as Photo Voltaic Cells, were rapidly developed to provide electrical energy for space missions.  The beauty of solar cells is that provided the Sun shines, they keep on producing free electricity.

(g) SOLAR PANELS IN SPACE- A photovoltaic (PV) or solar cell is the basic building block of a PV (or solar electric) system. To boost the power output of PV cells, we connect them together to form larger units called modules. Modules, in turn, can be connected to form even larger units called arrays, which can be interconnected to produce more power, and so on. In this way, we can build PV systems able to meet almost any electric power need, whether small or large.

Agro Dairy Division34. The Electronics Division kicked off its operations in

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1982, --the year of formation of the Company and has notched up many credits in the last one and a half-decade. The operations started with the Electronic Milk Tester, under technical collaboration with A/S Foss Electric of Denmark, and assembly of Electronic Milk Tester (EMT) in SKD form, from kits supplied by the collaborator, initially. The Company has rapidly absorbed and assimilated the technology, successfully indigenised the product, and in response to customer requirements, designed it on micro-controller technology to suit the needs of the Indian customers. Thus, the auto-zero EMT was introduced in the market in the year 1990. The Company has also successfully integrated the products into a more versatile system, developed in-house through it own development efforts, called the Milk Collection Station.

ELECTRONIC MILK TESTER35. During my training period the second division of is

agro dairy division, the main product of agro division is electronic milk tester, so in this section section of REIL, I learned about Electronic Milk Tester (EMT). & it’s different sub assemblies and its working principal & testing. E.M.T is a simple, economical but accurate milk fat testing instrument. It measures the fat content instantaneously on a digital read out. It does not involve the use corrosive chemicals. It works on light scattering principle with manual homogenization. It operates on AC-mains as well as on battery with inbuilt battery charger & automatic switch over to battery in case of power failure. Several thousand small/large dairies and village Milk Collection Centres are being benefited with its use.

36. Basic objective in the dairy development program is to increase the production of milk. Milk collection depends on prompt payment of fair and correct price to encourage producers to increase milk production. The system of payment based on quality (i.e. fat content) discourages adulteration and encourages producers to increase production of high quality milk. It is further very necessary that each sample of milk

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Fig 10: Electronic Milk Tester Should be tested of its quality and testing should be completed within 2 to 3 hours time in order to make correct payment. Milk sample would also get spoiled if not tested immediately in the absence of facility to preserve them, especially at village level.

37. Age – old traditional ‘GERBER’ method of testing milk by chemicals has many inherent drawbacks, such as human error, multistep method, handing of corrosive chemical and different types of glassware. All these add to the cost and time of milk testing. A quicker reliable and economical method of milk fat testing has therefore become inevitable and an immediate problem to solve. In the light of some problems faced by ‘GERBER’ method of testing, it was felt prudent, to evolve a system which should solve these problems.

38. The process of fat measuring by EMT has involved basic principle, diluents preparation, homonization, auto zero setting etc.

Features of EMT(a) Auto zero facility (b) Performs 110-130 samples per hour(c) Instant measurement and display of milk fat (d) Instant calculation of amount payable (e) Facility to feed milk weight directly through keypad in absence of weighing machine

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(f) Operation with 4*4matrix hexadecimal keypad(g) Printing facility (h) Instant transmission of data’s on remote display(i) 7 segment LED(j) Suitable for interface with electronic weighing machine through serial port(k) Data storage up to 800 members for 30 days (l) Data transmission speed 2400 baud(m) Data storage on E2PROM(n) Built in battery charger (o) Runs on mains and battery both (p) Slip printout by 80 columns serial dot matrix

printerTechnical Specifications of EMT

Performance Data Installation Requirements 

Measuring range 

0-13% fat  Power Supply 

AC: 220-24OV 

(Max + 10%, Min - 15%) 

DC: 12V, 6A 

(Max 16 V; Min 10.5V) 

A fully-charged 120 AH 

battery will last for at least 

10 hours of operation. 

Capacity  120-150 samples/hour  Ambient temperature 

5-45 0C 

Accuracy (Sd) 

0.06% for 0-5% fat  Dimensions (HxWxD) 

23x31x53 cm

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0.10% for 5-8% fat 

0.20% for 8-13% fat 

Repeatability (Sd) 

0.03% for 0-5% fat 

0.04% for 5-8% fat 

0.08% for 8-13% fat 

Space requirement 

60x80 cm

Sample volume 

0.5 ml/test  Weight (without diluent) 

16 kg. 

Diluent volume 

6.5 ml/test 

Basic principle of EMT39. Electronic Milk Tester works on the photometric

measurement of light scattered by the fat globules present in the milk sample. The measuring procedure follows the conventional system of dilution, mixing, homogenization and photometric measurement.

Fig 11: Front View Of Electronic Milk Tester

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Working Principle of Measurement40. EMT is based on the photometric measurement of high

scattered by the milk sample. The light is scattered by the milk sample. The light is scattered by the fat globules acting as small prisms. Not only fat globules in milk contribute to the light scattering, but also the proteins may affect the measurement, to eliminate their influence, it is necessary to dissolve them. EDTA solution is used for the purpose.

(a) Constant fat globule size is required by the system. This is done by homogenizer.(b) Light rays from a photo lamp are passed through the layer of fluid in the cuvette and are scattered according to the sample of fat globules in sample. Photocell detects and current is fed to digital readout.(c) Light rays from a photo lamp passed through the layer of fluid in the cuvette and are scattered according to the sample of fat globules in the sample. More the fat is present in the cuvette more is the light scattered and less light passes through the cuvette. The rays that do pass through the cuvette strike a photocell, producing a current proportional to the light intensity. The current is fed to a digital readout unit which gives direct fat percentage read out.

Different subassembly of EMT are as follows(a) Photometer The photometer consists of a lamp, lamp housing and detector assembly. The detector assembly includes the cuvette and photo cell.(b)Cuvette It is made of two hardened glass discs. One has a ground depression of 0.4 mm the other has two small holes to provide inlet and outlet to the cuvette.(c) Photocell It is a selenium barriers / silicon detector photocell. Care should be taken not to expose this photocell to light when not in operation.

(d)Lamp 12 Volts tungsten Lamp.Diluent preparation

(a) Diluent is used to dilute milk samples and

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dissolve the proteins(b) Chemicals required to prepare 10 liters of diluent

are as follows(i). EDTA sachet-52.6gmscontaining

EDTAPowder-45.0gms, disodium Hydroxide- 7.6gms.

(ii). Triton-x-100 -- 0.5ml (10 drops)(iii). Antifoam --0.5ml(10 drops)

(c) Take a clean 10lt plastic container and add one liters clean water. Add contents EDTA sachet, containing diluent powder for 10lt sol. Add .5ml of titron-X-100 & .5ml antifoam. Put the lid on container and shake it until all chemicals re dissolved then add 1 liter clean water to prepare 10lt of sol. and shake again to mix the sol. The pH of the solution should be between 9.5 to 10.1diluent will remain good for two weeks before antifoam becomes inactive. Diluent can be kept longer if antifoam antifoam is added to solution from time to time.

Sub Assemblies(a) Cable assembly.(b) Charging regulator It has two functions When battery has been discharged it limits charging current to 5 amps, and other is When battery has been fully charged and reaches 14.1D charging regulator turns off charging current entirely.(c) Switch unit(d) Control panel Output of power is given to measure pcb where current from photocell is led to 3 position switch to IC where current is converted to voltage.(e) Power supply (power PCB) this is a serial regulator with no current limit. Base current goes to ground via resistor.(f) Thermo block It is used for temperature control it consists of Heater resistance, thermo fuse (70 deg. blow), NTC, steel coil. An NTC resistor sensor is located in a hole at rear of thermo block. Temperature control of power supply PCB contains a

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bridge circuit which is adjusted to balance when NTC is 500C bridge output is amplified and controls transistor power amplifier of heat control circuit .the output transistor and heat resistor are mounted at rear of thermo block.(g) Dispenser unit It consists of EDTA powder (dissolves proteins except fat) +distill water + titrounax (lubricant) +antifoam (reduce foam).(h)Homogenizer It uniforms fat globules solution enters and a film is made of sample. If the fat is of high amount film is thick so light is more saturated thus voltage decreases. If fat is less film is thin thus voltage increases.

Fig 12 : Homogenizer Assembly

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Basic unitunit

AccessoriesAcc. cable

Components for

accessoriesOutput lever

Valve unit 3

Valve unit 2

Valve unit 1

Rear panel

Dispenser unit

Bottom plate

Thermo block

Homogenizer

Power supply

Control panel

Switch unit

Charging regulator

Cable assy.2

Cable assy. 1

Component

for basic unit

Photometer Block c.p.

Intake valve

Power pcb

Measure pcb

Components

27

Fig 13. Block diagram of EMT

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(i) Photometer and its associated parts (i). Lamp, lamp housing(ii).Detector assembly induces the cuvette and

photocell(iii). Cuvette: it is made of 2 hardened glass discs one has 0.4mm ground discs; another has 0.4mm ground depression.

Fig 14: Assembly of PHOTOMETER

(iv). Photocell selenium barrier/ silicon detector photocell. It should not be exposed to light when the device is not in operation.(v). Lamp 12 volt tungsten.

(j) Rear panel It consists of 12v battery and a heat sink- for cooling purpose.

Fig 15: Rear View Of EMT

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Technical Fault Finding in EMT(a) Rear panel checking All components of the rear panel are checked using a millimeter. It is a part of final quality control. Continuities of the circuit are checked. (b) PCB calibration

(i).Measure PCB PCBs are programmed as per need and

requirements and fat content. REPEAT and ZERO buttons are checked

for functionality.(ii). Power Supply PCB

It has two operations, Temperature control and Voltage level supply. (Low 5.9 V to 9.9V) both are tested.

(iii). Charger PCB It is checked for charging at 14.1 V for a 5

ampere battery.(c) Valve testing There are three types of valve

which are classified on the basis of the pressure at which they work. These are

(i).Red valve takes diluents to dispenser unit from inlet.

(ii). Green valve dispenser to dispenser again.(iii). Blue valve outlet of checked sample

(waste).(d) PCB cleaning PCBs are cleaned with the

chemicals meant for the same. All the dust gets removed and PCB is ready for installation after this.

(e) Temperature testing (thermo block) Temperature of the thermo block is set with the help of Power PCB. Maximum temperature: 50.1 to 50.2 degrees Celsius Minimum temperature: 49.0 to 49.1 degrees Celsius. All measurements are done with the help of electronic thermometer. We insert the sensor in a hole of thermo block.

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Fig 16: Calibration Of E.M.T

(f) Mechanical testing Mechanical connections and joints are checked. Attachments are tightened to provide strength to the machine.(g) Life test It is done to check mechanical faults and leakage after overall testing to see how the device is working in practical situations.(h) Dispenser test Leakage of the milk and diluents chambers is checked. If found, dispensers are sent back for repairing.

Installation of EMT(a)Place of installation should be such that there should be sufficient space for diluents container and battery also. Handle of EMT must be easy to reach.(b) Check 1 Ampere fuse in the mains fuse holder and 10 Ampere fuse in the battery holder.(c) Connect power cables to mains.(d) Use only 12V motor car battery connect red lead of battery to’+’ pole of battery and back lead to ‘-‘pole. Connect other end of the cable of electronic milk tester.(e) Set selector switch at line 1 battery will now be supplied to EMT from battery. As long as main switch is at on operation, current from mains will keep the battery charged. If the power fails battery will still be able to supply enough current for several hours of operation. Set the selector switch at line, if for any reason the EMT is to be operated on mains

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current without a battery.(f) Prepare the diluent as described earlier.(g) Connect one end of plastic thick pipe to INLET stub at back of EMT and attach the filter unit to other end which is placed in the diluent container.(h) Connect one end of plastic thin pipe to outlet stub and place the other end in wastecontainer.

Fig 17: Installation Of Electronic Milk Tester

(i)Place empty beaker under milk intake tube and push ‘milk in’ &’milk out’ buttons alternatively until no bubbles are seen in syringes, end by pushing ‘milk out’ button.

Process of Measurement(a).

(b).

(c).Fill bottle with diluents.(d).

(e).

half an hour.(f). Setting display at 0.00.(g). Place milk beaker under milk intake.

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(h). Push milk in, milk out.(i). Move mix beaker to mix intake.(j). Raise and lower handle 6 times.

Fig 18: Fat Measurement by Electronic Milk Tester

(k). Push repeat button so display blinks.(l). Push zero buttons so display reads 0.00.(m). Push repeat so display doesn’t blink (one

decimal).41. After drying and zero setting measurement can begin.

First result after zero check / zero setting should not be recorded as it will be little low. Therefore measure the first sample after zero check twice and record only second result. Turn the milk sample gently upside down a few

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times. Place the sample under milk intake and fully press “MILK IN” button. Slowly remove the sample without touching the milk intake tube. Place clean milk under milk intake so that it fills into notch on the side of EMT Press ‘MIXOUT’ button in all way and diluent into mix beaker. Move mix beaker to mix intake tube and position it so that it rest in notch operator homogenizer handle up and down 3 times in a steady measurement when the handle is pressed down and the third time let it test in bottom position and result will soon appear on the display empty the mix beaker completely and in ready for the next sample.

End of Measurement 42. Place a clean, empty mix beaker under milk intake tube

and press ‘MILK IN’ and ‘MIXOUT’ buttons twice alternately to fill mix beaker with diluent. Place the mix beaker under mix take and operate the handle up and down six times to flush the cuvette. Switch off the EMT.

De-airing the homogenizer43. Air will enter the homogenizer if the handle is raised

when there is no liquid present at the mix intake tube. Place the mix beaker under milk intake tube and press ‘MILK IN’ & ‘MILK OUT’ buttons twice to fill the beaker with diluents. Now place the filled mix beaker under the MIX INTAKE tube and raise the handle. Loosen the bleeder screw on the top of mix intake valve. Let the handle drop by its own weight and tighten the bleeder screw again. Operate the handle three more times up and down to be sure that all air is out of the system.

QUALITY ASSURANCE AND ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

44. Every company has a cell for checking the quality of its goods, so that the consumers can use the product without any difficulty for a long time. REIL has a department for quality assurance and control. In my training period I also gone through this department where I saw the various functions of this department include.

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In REIL, Q.A department has two major operations (a) Solar Module Checking.(b) EMT Checking.

Inward Goods Checking 45. The raw material bought by REIL for the production of

EMT and Solar Module are firstly checked, if they are faulty or not. If they are faulty, they returned otherwise forwarded to manufacturing cell. This checking is called inward goods checking. In this type of checking, out of a group of 60 pieces, 5 pieces are checked randomly. If they all are found to be good, then all are passed to production department, and if not then, all pieces are checked one by one. The faulty pieces are forwarded for replacement.Subassembly Quality Control This department also checks the quality of subassemblies, made by the raw goods by REIL.Final Goods Inspection After the final product is obtained; it is again checked for quality control.

SPV Checking It has three major phases –(a) Inward Goods Checking First of all, the bare cells are checked for required quality.(b)String Checking after making string, it is checked visually, if there are any faults or not. The main faults in a string are

(i). Reverse String(ii). Dry point (iii). Dry Soldering (iv). Loose Connection(v). Chip(Micro Broken)

(c) Electrical Inspection this is used to check the performance o/p of the module under normal working condition. This is checked using a device called sun simulator. A sun simulator generates the light at of same intensity and frequencies, as that of SUN and check the module under following parameters

(i). Open Circuit Voltage

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(ii). Short Circuit Current (iii). Maximum Power (iv). Peak Voltage(v). Peak Current(vi). Load Power(vii). Load Voltage (viii). Load Current(ix). Fill Factor = Pm/Voc. Isc

(x). Efficiency(xi). Panel Temperature(xii). V-I Curve

Industrial Electronics Division46. The company has extended its expertise and experience

gained in the development of electronic products to design & development of Single Phase and Three Phase Electronic Energy Meters under its newly formed Industrial Electronics Division. The Industrial Electronics Division kicked off its operations in 1996. Initially, the development of Static 3 phase and later 1 phase Energy meters was taken up. The operations started with the requirements of the state electricity boards to incorporate latest advances in electronics for their energy monitoring needs and for introducing a more reliable and tamper-proof meter to curtail pilferage and misuse of the electric power supplied to the customers. The Company has rapidly absorbed and assimilated the technology, successfully developed the product in response to customer requirements to suit the needs in Indian conditions.  The IE Division is also working on the various models of the meter like; Analog Electronics based, ASIC based and microcontroller based to integrate more features and improve the reliability of the product through its own development efforts.

Energy MeterAn electric meter or energy meter is a device that

measures the amount of electrical energy supplied to or produced by a residence, business or machine.

(a) Static energy meter single phase 5-30 A- it is watt

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hour meter for measuring energy consumed in a load of single phase up to 30 Amps. It is static type i.e.no moving parts inside it like disc as in case of conventional type.

(b) It measures as low as 10 ma AC current as drawn by Neon lamp/ led’s etc. it is anti tampering i.e. measures energy through current of both the lines phase and neutral and take the reading of maximum of the two, thus no tampering can be done.

(c) It is made strictly as per New IS 13799: 1999 and tested for rigorous evaluation tests well approved by BIS (Beauro of Indian standards).

Working principal of Static Energy Meter (SEM)47. Input current is being measured by two CTs and is

fed to IC 9607 and voltage is fed via PT to the IC. IC out put is in the form of pulses is fed to pulse counter. One Led indicates for power is “ON” another for pulse indication, third is for anti tampering (earthing load) and fourth for reverse current. Thus all different conditions are indicated on the front of meter. Meter is tested for calibration on Min. load (10 mA) to 30A 600% of rated current on power factor from unity to 0.5 (lag) and 0.8 (lead). It should be within the limits of class 1 (1%). The calibration LED indicates on each pulse and can bee calibrated for a meter constant of 6400 IMP per KWh while counter has one increment on 640 IMPs for i/10th

JWH (unit).(a) It is tested for no load that is it should not

indicate increment of reading while on NO load ( Creap test).

(b) It is tested for actual reading on counter (Dial test).

(c) It is tested for repeatability of error with repect to time. It sould be within limit of 0.5 %.

48. Electricity is a clean, convenient way to deliver energy. The electricity meter is how electricity providers measure billable services. The most common type of meter measures kilowatt hours. When used in electricity retailing, the utilities record the values measured by these meters to generate an invoice for the electricity. They

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may also record other variables including the time when the electricity was used. Since it is expensive to store large amounts of electricity, it must usually be generated as it is needed. More electricity requires more generators, and so providers want consumers to avoid causing peaks in consumption. Electricity meters have therefore been devised that encourage users to shift their consumption of power away from peak times, such as mid afternoon, when many buildings turn on air-conditioning. For these applications, meters measure demand, the maximum use of power in some interval. In some areas, the meters charge more money at certain times of day, to reduce use. Also, in some areas meters have relays to turn off nonessential equipment. Providers are also concerned about efficient use of their distribution network. So, they try to maximize the delivery of billable power. This includes methods to reduce tampering with the meters.

49. The network has to be upgraded with thicker wires, larger transformers, or more generators if parts of it become too hot from excessive currents. The currents can be caused by either real power, in which the waves of voltage and current coincide, or apparent power, in which the waves of current and voltage do not overlap, and so cannot deliver power. Since providers can only collect money for real power, they try to maximize the amount of real power delivered by their networks. Therefore, distribution networks always incorporate electricity meters that measure apparent power, usually by displaying or recording power factors or volt-amp-reactive-hours. Many industrial power meters can measure volt-amp-reactive hours.

Features (a) Static Energy Meter is based on state-of-the-art hybrid electronics technology.(b)Reverse current & tampering protection.(c) Accurate energy measurement even in case of phase reversal.(d)LED indication for meter functioning.

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(e) Intelligent electronic circuit to ensure no creepage of meter.(f) True R.M.S. meter to ensure good performance even for distorted waveforms.(g)Sealed electromagnetic impulse counter for additional security.(h)Sudden switching of heavy loads and/or transient voltage does not affect the meter reading.(i) Accurate reading even at rapidly fluctuating load current.(j) No effect of high voltage fluctuations.(k)Resistant to heat, fire and dust.(l) Provides direct interface to mechanical

counters.(m) Monitors live and neutral for tamper detection.(n) Performs bi-directional energy measurement.(o) Various setup modes selectable.(p) Total power consumption rating below 25 mW.(q) Adaptable to different types of sensors.(r) Operates over a wide temperature range.(s) Precision voltage reference on chip.

Unit of measurement50. The most common unit of measurement on the

electricity meter is the kilowatt hour, which is equal to the amount of energy used by a load of one kilowatt over a period of one hour, or 3,600,000 joules. Some electricity companies use the SI mega joule. Demand is normally measured in watts, but averaged over a period, most often a quarter or half hour. Reactive power is measured in "Volt-amperes reactive", (watt) in kilowatt-hours. A "lagging" or inductive load, such as a motor, will have negative reactive power. A "leading", or capacitive load, will have positive reactive power.Volt-amperes measures all power passed through a distribution network, including reactive and actual. This is equal to the product of root-mean-square volts and amperes.

51. Distortion of the electric current by loads is measured in several ways. Power factor is the ratio of resistive (or real power) to volt-amperes. A capacitive load has a

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leading power factor, and an inductive load has a lagging power factor. A purely resistive load (such as a filament lamp, heater or kettle) exhibits a power factor of Current harmonics are a measure of distortion of the wave form. For example, electronic loads such as computer power supplies draw their current at the voltage peak to fill their internal storage elements. This can lead to a significant voltage drop near the supply voltage peak which shows as a flattening of the voltage waveform. This flattening causes odd harmonics which are not permissible if they exceed specific limits, as they are not only wasteful, but may interfere with the operation of other equipment. Harmonic emissions are mandated by law in EU and other countries to fall within specified limits.

Other units of measurement 52. Meters which measured the amount of charge

(coulombs) used, known as ampere-hour meters, were used in the early days of electrification. These were dependent upon the supply voltage remaining constant for accurate measurement of energy usage, which was not a likely circumstance with most supplies. Some meters measured only the length of time for which current flowed, with no measurement of the magnitude of voltage or current is made. These were only suited for constant load applications.

53. Types of meters There is different types of meters, depends upon the demand of time.

(a) Electromechanical metersThis mechanical electricity meter has every other

dial rotating counter-clockwise. The electromechanical induction meter operates by counting the revolutions of an aluminum disc which is made to rotate at a speed proportional to the power. The number of revolutions is thus proportional to the energy usage. It consumes a small amount of power, typically around 2 watts. The metallic disc is acted upon by two coils. One coil is connected in such a way that it produces a magnetic flux in proportion to the voltage and the other

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produces a magnetic flux in proportion to the current. The field of the voltage coil is delayed by 90 degrees using a lag coil.[4] This produces eddy currents in the disc and the effect is such that a force is exerted on the disc in proportion to the product of the instantaneous current and voltage. A permanent magnet exerts an opposing force proportional to the speed of rotation of the disc. The equilibrium between these two opposing forces results in the disc rotating at a speed proportional to the power being used. The disc drives a register mechanism which integrates the speed of the disc over time by counting revolutions, much like the odometer in a car, in order to render a measurement of the total energy used over a period of time. The type of meter described above is used on a single-phase AC supply. Different phase configurations use additional voltage and current coils.

(b) Solid state meters Some newer electricity meters are solid state and display the power used on an LCD, while newer electronic meters can be read automatically. In addition to measuring electricity used, solid state meters can also record other parameters of the load and supply such as maximum demand, power factor and reactive power used etc. They can also include electronic clock mechanisms to compute a value, rather than an amount of electricity consumed, with the pricing varying by the time of day, day of week, and seasonally. Most solid-state meters use a current transformer to measure the current. This means that the main current-carrying conductors need not pass through the meter itself and so the meter can be located remotely from the main current-carrying conductors, which is a particular advantage in large-power installations. It is also possible to use remote current transformers with electromechanical meters though this is less common.

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(c) Smart metersSmart meters go a step further than simple AMR

(automatic meter reading). They offer additional functionality including a real-time or near real-time reads, power outage notification, and power quality monitoring. They allow price setting agencies to introduce different prices for consumption based on the time of day and the season. These price differences can be used to reduce peaks in demand (load shifting or peak lopping), reducing the need for additional power plants and in particular the higher polluting and costly to operate natural gas powered peaker plants. The feedback they provide to consumers has also been shown to cut overall energy consumption. Another type of smart meter uses nonintrusive load monitoring to automatically determine the number and type of appliances in a residence, how much energy each uses and when. This meter is used by electric utilities to do surveys of energy use. It eliminates the need to put timers on all of the appliances in a house to determine how much energy each uses.

(d)Prepaid energy metersPrepayment meter and magnetic stripe tokens,

from a rented accommodation in the UK. The button labeled A displays information and statistics such as current tariff and remaining credit. The button labeled B activates a small amount of emergency credit should the customer run out. The standard business model of electricity retailing involves the electricity company billing the customer for the amount of energy used in the previous month or quarter. In some countries, if the retailer believes that the customer may not pay the bill, a prepayment meter may be installed. This requires the customer to make advance payment before electricity can be used

Other product Manufactured or tested at REIL

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AUTOMATIC ELECTRONIC MILK TESTER54. Automatic Electronic Milk Tester (Auto EMT)

manufactured by REIL is simple, economical and accurate milk fat testing instrument. Manual operation has been automated by using high torque AC synchronous motor to make more reliable, rugged and to ensure proper homogenization for higher fat sample. Percentage of fat content is displayed quickly and accurately on a digital read out.

Working principle55. Automatic Electronic Milk Tester works on the

photometric measurement of light scattered by the fat globules present in the milk sample. The measuring procedure follows the automated system of dilution, mixing, homogenization and photometric measurement.

Technical specifications(a) Measuring Range : 0-13% fat

(b)Capacity : 150-180

samples /hour

(c) Sample Volume : 0.5 ml/test

(d)Diluent Volume : 6.5 ml/test

Features of Auto EMT(a) Auto intake of milk sample(b) Auto homogenization(c) Auto zeroing(d) Process indication(e) Quick and instant read-out(f)Runs on mains(g)Measures up to 13% fat(h)Requires small quantity of milk (i) Performs 150Min.-180Max. test per hour(j) Inexpensive method of testing(k)Dedicated Milk Fat Analyzer (l) RS 232 communication facility(m) Close correlation to accepted standard methods or measurement of milk parameters.

OPTICAL MILK ANALYZER

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56. The Optical Milk Analyzer, developed by REIL, works on the principle of photometric measurement of light allowed to pass through the measurement device in accordance with the milk density. The milk density is measured accurately and result displayed quickly on a display after temperature correction according to the actual sample temperature for the convenient read-out by the user and the milk producer. The instrument allows capturing of milk FAT from an Electronic Milk Tester (EMT) and displays FAT and SNF% on Optical Milk Analyzer LCD. Option for display of CLR is also available. The instrument is simple, economical, reliable and rugged for milk analysis. The instrument can be integrated with Automatic Milk Collection Unit for quick measurement of milk parameters, processing and storing them for records. The instrument is ideally suited for the village milk collection centers, milk chilling centers etc.

Fig 19: Optical milk analyzer

FEATURES

(a) Displays % solid-non-fat(b) Results independent of sample temperature (c) Suitable for Raw, Fresh and homogenized milk(d) Effect of air bubbles on accuracy eliminated (e) Small reusable after test (f) Performs 150 tests per hour

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(g) Quick measurement and instant digital read out on LCD

(h) Low power consumption(i) Simple and inexpensive method of milk analysis(j) Operator friendly-easy to maintain and simple to

use

DATA PROCESSOR ELECTRONIC MILK

TESTER (DPEMT)

57. Data Processor Electronic Milk Tester (DPEMT) comprises of four main units, an Electronic Milk Tester, Milk weighing System, Remote Display and Dot Matrix Printer. EMT measures the fat content of the milk. The membership codes of individual members are entered manually by keyboard. The weight can be entered either manually or captured automatically. The equipment gives the printout of the transaction of milk brought in by each producer. The member no., weight, fat, amount are displayed on DPEMT and Remote Display simultaneously. A shift-end summary can be printed at the end of the shift.

Fig 20: external diagram of DPEMT

58. Data Processor Electronic Milk Tester works on the principle of photometric measurement of light scattered by the fat globules present in the milk sample. The measuring procedure follows the conventional system of dilution, mixing, homogenization and photometric

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measurement.

TECHINICAL SPECIFICATION (a) Measuring Range : 0-13% fat(b)Capacity : 110-130

Samples per hour(c) Sample Volume : 0.5 ml/test(d)Diluent Volume : 6.5 ml/test

FEATURES(a) Auto zero facility.(b)Performs 110-130 samples per hour.(c) Instant measurement and display of milk fat.(d) Instant calculation of amount payable.(e) Facility to feed milk weight directly through keypad in absence of weighing machine.

(f) Operation with 4*4matrix hexadecimal keypad.(g)Printing facility.(h) Instant transmission of data’s on remote display.(i) 7 segment LED.(j) Suitable for interface with electronic weighing machine through serial port.(k)Data storage up to 800 members for 30 days.(l) Data transmission speed 2400 baud.(m) Data storage on E2PROM.(n)Built in battery charger.(o)Runs on mains and battery both.(p)Slip printout by 80 columns serial dot matrix

printer.

The BactoScan FC59. The Bactoscan™ Fc Is The Ideal Solution For

Laboratories Requiring Reliable, Instant And Accurate Bacteria Count In Raw Milk With Minimum Sample Handling. The Unique Combination Of Technology And Biochemistry Combined With Optimum Data Processing And A Software Platform Second To None, Make Bactoscan Fc A Winner. The Bactoscan Fc Is A True Member Of The Foss Integrator Family. The Great Advantage From A Laboratory Point Of View Is That The

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Same Software, The Same Conveyors, Bar Code Readers Etc. Can Be Used Throughout The Laboratory. This Eases Training of Laboratory Staff and Facilitates Data transfer and –handling The very simple reagent concept allows much more flexibility when purchasing reagents. all reagents can be supplied in packages for approx. 20,000 samples (150 samples/hour) in addition, The enzyme stock solution is supplied in smaller volumes to comply with varying needs all reagents are ordered separately. The BactoScan FC consists of the analyzer, the PC and the basic Foss Integrator software package. A number Of options are available. The 100% automated BactoScan FC employs flow cell cytometry to provide a system that counts Individual Bacteria Cells - IBC (only viable bacteria). This gives a high accuracy compared to methods that are strongly influenced by bacterial growth requirements and by the number of single bacteria in a bacteria cluster. Analytical quality assurance A complete range of control samples and quality assurance application software offers a system for monitoring and documenting correct analyzer performance, and helps trouble shooting if need.

Fig 21: BactoScan FC

Installation requirements(a) Dimensions : 85 x 260 cm(b) Space requirements : Approx. 2 x 4.5

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meters(c) Weight : 197 kg (without

conveyor)(d) 205 kg (with Basic Conveyor)(e) 250 kg (with Conveyor 4000)(f) Power supply : 110 - 240 V AC(g) Power consumption : 50VA stop, max

2000 VA(h) Water supply for preparation: Purified water (<5

μS/cm3)(i) Air (for Conveyor 4000) : 0.2 N litres/min at

4.0 – 7.2 bar(j) Waste : Approx. 8 litres

per hour(k) Ambient temperature : 15 – 33°C

Data output(a) Real-time display/print-out, storage on hard disk or diskette.(b)Host transmission (RS232) and PC network transmission (TCP/IP).(c) Data export using CSV files, CS83 protocol or

XML.EquipmentBasic analyzer incl. table and reagent containers, PC,

software, Basic Conveyor, Printer, extra reagent containers, ID bar code laser scanner, ID bottle rotation, Conveyor 4000, Conveyor extensions, Output buffer, Sample racks.

Standards and approvalsBactoScan FC is CE-labeled and complies with the

following standards:(a) EMC directive 89/336/EEC(b) Machinery safety directive 98/37/EEC(c) Low voltage directive 73/23/EEC(d) Reagents labeling directive 99/45/EEC

Application data

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BactoScan FC Semiautomatic is only available with high sensitivity at 50 samples per hour (50H). This version does not include Conveyor and Stirrer system

(a) Analysis time : 8.5 minutes(b)Sample intake : approx. 4.5 ml(c) Sample temperature : 2 – 42°C(d)Sample quality : Raw milk of normal

composition and good quality from cows Un-preserved or preserved with azidiol

Performance dataRepeatabilityRange (IBC/μl) Sr (log-units)

Typical Sr (log units)10 – 50 0.07

0.0651-200 0.05

0.04>200 0.04

0.02

Benefits and features(a) Correct and fair milk grading(b)Superior documented reproducibility,

repeatability and carry-over(c) Facilities for QC and validation of results

(i.)All reagents certified.(ii.) Software traceability tools.(iii.)Control samples help you monitor and

document.(iv.) Analyser performance.(v.) Control sample charts - log performance

over time.(vi.) Documented performance on accuracy, reproducibility and repeatability.

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(d)Software conversion tools for calculation of Individual Bacteria Eminent tool for improving milk quality.

(i.)Fast results - in less than 9 minutes.(ii.)Recording of Individual Bacteria Count rather than Colony Forming Units which might hide poor quality milk.

(e) High up-time(i.) Few moving parts – a robust analyser.(ii.)No daily adjustments, short warm up period.(iii.)Little time spent on reagent preparation.(iv.) Remote support via modem or internet.(v.) Supported by local FOSS Service organization, trained BactoScan engineers are always close.(vi.)Low operator costs per sample.(vii.)High sample throughput – 50 -100 or 150 samples/hour.

(viii.) Simplified reagent concept.(ix.) Low service costs per sample.(x.) High sample throughput – 50 -100 or 150 samples/hour.

(xi.) 2 year warranty on instrument.(xii.)Software troubleshooting tools and remote support.

(xiii.) Quality control concept.(xiv.)Preventive maintenance contracts.

MilkoScan Minor 60. Today, chemical methods such as Gerber, Babcock,

Kjeldahl and other traditional methods are no longer the only practical low-cost solution for e.g. Fat and Protein testing needs. The MilkoScan Minor is a very attractive alternative because of its lower cost and less time used per sample. It is easy to use, rapid and has a fine performance. The results are presented to you in approximately 90 seconds and enable you to standardize milk or perform milk payment analysis on Fat and other parameters. With MilkoScan Minor you get a simple analysis of whole range of parameters - all from one sample in only one operation. It is possible to prepare a sample set on the PC before collecting results and prepare a manual sample. MilkoScan Minor is based on

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well known IR technology used in other FOSS MilkoScans, and complies with IDF standards and AOAC official methods. FPD only in cow’s milk calibrations. MilkoScan Minor is simple and user friendly all the way from installation to operation, calibration and maintenance. This makes it easy for non-skilled users to operate the instrument. Analysis of your milk and cream can take place instantly. There is no need for special sample treatment and no use of hazardous chemicals, making MilkoScan Minor very safe and inexpensive to use. Analysis of milk and cream can take place instantly. There is no need for special sample treatment and no use of hazardous chemicals, making MilkoScan Minor very safe and inexpensive to use. . we just have to place the sample in the instrument and press Start. MilkoScan Minor has an easy legible display with few keys.

Fig 22: MilkoScan Minor

MilkoScan Minor PC software(a) Save time- With FOSS MilkoScan Minor PC software, manyof the time-consuming tasks related to milk analysis can be carried out by means of an external PC. The simplified procedures for data collection, calibration adjustment and data storage

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provides for greater efficiency and productivity in your daily work.

(b) Data collection-All results can automatically be collected, displayed and stored for calculation and adjustment of the basic calibrations. All results can be saved, printed and exported to other software programs. This ensures greater data security and reduces manual data entry.(c) Export and import of data- The results can be exported for use in other software programs. Measured results can be imported and used in various sample sets. Results can be exported and printed on any printer via the PC(d) Emulator- Emulator software is included in order to provide training and demonstrations and for fast and easy learning of the software.(e) Compatibility-The MilkoScan Minor PC software is approved to run under Windows 2000 and Windows XP with service pack 2.(f) Local language option- German as well as English language is integrated in the PC software.(g) Sample ID-Sample ID can be entered before or

after data collection.(h) Product program names-Customized product program names can be typed in.(i) Calibration adjustment-The password-protected adjustment section provides editing of reference data, calculation of the basic calibration using Slope & Intercept and statistics plots helping to evaluate the adjustment of the calibration.

Safe and easy to use - requires no specific operator skills

61. MilkoScan Minor is simple and user friendly – all the way - from installation to operation, calibration and maintenance. This makes it easy for non-skilled users to operate the instrument. Analysis of milk and cream can take place instantly. There is no need for special sample treatment and no use of hazardous chemicals, making

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MilkoScan Minor very safe and inexpensive to use. We just have to place the sample in the instrument and press Start. MilkoScan Minor has an easy legible display with few keys. You get all data in a single display, user defined programs with easy navigation and logical Screens.

Analyser features(a) Pre-calibrated for milk and cream.(b)Automatic cleaning and zero-setting.(c) Unique FOSS Standard sample.(d)No hazardous chemicals.(e) Easy and cost-effective.(f) Analysis of cold samples.

PC software features(a) Automatic data collection(b)Calibration adjustment(c) Import/export of results(d)Print-out via PC

Applications(a) Cow’s milk(b)Skim milk(c) Buffalo milk(d)Goat’s milk(e) Sheep milk(f) Cream

Parameters to be measure(a) Fat(b)Protein(c) Lactose(d)Total Solids(e) Solids-non-Fat(f) Freezing Point Depression(g)Simple analysis of milk composition with

MilkoScan™ MinorTechnical specifications

(a) MilkoScan Minor 4 -4 selectable parameters. Accuracy F, P, L, TS, SnF < 2.0% CV in cow’s milk samples.Calibration principle

62. Either instrument integrated bias-adjustment only, or automatic bias adjustment for maximum performance

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on all parameters.Automatic bias adjustment uses an external PC with easy-to-use software and data storage.Option: Upgrade to 6 parameters possible.

(b) MilkoScan Minor 6 -6 parameters. Accuracy F, P, L, TS, SnF < 1.5% CV in cow’s milk samples.Calibration principle Either instrument integrated slope/intercept-

adjustment, or automatic slope/intercept adjustment for maximum performance on all parameters. Automatic S/I adjustment uses an external PC with easy-to-use software and data storage.Installation requirements

Dimensions (HxWxD) : 285x500x360mm

Power supply : 100-240VAC, 50-60 Hz

Performance data Measuring speed : Approx. 40 samples per hour

Measuring range : Fat: 0 - 40%

Protein : 0 - 8%

Lactose : 0 - 7%

Solids-non-Fat : 0 - 15%

Total Solids : 0 - 50%

FPD : 0.45 – 0.55°C

Repeatability : F, P, L, TS, SnF < 0.5% rel.

Purging efficiency : > 99%

Sample volume : < 8 ml

Sample temperature : 5 - 40°C

Environ. Temp. : 5 - 38°C

Humidity : 0 - 95% RH

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Spot Billing Machine 63. The Spot Billing Machine (SBM) is a Hand Held

Computer, in which the program is stored along with all the relevant data, for issue of electricity bills, right at the customer premises, immediately after the meter reading is read and input to SBM. The storage of program and data is done through a Personal Computer (Host PC), and is called pre-journey configuration for the specific meter-reader route, user-connection record including type of connection, applicable tariff, previous reading, past payments etc. The master data pertaining to the tariff tables, type of connection, consumer profile are stored on the Host PC, and made available for uploading on to the SBM at the time of configuration. Once the pre-configuration is over the SBM is ready for field operations. The meter-reader reports at the consumer site, accesses the customers account on SBM and record the current reading. On the basis of the last reading and tariff structure, a bill would be generated instantly. Payment in non-cash mode can also be collected then and there. In such case, the receipt would also be generated.

64. The payment could be collected through non-cash modes. A collection report can be prepared at the end of trip. After a journey is over the transaction data files are transferred from SBM to the Host PC, over a communication cable connected to serial communication port. The SBM requires about three hours for full charging after which it can be used continuously for 7-8 hours. A pre-implementation study is a pre-requisite for such projects, to identify the system requirements and user requirements. The customization can be done as per the user requirements.Specifications

(a) High Speed CPU (b) 256 KB program memory (c) 4 MB data memory (d) Real Time Clock

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(e) LCD display unit (4 rows x 20 character) with backlight

(f) 30 Keys soft silicon rubber Keypad (g) High speed serial port / program port (115

Kbps) (h) Built-in 24 column Impact printer (i) Built in 2.2 AH Lithium-Ion or 1.7 AH Ni MH

battery (j) ABS plastic case housing (k) Programmable as per user requirement (l) Light weight, versatile and affordable

Fig 23: spot billing machineAccessories & Application Software

(a) Intelligent Battery Charger (b) carrying case (c) Spot Billing Machine software (d) PC-end data transfer (to and from SBM)

software Features

(a) The bill is immediately generated. (b) The collection of dues, through non-cash instruments, is performed in the field. (c) Variety of reports can be prepared.(d) Utility Bill with all relevant details.(e) Receipt against the Bill.(f) Day end Collection report.(g) Duplicate receipt.

SPV Dusk-Dawn system65. Solar Photo Voltaic (SPV) Dusk Dawn System is an

energy saving device used for automatic switching of street lighting systems, making proper use of grid power

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and increasing the life of the lamps by switching the street lights for a optimum period. The system is highly reliable and efficient for years of continuous flaw-less operation. The system's operation is based on sensing the ambient light level which actuates the electronic controller to switch ON the street lights in the evening and switch OFF in the morning. The sensor is totally maintenance free and encapsulated in an environment proof housing making it more reliable even in adverse atmospheric conditions. The system has the advantage of automatic setting of switching timings irrespective of whether it is winter or summer, thus making it a totally unmanned operation. Once a setting for a particular darkness level is done, it remains unchanged throughout the year.

Features(a) Automatic switching and hence unmanned(b) Optimal use of grid power.(c) Energy saving up to 30%.(d) Enhancement of pole-lamp life.(e) Highly efficient, reliable and economical.(f) System design can take care of any grid load /

safety precautions.(g) No seasonal time setting required.(h) Highly weather proof and totally maintenance

free sensor.(i) Protection against line to line, line to neutral &

line to earth fault.(j) Manual by-pass in case of system failure.(k) On Line service facility.

Specifications(a) Housing: Kiosk type, weather proof pole

mounting panel of required size.(b) Sensor: SPV Solar Photo Voltaic sensor of suitable capacity encapsulated in an environment-proof housing.

(c) Electronic Controller: Electronic controller of rugged design for automatic switching of public street lights.(d) Protection: Against line to line, line to neutral

and line to earth fault.

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(e) Electrical switch gear unit of rated power capacity.

(f) Special Features:(i). Manual by-pass in case of exigency.(ii). Pole mounting facility

(g) Rated load model 1 - 100 A / ph.(h) Model 2 - 60 A / ph.(i) Model 3 – 30A / ph.

SPV Railway Signaling System66. SPV system provides reliable and economical power

for energizing the signal motor and lamps at isolated railway signals that are far from grid power. REIL has supplied and installed over 340 SPV Signaling Systems on various sections of Western Railways. These systems are working satisfactorily under adverse climatic conditions of very high temperature, dust-storms, etc. REIL's SPV Modules are approved by R.D.S.O., Ministry of Railways vide their approval No. STS/E/Cell Solar.

SpecificationsEach system consists of the following:

(a) SPV Module - 35Wp(b)Battery - 12V, 80AH(c) Signaling PCB to energies front & back bulb with automatic dusk to dawn switching(d)Charge control unit(e) Wire-set(f) Frame for Module

Key Features(a) Highly Modular in nature(b)Little or no maintenance required(c) Non-polluting in nature(d)Depends on inexhaustible source of energy(e) Easy to operate(f) No recurring cost(g)Automatic operation - No man power required

VOTER HELPLINE SERVICES

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67. REIL has introduced help-line services to empower the citizens of our democracy to confirm their names in the voter list by using their EPIC ID number. The citizens can now access the information through the Internet; through a PSTN help-line; and through SMS based query system. The application system has been installed in Rajasthan and the Election Department has empowered the citizens to obtain information while sitting in the safety of their homes and offices, and even while they are on the move. All the three applications have been built around an efficient search-engine to search the database of all the voters of the state; with suitable interfaces for interaction with the end-user. The Internet help-line is a web-application which can be hosted on the official web-site of the Election department. The application provides a simple use-friendly interface to input the voter EPIC ID number, in the prevailing format. The captions, prompts and messages are all displayed in Hindi.

After keying-in the EPIC ID number, the user is required to click on the Submit button on the screen. The value of the ID number is passed to the application which searches the database, for the relevant record. On a successful search the relevant data is displayed on the screen, for the user. An unsuccessful search leads to the message being displayed on the screen to contact the officials of the area. The application is developed on the .NET platform, and Oracle is the database platform. The application supports Unicode, for Hindi, which eliminates the need to download fonts and allows easy viewing (of the standard layouts and prompt strings) across browsers, however the data-content viewing could be constrained by the font used by the respective state election departments.

VEHICLE TRACKING SYSTEM (VTS)68. REIL provides an innovative web-enabled “On-line

Vehicle Tracking System” to manage vehicle fleet comprising of trucks, dumper, car, trailers, tankers,

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containers or any four-wheel vehicles. The Vehicle Tracking System offered by REIL,

comprises of the Vehicle mount unit, which determines its positional data by communicating with the Geographical Positioning System (GPS) satellites, and communicating the data with real time stamp – using the General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) / Global System of Mobile (GSM) Communication network to the web servers. The web servers comprise of the Communication server, Database / GIS map server and Backup Web server. The authorized user can access this web server through Internet for which a computer system and broadband connection would be the only requirement at the user site.The vehicle mount unit is a microprocessor-controlled device, which employs the extended features of the Global Positioning System (GPS) to determine the position of the vehicle in terms of Longitude and Latitude with the date and timestamp, GPRS and GSM technologies to periodically send the captured positional data to the web servers. Wherever the GPRS / GSM network coverage is not there; the data logger of the vehicle mount unit is made capable of storing up to 200positional transactions. Most of the cities of India are well covered in the GPRS communication by various service providers. However the vehicle mount unit can send the positional data through GSM communication also. This feature is useful while deploying vehicles in the areas where GPRS coverage is not there. However, the usages and roaming charges would be applicable as per the effective plan of the GSM service provider.

69. The positional data is forwarded to the web servers, which comprises of Communication, database server and map servers. The data is authenticated, validated, stored, interpreted and superimposed on digital maps of the location. The remotely placed Backup server backs up the data. The user can see various graphical and textual details pertaining to movement of the vehicle, over the Computer system using broadband Internet connectivity. Keeping in view that the PSTN or ISDN internet

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connectivity provides lesser bandwidth, which is in sufficient to handle the graphical images; it is recommended to use the broadband internet connection only. The digital maps of the area concerned shall be arranged from the agencies concerned.Features

(a) Intrinsically safe design (b)Built-in GSM Antenna (c) SMS backup for GPRS (d)Auto messaging mode (e) Vehicle information on 24 X 7 basis (f) “Black box” design – No manual intervention is

required (g)Remotely configurable (h)Fire retardant cable (i) Configurable buttons for emergency / panic

buttons (j) Position accuracy: of +/- 10 meters (k) IP67 compliant (Ingress protection) (l) Certified by Chief Controller of Explosives for Vehicles carrying petroleum fuels, and SAMEER for Electro magnetic interface (m) Optional : Two way communication system(n)Produces variety of reports

Conclusion70. The Summer Training of an engineering student plays

an important role to develop him as a well-groomed professional. It is a golden opportunity for him to give theoretical concepts a practical shape in the field of application. Finally I conclude that this training of thirty days has given me a good knowledge about the production and quality aspects of solar photovoltaic modules, E.M.T, energy meter and other products. As the organization follows the ISO 9001 standards, everything is done in a particular way following the documents, learning all of this was good experience. I addition I gained knowledge about the working principle of solar cells and the various applications in which they are used.

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This training has been for small period but was valuable enough giving us insight about solar photovoltaics, E.M.T. It will be helpful in enhancing the existing technology and to market the range of product.In these 30 days of exposure in “Rajasthan Electronics & Instruments Limited” I learned a lot on various aspects of organizational structure, departments, latest technologies and their impact. Now after 30 days I can say one thing for sure that ‘the best way to learn is at work.’ It was a really interesting experience and I enjoyed every part of it and hope that it would be helpful in my future.The main object of the training makes an interaction between students and Company in which student gets aware from the techniques, process, which should be used in the company and it also improves the personality and skills of the students. Industrial visit plays a vital factor for the students. All faculties help us to understand the system and the technology which are used in the visited company and the engineers and employs of the companies cooperate with us and take interest to our question related to the companies and about its products their services.

71. In the field of SPV technology the company further diversified into the manufacture of Solar Photovoltaic based application products, sub-systems and integrated systems most of which were developed in-house. In the SPV segment, the Company manufactures SPV modules and application systems including Domestic Lighting System, Street Lighting System, Charge able Power Packs for the rural, telecom, Railway and Defence sectors. It started its operations by setting up a manufacturing facility for SPV modules and has expanded its area of operations through manufacture of Balance of Systems for a large number of applications, utilizing its electronics product manufacturing facility. REIL has played a vital role in the field of rural development in India - bringing appropriate rural electronics technology to thousands of villages all over the country. The Company products are a result of its

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own in-house development efforts. The company is self-reliant as far as development activity is concerned, to enable modification and improvement in existing products and also introduce new products, in tune with customer requirement. REIL are committed to total customer satisfaction by identifying their specific needs, translating them into quality products, providing dependable after sales services and to work for continual improvement of Quality Management System.REIL has extended its expertise and experience gained in the development of electronic products to design & development of Single Phase and Three Phase Electronic Energy Meters under its newly formed Industrial Electronics Division. The Company has also successfully integrated the products into a more versatile system, developed in-house through it own development efforts, called the Milk Collection Station. Industry has also pioneered the integrated use of Smart card technology in Rural Electronics applications. The project of Smart card based Driving License and Registration Certificates for the state of Rajasthan is also under progress. The company has added another feather in it's cap by establishing a Quality Management system for its operations.Thus I learnt many more useful things, it has improved my theoretical concept of electronics equipments like PCB’s etc. protection and auto zero of various apparatus was a great thing. I had a chance to see operation of electronic milk tester (EMT), and milk processing unit. Therefore the training was more than hope to me and helped me to know about the technology used for different electronics equipment. In REIL I have learned many things there which will be very useful in my technical line. I have experienced to operate electronic milk tester and how its internal processing is going on. I knew how the auto zero is done for electronic milk tester. Every department Head supported me very well. I also know about solar project. They modified the working of electronic milk tester beyond it as electronic milk

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processing unit . In this all data for number of customer, milk quantity and fat measurement is stored in computer by connected to processing unit. It is advantageous feature for high level and precious measurement. Ifound here that there is place for all type of engineers and there is good future for engineers. Here we can improve our skills. Procedure of selection in this company is that company time to time they open the vacancies as per their requirement. Their HR department takes most important role as a placement cell. We need to take more efforts to grab all this opportunities. Thus in this practical training I concluded that it is one of the interesting period in an engineer’s life and helps him to attain knowledge and learn about the latest technologies.

BibliographyCompany booklet, & manualWekipediaJournals news related to solar energy, energy meter.Renewable Energy SourcesEnergy security and renewable technologyRenewable global status report:2009www. Reiljp.com

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