Reading Strategies and Activities for the Social …glencoe.com/ebooks/social_studies/9780078909399/anc/rsa.pdfReading Strategies and Activities for the Social Studies Classroom New

Reading Strategiesand Activities

for the SocialStudies Classroom

New York, New York Columbus, Ohio Chicago, Illinois Peoria, Illinois Woodland Hills, California

Copyright © by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Permission is granted to reproduce thematerial contained herein on the condition that such material be reproduced only for classroom use; be providedto students, teachers, and families without charge; and be used solely in conjunction with Glencoe social studiesproducts. Any other reproduction, for use or sale, is prohibited without written permission from the publisher.

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Table of ContentsTo the Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

To the Student . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Professional Notes

Effective Teaching Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Reciprocal Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Recognizing Text Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Narrative Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2Expository Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Exploring Expository Texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3Considerate Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Text Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Skills and Strategies for Reading Expository Texts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Effective Classroom Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6Reading Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6Independent Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Teaching Word Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7Decoding and Encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7Strategies for Teaching and Reinforcing Phonic Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Activities to Reinforce Word Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Glossary of Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Consonants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Initial Consonant Blends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Final Consonant Blends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Consonant Digraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Alternate Consonant Sounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Silent Consonants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Vowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Common Vowel Sounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Vowel Digraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11Diphthongs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11R-Controlled Vowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11Variant Vowel Digraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11Schwa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Word Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

After Reading

During Reading

Before Reading

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Word Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12Homophones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12Homographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12Synonyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12Antonyms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12Compound Words. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Denotation/Connotation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Syllabication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Effective Vocabulary Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Strategies for Teaching Vocabulary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Using Context Clues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Using General Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Using Word Parts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16Using Language Structure Clues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Using Classifying and Categorizing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Using Word Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Using a Concept-Definition Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Using a Semantic-Features Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Using Possible Sentences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Using Story Elements to Teach Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Teaching Active Reading Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Previewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Activating Prior Knowledge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Predicting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Questioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Monitoring Comprehension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Visualizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22Interpreting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22Analyzing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22Connecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22Responding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22Reviewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23Evaluating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Teaching Reading and Thinking Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24Identifying Main Idea and Supporting Details. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24Summarizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25Making Inferences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26Drawing Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26Understanding Sequence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27Determining Fact and Opinion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28Analyzing Cause-and-Effect Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29Comparing and Contrasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30Analyzing Problem and Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Reproducible Graphic Organizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31


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Strategies and Activities

Pre-Reading Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44Lesson 1 Previewing the Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44Lesson 2 Making Predictions and Setting Purposes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47Lesson 3 Using a KWLH Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

As-You-Read Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53Lesson 4 Monitoring Comprehension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53Lesson 5 Understanding Key Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56Lesson 6 Identifying the Main Idea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59Lesson 7 Taking Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62Lesson 8 Outlining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65Lesson 9 Reading Maps, Graphs, and Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68Lesson 10 Interpreting Photographs and Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71Lesson 11 Comparing and Contrasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74Lesson 12 Understanding Cause and Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Post-Reading Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80Lesson 13 Summarizing Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80Lesson 14 Sequencing and Categorizing Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83Lesson 15 Making a Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86Lesson 16 Test-Taking Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Answer Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

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To the Teacher

The Importance of ReadingWe live in the Information Age. Few things are as important for success today as an abilityto understand, analyze, and act on what we read. Whether in the world of work or in thehome, most of what adults read is nonfiction. Similarly, students’ success depends uponthe ability to read and evaluate nonfiction. The most essential informational reading thatstudents do is in their content-area textbooks.

Improving Reading ComprehensionResearch supports the value of teaching specific reading comprehension skills to students.Strategies that some good readers intuitively use can be effectively taught to less-skillfulreaders. This book is designed to help students learn, practice, and apply effective readingcomprehension strategies. The goal in teaching these reading skills is to enable students to independently apply reading strategies to construct meaning from text.

In addition to teaching reading strategies, there are other ways you can build readingachievement.

• Model your own use of reading strategies.

• Encourage students to spend time reading daily.

• Provide carefully selected reading materials.

• Devote class time to meaningful discussion of ideas gained through reading.

• Read aloud to students.

• Remember that the richer the background knowledge, the greater the reading compre-hension. Before students begin a new textbook lesson and reading assignment, providetime for students to draw upon what they already know through earlier reading and lis-tening experiences.

• Research shows that when students are interested in what they read, their readingachievement soars. Build on students’ curiosity by making connections between theirinterests and content-area readings.

• Students with significant reading lags will also benefit from listening to taped recordingsof text while reading along in a book. They can also dictate or write critical informationand then read aloud from their dictation.

To assess students’ current use of reading strategies, have students complete the ReadingStrategy Inventory on page vii. Then, after students complete all the activities in this book,administer the Inventory again. Have students note the changes in their reading processes.

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.To the Student

What Is Reading Comprehension?The primary purpose of reading is comprehension, or understanding. Unless you under-stand what you read, you might as well be reading words in an unknown language.Because much of the reading you do in school is to gather information and learn newideas, it is critical that you understand what you read.

Some school reading may be difficult for you. That’s okay—all readers struggle at times.What is important is that you know how to unlock the meaning of a passage. Goodreaders use a variety of methods to help them make sense of what they read. Thisworkbook is designed to help you learn, practice, and apply those strategies. Then, asyou read your school textbooks and research sources, you will be able to use thesestrategies and skills on your own.

What Are Reading Strategies?Reading strategies are the techniques you use to help you understand and rememberwhat you read. You probably use many reading strategies without even thinking aboutthem. There are strategies to use before reading, during reading, and after reading. Whenyou page through a book, scanning the pictures and captions, you are using a pre-readingstrategy. When you take notes as you read, you are using a during-reading strategy. And,when you summarize a passage after you have read it, you are using a post-reading strategy.

Reading Strategy Inventory

Directions: To help you reflect on what strategies you know and use regularly, take the Reading Strategy Inventory below. There are no right or wrong answers to these questions, so take the time to honestly answerthe questions. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.

1. How do you choose what to read?

2. What do you do before you begin reading?

3. As you read, what do you do if you come across a word you don’t know?

4. What do you do if you don’t understand a paragraph or a section?

5. As you read, do you do anything special to help you remember the information?

6. After you have completed a reading, what do you do?

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Effective Teaching MethodsThe following approaches are among many that can help you teach reading toyour students. Beginning as a whole-class activity and ultimately becoming small-group reading sessions, reciprocal teaching is a system of working through a textto maximize student involvement and comprehension. Modeling is a method ofpresenting reading and thinking processes with the goal of having students applythese processes on their own. Recognizing Text Structures and ExploringExpository Texts provide keys to help students access informational texts.

Reciprocal TeachingReciprocal teaching (Palinscar and Brown, 1984) is a method of checking under-standing during reading that actively engages students, creating in them a feelingof investment in their own learning process. In reciprocal teaching, the teacherguides a group of students to apply four reading strategies in a prescribed way withthe goal of achieving comprehension of a segment of text. As students becomefamiliar with the process, the teacher’s role gradually changes from leader to facil-itator, and the students take over the process themselves, alternating in the roleof group leader. The order of the strategies may vary depending on teacher pref-erence. However, students should learn and use the strategies in a consistentorder. Here is a brief description of the reciprocal teaching process.

ModelingModeling is the process of demonstrating a thinking process. To model, theteacher usually first reads aloud a segment of text as students follow along intheir books. Then, in everyday language, the teacher reasons aloud. The pur-pose of modeling is for students to understand the steps that readers follow tosolve a reading problem or to analyze a text. The goal is to have students apply similar reasoning procedures during their own reading processes. The followingis an example of modeling that a teacher might use to demonstrate how usingcontext clues helps the reader to understand an unfamiliar word.

Questioning After students have read a portion of text, the leader asks the group questions about what they have just read. For student leaders, formulating such questions causes them to think about what the impor-tant ideas in the text were. Answering such questions causes all students in the group to review what they have learned and to look back to find answers to what they do not know.

Clarifying The leader points out places in the text that he or she found difficult and also invites group members to bring up anything that they found confusing. Students discuss these troublesome places and use information in the text and their own knowledge to clear up confusing points or difficult terms or concepts.

Summarizing The leader then summarizes the segment of text. Orally summarizing requires student leaders to actively evaluate ideas in the text and to determine the key ideas that should be included in a summary. Members of the group also must evaluate the significance of ideas. They respond by suggesting addi-tions or alterations to the summary that the leader has proposed.

Predicting The leader now makes predictions about what will happen next on the basis of what the group has already read. Group members partici-pate by suggesting changes to the predictions or by proposing new predictions. Students use their predictions to prepare themselves to read the next segment of text.

Reciprocal Teaching Process

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panies, Inc.Modeling I wonder what the word vacant means. From the first sentencein the passage we have just read, it seems that vacant is a kind of seat ona bus. The narrator goes on to say that she “took” the vacant seat. To takea seat means “to sit down.” The narrator would most likely sit only in anempty seat. So vacant probably means “empty.” Just to be sure, I’ll read alittle further. The second sentence shows the narrator’s surprise that peoplewere standing even though there was a vacant seat. In other words, peopleshould sit when there are vacant seats. This confirms that vacant means“empty,” and a vacant seat must be an empty seat.

To complete the modeling cycle, individual students are asked to think aloud,demonstrating their own thinking processes as they employ the reading strategyor skill. Reasoning aloud makes students more aware of what they actually doas they read. Listening to a student think aloud shows the teacher how the student’s abilities are developing and where the student needs support andguidance in applying the strategy (Duffy, Roehler, Herrmann, 1988).

Recognizing Text StructuresNoticing the way ideas are organized in a piece of writing helps students anticipatethe types of ideas they will encounter and prepares them to comprehend thetext, whether the text is narrative or expository.

In fictional narratives, readers can identify with characters and situations. Ahuman-interest connection potentially exists between readers and the text.While the concepts in expository writing can be equally interesting to stu-dents, there are special challenges in comprehending the text. The writingstyle, organization of ideas, and author’s objectives are among the differencesbetween narrative and expository writing.

NNaarrrraattiivvee WWrriittiinngg Narrative writing is writing that tells a story. The writingpiece can be fiction or nonfiction (as in a personal narrative or an autobiography).

As children hear and read narratives from their earliest home and school experiences, they begin to internalize the structure of stories. They have certainexpectations of how stories will be presented and what they will include. Forexample, they expect to find characters, a conflict, and action that resolvesthe conflict. Expecting certain kinds of information helps prepare students to comprehend the story.

This predictable story structure is called story grammar. Narrative stories aretypically structured to include the following:

• a beginning, a middle, and an end • characters, setting, plot, and theme • a conflict, a progression of events, and a resolution• chronological order

EExxppoossiittoorryy WWrriittiinngg Expository writing is nonfiction writing that explains,informs, or persuades. Essays, articles, reports, and manuals are examples ofexpository writing. Expository writing whose primary purpose is to provide

2 Professional Notes

specific or technical information about a topic or event is sometimes calledinformational text. The most crucial informational text that students willencounter is found in content-area textbooks, such as science, social studies,and math textbooks. Examples of other kinds of informational texts are Website resources, reports, proposals, brochures, policy statements, manuals, andsets of instructions.

Exploring Expository TextsUnlike narratives, which usually fit a story-grammar structure, the organizationof ideas in expository writing may fit one of several text structures. Teachingstudents to recognize the text structure will help prepare them for reading andcomprehending the text (Armbruster, Anderson, and Ostertag, 1989).

The most common text structures are time order, compare-contrast, descrip-tion, cause-effect, and problem-solution. While an expository selection maymake use of a variety of text structures, almost always one overriding textstructure applies to the whole piece of writing. For example, an author maycompare and contrast two ideas in an essay with an overall cause-and-effecttext structure.

Sometimes signal words help the reader determine the text structure. The fol-lowing chart defines the text structures and lists examples of signal words thatapply to each.

As students read expository text, they can use various graphic organizers—concept webs and organizers for compare/contrast, cause-effect, problem-solution,and sequence—to help them deconstruct and analyze a text’s structure. Thesegraphic organizers not only teach students to expect certain types of ideas andorganizations in various types of text but also serve as a way to increase retention of what has been read. They can provide a kind of map or outlinethat can be used for reviewing the selection.

time orderText is structured in chronological or step-by-step order.

compare-contrastText is structured to show likenesses and differences.

descriptionText is structured to give qualities or characteristics of a subject; description causes readers to form mental pictures based on details in the text.

cause-effectText is structured to explain outcomes caused by various situations.

problem-solutionText is structured to present a problem and then show one or more solutions.

on, before, during, after, first, last, now, when, then, next, finally

in contrast to, in comparison with, on the other hand, similarly, both, like, unlike, different, too, not only

for example, characteristics of, a feature of, such as Details in spatial order: above, near, beside, in front of

Details in order of importance: first, most important

because, as a result, as a consequence, the effect was, since, due to, therefore, thus

because, if/then, as a result, therefore

Text Structure Signal Words


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Some expository texts are easier to comprehend than others, not because theconcept load is lighter but simply because the organization is clear and theflow of ideas is cohesive. Such text is called considerate text.

CCoonnssiiddeerraattee TTeexxtt Considerate text is “text that facilitates understanding,learning, and remembering” (Armbruster and Anderson, 1985). Such text iswell organized overall, and it is well organized within paragraphs and sentences.Ideas are developed logically, and connective words and phrases (such as howev-er, and, thus, and as a result) are embedded to help the reader understand therelationship between ideas. Examples of characteristics that might be found inconsiderate text are clearly stated main ideas, specialized vocabulary defined atthe point of use, and unified paragraphs that do not contain extraneous ideas.Introductions as well as summaries that pull together main ideas also help makea text “considerate.”

TTeexxtt FFeeaattuurreess Text features can also contribute to considerate text.

Text that does not contain the above named features can be difficult to navigate and comprehend. Such text is called “inconsiderate text.”

Skills and Strategies for Reading Expository TextsWhile all the active reading strategies listed on pages 20–23 are important forreading both narrative and expository texts, several strategies are especiallyhelpful for exploring expository writing. Among them are the skills and strate-gies listed below:

SSuuggggeesstteedd SSttrraatteeggiieess ffoorr

• Previewing

1. Have students preview the text’s structure. Noticing the organization ofideas will prepare them for the types of information they will receive.

2. Have students preview the concepts in the text by looking over the textfeatures such as headings and subheadings, charted information, illustra-tions, captions, and graphics (charts, maps, graphs).

3. Have students preview boldfaced terms and footnotes to become familiarwith the specialized vocabulary.

• Activating Prior Knowledge and Building Background

Prepare students to take in new knowledge by helping them bring to mindwhat they already know. Use the key concepts and boldfaced terms in thetext to frame general questions that get students thinking about the topic

Before Reading

• Headings and subheadings reveal the hierarchy of ideas in a segment of text.

• Boldfaced type points out key vocabulary and concepts.

• Footnotes and captioned illustrations and graphics clarify concepts.

• A logical layout highlights the author’s progression of ideas.

Text Features



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and sharing ideas. Then bolster their background knowledge by providingspecific information that will enhance their understanding of the subjectthey will explore.

• Setting a Purpose for Reading

Have students set a purpose for reading. For example, if a heading in thetext is What Happened to the Dinosaurs? have them decide on somethingthey would like to know related to this topic, such as Could what happenedto the dinosaurs happen again in modern times?


• Varying Reading Rate

Teach students to adjust their reading rate. They need to slow down whenthey encounter difficult concepts, connections to previous ideas, new vocab-ulary, or text that contains a great deal of information.

• Monitoring Comprehension

Students should be aware of their own reading process and notice when theyhave missed something. They can monitor comprehension by questioningthemselves as they read. If they do not understand an important idea, theyneed to reread, review, or read on to clarify what is unclear.

• Identifying Main Ideas

Students should identify main ideas as they read. Text features—such asheadings, subheadings, boldfaced terms, and graphics—are good indicatorsof main or key ideas.

• Tracking Information

Students can make sure they are processing the key ideas in their text bylisting these ideas as they read. They may make an actual list of ideas, createan outline, or write a series of notes. Another technique is to list main ideason a graphic organizer that addresses the overall text structure of the exposi-tory piece. A Venn diagram, problem-solution chart, concept web, or cause-effect chart can also be effective ways of listing main ideas and organizingthem so they will aid comprehension and retention.


• Reviewing

Students can use their lists, outlines, notes, graphic organizers, or the textfeatures in the text itself to review the critical ideas in what they have read.Through discussion, students can retell, analyze, and evaluate ideas toprocess and retain what they have read. Summarizing is another effectivemeans of pulling together key ideas.

After Reading

During Reading


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Effective Classroom Procedures

Reading ArrangementsClassroom reading arrangements provide varying degrees of support and guidanceto struggling readers. For example, reading with partners allows students to haveone-on-one assistance. Participating in choral reading allows students to gainconfidence as they take part in a group reading activity. Students might:

• read aloud to partners who can help with difficult words;

• read silently with partners, having partners “on-call” to help with difficultplaces in the text;

• read silently to themselves;

• take turns reading aloud in small groups;

• follow along in their books as the teacher, a volunteer, or a designated groupof students reads or as they listen to a taped reading;

• take turns reading in a whole-class activity;

• participate in choral reading to present a portion of text.

Independent ReadingWhile students will be experiencing literature through reading at school, theyshould also be encouraged to participate in independent reading. Following aresome suggestions to encourage independent reading.

• Set up a classroom library of books of special interest to your students. Youmight poll your students to create an inventory of books on subjects that areof interest to them.

• Assign time in the library for groups or individuals. Encourage students tolearn more about subject areas related to the reading selection, or have themexplore additional books by an author.

• Establish in-class discussion groups (literature groups) where students worktogether to focus on topics connected to the literature they are reading.

• Assign independent reading of at least thirty minutes a day, to be done outside of class.

• Have students create products to express what they have learned, noticed, orenjoyed. They can present their products to the class, in small groups, or topartners. Students may organize a classroom display of their work. Theseproducts may include• reports • demonstrations• posters • multigenre writing• collages • multimedia presentations• videos

• Encourage parents to listen to their students read at home. Via newsletters,suggest that parents read aloud with their students from the literature selections. Encourage parents to call attention to items in newspapers andmagazines that are of special interest to the family and to read these articleswith their students.



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Teaching Word Analysis

Decoding and EncodingPhonemic awareness is the awareness of the distinct sounds of language.Decoding is using the knowledge of sounds, and the letters and letter group-ings that represent those sounds, to pronounce a word. When students decode,they read printed words by calling to mind the sounds associated with letters.They then blend these sounds together to say the word. Encoding is using the knowledge of the correspondence of sounds and letters to spell words.

Phonics and multisyllabic word attack strategies make students aware of predictable connections between sounds and letters. By knowing the sounds to associate with various letters and letter patterns, students have the tools toattack a word they do not know. They know how to sound out a word, wherefeasible. They know how to break a larger word into syllables and morphemicunits and apply their knowledge of sound-letter correspondence to figure outhow to say each word part. By saying the word using the correctly associatedsounds, they may recognize the word and find that they already know itsmeaning.

Most middle school students should have had phonics instruction when theyfirst learned to read, but there may be gaps in their skills. Some students maybe reading-delayed for a variety of reasons.

For strategic intervention for students who have gaps in their skills, set aside a period of time each day to review multisyllabic, morphemic, and complexphonic elements. You might begin with reviewing the sounds of individualconsonants and the short vowels in one-syllable words. Progress gradually intomore complex phonics skills, such as identifying the syllables in a word andrecognizing special spelling patterns. The letter-sound correspondences, letterpatterns, and sample words in this section can help you prepare phonics les-sons for your students.

There are many ways to teach phonics and word attack strategies and toprogress through phonics skills. The chart below presents a logical progressionthrough phonics skills.

1. Initial Consonants

2. Final Consonants

3. Short Vowels

4. Long Vowels

5. Consonant Blends

6. Consonant Digraphs

7. Phonograms

8. Vowel Digraphs

9. Vowel Diphthongs

10. R-Controlled Vowels

11. Silent Letters

12. Syllabication and Morphemic Units


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Strategies for Teaching and Reinforcing Phonic Elements1. Write the letter or letters for the sound you are targeting on the board. Say

the sound associated with the letters and have students repeat the sound to you.

2. Write on the board several example words that contain the sound-spellingyou are teaching. For each word, review the phonemes, or sounds, in theword and then model blending the new sound with the other sounds in theword. Have students repeat the blending procedure for each word with you.Finally, say each word as you point to it on the board and have studentsread each word back to you.

3. Dictate several additional words with the sound-spelling you are targeting.Have students write these words. Ask individuals to read back the wordsthey have written.

4. Have one student, or several students simultaneously, write the words onthe board. Discuss the students’ spelling of these words and have themmake corrections as needed.

5. Reinforce the sound-spelling through various reading, writing, or speakingactivities, such as those suggested below.

AAccttiivviittiieess ttoo RReeiinnffoorrccee WWoorrdd AAnnaallyyssiiss

• Have students find words with the targeted sound-spelling combination in a paragraph or segment of their literature selection; students should read these words aloud to a partner or within a group.

• Have students generate a list of words based on the example words and the sound-spelling correspondence taught; have them discuss these words in a group.

• Have students in a group discuss and sort words that have the specific sound-spelling you are targeting from a mix of words.

• Have students make flashcards of words that teach the appropriate phonics principle; have partners quiz each other on the words.

• Have small groups create cloze sentences that should be completed with words containing the targeted phonics elements. For example, if you are reviewing the gr blend, students might construct the following cloze sentence: Everyone had a gr____________ time at the party. After your review, groups may present their sentences to other groups for completion.

• Have students write sentences, paragraphs, poems, or riddles that make use of words that illustrate a particular phonics element.

• Have students syllabicate words on word cards. Then have them sort the word cards and identify the syllabication rule that applies to each group of words.

• Have students break away the prefixes and suffixes from each base word or root on a list of prefixed and suffixed words. Have students suggest to their partners what each word means, using their knowledge of the meanings of the base word or root, the suffixes, and the prefixes. Then have partners reconstruct the word and pronounce it.



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Glossary of Reading

ConsonantsCCoonnssoonnaanntt BBlleennddss Consonant groupings in which each letter retains its own sound

IInniittiiaall CCoonnssoonnaanntt BBlleennddss

FFiinnaall CCoonnssoonnaanntt BBlleennddss

CCoonnssoonnaanntt DDiiggrraapphhss Two consonants that together make one sound

chapter, chip, chomp, munch, chase, finch, chapped, ranch

shoelace, shore, shed, shade, refresh, flashlight, dashboard

thumb, thing, thunder, anthem, cloth, teeth, south, withhold

that, than, bathed, this, there, father, wither, either, soothing

wheeze, whimper, wheel, whisker, white, whisper, whenever

phone, photo, physician, alphabet, orphan, typhoon, graph

ring, opening, sung, clang, wrong, longer, kingdom, cling

/ch/ spelled ch

/sh/ spelled sh

/th/ spelled th

/TH/ spelled th

/hw/ spelled wh

/f/ spelled ph

/ng/ spelled ng

/kt/ spelled ct expect

/ft/ spelled ft craft

/ld/ spelled ld child

/lf/ spelled lf shelf

/lk/ spelled lk silk

/lp/ spelled lp gulp

/lt/ spelled lt wilt

/mp/ spelled mp lamp

/nd/ spelled nd depend

/nk/ spelled nk tank

/nt/ spelled nt sent

/sk/ spelled sk risk

/sp/ spelled sp clasp

/st/ spelled st east

/br/ spelled br brown

/kr/ spelled crcry

/dr/ spelled drdrip

/fr/ spelled frfrills

/gr/ spelled grgrin

/pr/ spelled prproud

/tr/ spelled tr try

/bl/ spelled blblue

/kl/ spelled clclown

/fl/ spelled flfly

/gl/ spelled glglad

/pl/ spelled plplease

/sl/ spelled slslip

/sk/ spelled scscoot

/sk/ spelled skskim

/sm/ spelled smsmall

/sn/ spelled snsnow

/sp/ spelled spspiral

/st/ spelled ststart

/sw/ spelled swswim

/skr/ spelled scr scramble

/skw/ spelled squ squirm

/spl/ spelled spl splint

/spr/ spelled spr spray

/str/ spelled strstripe

blends with r blends with l blends with s 3-letter blends


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AAlltteerrnnaattee CCoonnssoonnaanntt SSoouunnddss The consonants c and g each have two possiblepronunciations.

SSiilleenntt CCoonnssoonnaannttss Two consonants in which one consonant is not sounded, oris silent.

VowelsCCoommmmoonn VVoowweell SSoouunnddss Vowel sounds are often referred to as long and short.

favor, acre, razor, radio, paper, pastry, stable, facial, hasty

me, frequency, legal, decode, cedar, legion, femur, senior, sequence

wild, pirate, idea, rival, tiger, microphone, rind, pliers, silence

over, old, proceeds, obedient, soda, romantic, notion, notice

unit, fugitive, utility, music, museum, humane, humidity, cuticle

tuba, tuna, duty, plumage, tulip, rumor, judo, judicial

apple, tax, fact, van, sat, shadow, castle, gallery, habit, accident

send, stress, bed, self, lens, web, tennis, pencil, beggar, freckles

slip, thick, rim, lid, bin, lift, finish, gimmick, income, rinse, film

knot, drop, bottle, nod, job, ponder, otter, object, property, lobster

strung, tumble, club, rustle, mud, umbrella, ruffle, rustic, umpire

/a_/ spelled a

/e_/ spelled e

/i_/ spelled i

/o_/ spelled o

/u_/ spelled u

/o_o_

/ spelled u

/a/ spelled a

/e/ spelled e

/i/ spelled i

/o/ spelled o

/u/ spelled u

gnat, gnaw, gnome, gnash, gnarled

knowledge, knot, knight, knob, kneepad, kneel, knuckle

write, wrap, wrench, wrath, wrong, wrinkle, wrist

rhino, rhapsody, rhubarb, rhyme, rhythm, rhombus

dumb, comb, succumb, crumb, thumb, numb, limb

/n/ spelled gn

/n/ spelled kn

/r/ spelled wr

/r/ spelled rh

/m/ spelled mb

cabin, captain, comma, cassette, collect, carry, second, because, rascal

cent, center, cedar, celery, ceremony, cellar, spice, prince, face, decide

gem, generous, gentle, gym, ginger, danger, genius, cage, bandage

goat, gain, get, golf, gasoline, beg, dog, fog, govern, lagoon, began

/k/ spelled c

/s/ spelled c

/j/ spelled g

/g/ spelled g



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VVoowweell DDiiggrraapphhss Pairs that make one sound

DDiipphhtthhoonnggss A vowel sound that glides from one vowel sound to another inthe same syllable

RR--CCoonnttrroolllleedd VVoowweellss The unique sound of a vowel followed by the letter r

VVaarriiaanntt VVoowweell DDiiggrraapphhss Two vowels that make a sound that is neither long nor short

SScchhwwaa The vowel sound often heard in an unstressed syllable

ago, alone, caboose, final, fatigue

shaken, item, frozen, eleven, legend

family, quantity, prodigy, fascinate

lemon, gallop, motor, today, opponent

circus, lecture, support, lettuce, status

/ / spelled a

/ / spelled e

/ / spelled i

/ / spelled o

/ / spelled u

e

e

e

e

e

look, bookcase, cookie, crook, hook, footprint, took, understood, wooden

soon, gloomy, bloom, tooth, troop, boot, food, school, cartoon

haunt, auto, August, launch, applaud, sauce, pauper, haul, faucet, fault

awful, awkward, hawk, draw, raw, yawn, claws, straw, crawl, dawn, pawn

/oo/ spelled oo

/o_o_

/ spelled oo

/aw/ spelled au

/aw/ spelled aw

cart, army, garment, tardy, harp, armor, partner, starch, garden

her, fern, herb, clerk, perk, germ, permanent, stern, herd, nerve

girl, first, bird, third, shirt, squirt, flirt, thirsty, circle, birth, thirty

fort, story, report, orbit, ordinary, storm, orchestra, horn, sport

burst, fur, duration, turn, curtsy, curb, curl, churn, furnish, turkey

/är/ spelled ar

/ûr/ spelled er

/ûr/ spelled ir

/ôr/ spelled or

/ûr/ spelled ur

oil, boil, coin, moist, turmoil, appoint, exploit, toil, disappointed, voice, poise

boy, joy, toy, annoy, voyage, loyal, employ, destroy, decoy, royal

down, towel, drowse, flower, powder, howling, frown, growl, crown

proud, sprout, noun, about, amount, slouch, doubt, vouch, round, blouse

/oi/ spelled oi

/oi/ spelled oy

/ow/ spelled ow

/ow/ spelled ou

pail, retail, waist, drain, obtain, faint, waitress, afraid, daily, rainbow

say, fray, subway, essay, holiday, delay, display, repayment, mayor, layer

steep, reed, screen, needle, teeth, freeze, freedom, leeway, gleeful

cream, leaf, east, pleat, grease, clean, heap, cease, lease, leave, peach

oak, toaster, throat, coast, float, foam, toad, roast, goal, roam

grown, throw, stowaway, mow, snowy, shows, slow, yellow

/a_/ spelled ai

/a_/ spelled ay

/e_/ spelled ee

/e_/ spelled ea

/o_/ spelled oa

/o_/ spelled ow


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Word FamiliesA word family is also called a phonogram. A core group of ending letters isused to make various words by simply changing the initial consonant or conso-nants. Word families are useful for phonemic awareness activities using substi-tution and blending. There are hundreds of word families. Ten common wordfamilies are shown below.

Word StudyHHoommoopphhoonneess ((SSoouunndd--AAlliikkeess)) Homophones are words that sound the same buthave different meanings and usually different spellings.

HHoommooggrraapphhss ((LLooookk--AAlliikkeess)) Homographs are words that are spelled the samebut have different meanings and different origins. Some homographs have different pronunciations.

SSyynnoonnyymmss Synonyms are words that have similar meanings.

AAnnttoonnyymmss Antonyms are words that have opposite or nearly opposite meanings.

correct—wrong busy—idle dim—bright

bite, nibble, munch mistake, error, blunder run, dash, dart

bill (tells money owed) wound (an injury) fan (admirer)

bill (beak) wound (turned tightly) fan (cooling device)

bare (empty) base (foundation) sighs (exhalations)

bear (animal) bass (deep tone) size (amount)

cat, rat, hat, sat, chat, flat, gnat, scat, bat, pat, slat

back, sack, tack, black, snack, track, flack, knack, back

bank, rank, tank, crank, flank, thank, sank, clank, drank

day, say, gray, play, sway, tray, way, may, bray, stray

bell, fell, sell, tell, quell, shell, smell, well, spell, dell

lick, sick, brick, click, flick, trick, slick, tick, quick

light, night, sight, tight, bright, flight, knight, plight, fight

dock, lock, rock, sock, block, clock, mock, flock, stock

mop, top, chop, crop, drop, shop, stop, prop, flop, hop

bug, dug, hug, rug, tug, smug, snug, slug, mug, lug

at

ack

ank

ay

ell

ick

ight

ock

op

ug



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CCoommppoouunndd WWoorrddss A compound word is made up of distinct words.

DDeennoottaattiioonn//CCoonnnnoottaattiioonn Denotation is a word’s dictionary definition.Connotation is an unstated, often emotional, association connected to the word.

House and home are synonyms, but home has a warm, personal meaning that isnot stated in its dictionary definition.

SSyyllllaabbiiccaattiioonn A syllable is a spoken part of a word that contains a vowelsound. Breaking a word in syllables helps students decode longer words bysounding out each syllable.

Rule 1: When two consonants fall between two vowels, divide the syllables between the two consonants. However, never separate a blend, cluster, or digraph.

VC/CV bat/ter in/dex

Rule 2: In words with two vowels separated by a consonant, divide the syllables before or after the consonant. If you divide the syllables before the consonant, the first vowel has the long sound. If you divide the syllables after the consonant, the first vowel has the short sound.

V/CV spo/ken ba/con

VC/V com/ic sev/en

Rule 3: When a word ends with a consonant and an le, the consonant goes with le to form the final syllable.

V/C le ca/ble sta/ple trou/ble

Rule 4: A prefix or a suffix (except for common word endings such as -ed) usually forms a separate syllable.

Affixes prefix/base dis/charge

base/suffix joy/ous

Rule 5: Divide compound words between the distinct words.

Compound Words class/room blue/bird

My house is by the shore. My home is by the shore.

classroom blackbird merry-go-round

underground sunrise sparrow hawk


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Effective Vocabulary InstructionResearch tells us that general vocabulary knowledge is a critical component in determining how well readers understand text (Anderson and Freebody,1981). As students build both oral and print vocabulary knowledge, theyincrease their comprehension skills and their ability to read strategically.

The strategies below provide techniques to develop students’ knowledge oflarger concepts as well as their understanding of individual words. The vocabu-lary techniques provide both direct and indirect ways for students to interactwith words before, during, and after reading and encourage an ongoing curiosityabout language.

The key vocabulary terms provided in Glencoe social studies textbooks arewords and phrases critical for understanding a selection. They may also beunfamiliar words that promise to be difficult. For struggling readers, it is espe-cially useful to teach key vocabulary before students read. Activating priorknowledge and building background for new vocabulary give students a hookon which to hang what they learn. Reinforcement of key vocabulary duringand after reading offers students additional exposure to new words and con-cepts as well as to known words used in new ways.

Strategies for Teaching VocabularyBecause there is a clear connection between readers’ vocabulary knowledge and their ability to understand what they read, vocabulary instruction is essential to developing, strategic readers. Vocabulary learning is not a singular,isolated activity. Rather, students build vocabulary through repeated encounterswith words in rich oral and written contexts (Nagy, 1988). Teachers whoencourage active classroom discussions, who read aloud to students and havestudents read aloud, who encourage wide reading across content areas, and whoencourage students to use dictionaries and other word references to supportmeaning and usage reinforce listening, speaking, writing, and reading vocabu-lary skills. Each encounter with a word provides new clues to its meaning.Students’ understandings of those meanings build and deepen over time. Thestrategies here provide ways for teachers to offer students a variety of interactiveopportunities to become involved in the process of building vocabulary.

UUssiinngg CCoonntteexxtt CClluueess Students can often determine the meaning of a wordthey don’t know by using context—the words and sentences that surround theunknown word. The following chart shows specific context clues for studentsto use as they read.



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UUssiinngg GGeenneerraall CCoonntteexxtt Sometimes the context does not provide a specific clueto the meaning of an unknown word; however, the general context containsclues. Direct students to study the main idea of a passage to see if it unlocksthe meaning of an unknown word.

ExamplesSince this was the boy’s first infraction of the rules, the principal lethim go with just a warning. (infraction: breaking or violating something)

A bad storm caused the ship to deviate from its course. It landedtwo hundred miles south of its intended destination. (deviate: turn aside from an established course)

Female crocodiles guard their nests and fight any predator that comes near. (predator: animal that preys on other animals)

Techniques for Using Context to Determine Meaning

• Ask students to look before, at, and after the unknown word for a context clue.

• Have students connect what they already know with what the authorhas written.

• Have students predict a possible meaning.

• Have them apply the meaning in the sentence.

• Ask students if their meaning makes sense. If not, have them try again.

Synonym Look for a synonym to the unknown word. You can often find synonyms in context when two things are compared.

Antonym Look for an antonym to the unknown word. Antonyms appear in context most often when two things are contrasted.

Definition Look for a phrase that defines or describes the unknown word. Commas, dashes, or parentheses often surround a phrase that gives this type of clue.

Example Look for examples that reveal the meaning of the unknown word.

The waiting passengers were disconcerted to hear their bus would be late. The bus driver seemed the most upset of all.

The service at this restaurant is quick. Is the service at that restaurant just as expeditious?

Yesterday Sam was despondent, but today he’s cheerful.

Trudy showed up for the interview looking neat and tidy, but Tony showed up looking disheveled.

Mark is interested in herpetology—the study of snakes.

In hieroglyphics, the writing of ancient Egypt, picture symbols are used to represent ideas.

He can’t decide which one of the martial arts to study—karate, judo, or tae kwon do.

Of all the marsupials, the kangaroo is probably the most familiar.

Type of Context Clue Examples


Using Word Parts (Structural Analysis)

Many words can be divided into parts: prefix, base word or root, and suffix.Knowing the meanings of common word parts can help readers unlock themeanings of unknown words.

PrefixesA prefix is a word part that comes before a base word or a root and changesthe meaning of the word.

SuffixesA suffix is a word part that comes after a base word or a root. It may changethe meaning of the word or the way the word is used in a sentence.

RootsA root is the part of a word that contains its basic meaning. Unlike a baseword, a root is not a word by itself. Many roots come from Greek or Latin.

bio

tele

dent

port

spec

life

distant

tooth

carry

look

biology, biography, biosphere

television, telescope, telegraph

dentist, trident, indent

porter, portable, transport

spectacles, introspective, circumspect

Root Meaning Examples

-less

-ish

-ful

-ist

-ous

without

like

full of

a person who

full of

careless, powerless, fearless, hopeless

greenish, childish, smallish, foolish

playful, thoughtful, joyful, helpful

biologist, artist, violinist, dentist

joyous, nervous, spacious, curious

Suffix Meaning Examples

dis-

re-

pre-

in-

non-

opposite of

back, again

before

not

without

disobey, displease, disown, dislike

return, rewrite, redo, relive

prejudge, prepay, preview, preheat

inactive, incorrect, inability, incomplete

nonfat, nonstop, nonresident, nonvoter

Prefix Meaning Examples



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UUssiinngg LLaanngguuaaggee SSttrruuccttuurree CClluueess

Look for passages that contain parallel structures—words arranged in similarways. Words that have parallel functions often contain clues to unknown words.

At the zoo, we saw a herd of zebras, a pride of lions, and a pack of wolvesin free-roaming environments. (Herd, pride, and pack are all words for groups of animals.)

The permanent pueblos of the Southwestern Indians were much differentfrom the temporary igloos of the Eskimos or the tepees of the Plains Indians. (Pueblos, igloos, and tepees are all words for Native American dwellings.)

UUssiinngg CCllaassssiiffyyiinngg aanndd CCaatteeggoorriizziinngg Current research indicates that the brain isa pattern detector (Caine and Caine, 1994). Students enjoy sorting and group-ing items by similarities or separating items by differences. Word sorts—opensorts (where students choose how to label categories) and closed sorts (whereteachers provide the categories)—offer opportunities for students to organizeideas. Whenever students can see how words fit into a larger category, theyexpand their vocabulary knowledge.

UUssiinngg WWoorrdd MMaappss Many teachers routinely use maps to explore and teachvocabulary in the classroom. A map can be any kind of graphic that is designedto show relationships between words or concepts. A commonly used word mapor concept web shows a central bubble containing a key word or idea. Bubblesthat surround the center bubble may be used to show semantic relationships orto explain structure relationships.

Word M

apT35

Word Map


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UUssiinngg aa CCoonncceepptt--DDeeffiinniittiioonn MMaapp A concept-definition map (Schwartz andRaphael, 1985) is a way to define a word visually. The top chart of the graphicasks What is it? The next chart asks What is it like? The last chart of the graphicasks What are some examples? Students use their prior knowledge about wordsand concepts to complete the map. As a group activity, a concept-definitionmap can be a powerful tool for building background.

UUssiinngg aa SSeemmaannttiicc--FFeeaattuurreess CChhaarrtt A semantic-features chart (Anders, Bos, andFilip, 1982; Johnson, Toms-Bronowski, and Pittleman, 1982) is a way to helpstudents focus on the discriminating features of items in a group. A semantic-features analysis asks students to complete a grid with marks to indicate a positive (+), negative (–), or possible (?) correlation.

UUssiinngg PPoossssiibbllee SSeenntteenncceess Possible Sentences (Beck and McKeown, 1983;Moore and Moore, 1986) is a strategy that allows students to speculate aboutword meanings. Especially useful for teaching selections dense with new

cat

dog

canary

fish

seal

+

+

–

–

?

–

–

+

–

–

+

+

–

–

?

Animals Fur Feathers Four legs

–

–

+

–

?

Two legs

T36 Concept Definition Map

Concept-Definition Map

What is it like?

What are some examples?

What is it?



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concepts or unfamiliar words, the activity requires teachers to choose aboutten key vocabulary terms and write them on the board. Teachers may con-struct sentences using the words either correctly or incorrectly. They then askstudents to comment on whether the sentences are “possible.” As an alterna-tive to providing sentences, teachers may ask that before reading a selection,students construct approximately five sentences from the key terms, takingeducated guesses about unfamiliar words or phrases. As students encounter thekey vocabulary during reading, they note each term’s usage in the selection’scontext. After reading, students return to their possible sentences to discussmeanings and to rewrite their own sentences as necessary.

UUssiinngg SSttoorryy EElleemmeennttss ttoo TTeeaacchh VVooccaabbuullaarryy Fictional narratives and descrip-tions of real events share many of the same elements. They contain characters,settings, a problem or conflict, actions or events, and a resolution to the story’sproblem. They also contain a theme or message. These elements make up thestory’s structure. Students can use their anticipation of such structures andtheir knowledge of other stories to categorize key vocabulary words understory-element headings before they read (Blachowicz, 1986). Those categoriza-tions then become students’ predictions for what might happen in a selection.Conventional story maps also help students organize and remember fictionalworks by asking them to use story structure to keep track of key elements during reading.

T38 Vocabulary Story Map

Vocabulary Story Map

Characters Setting

Feeling Words Describing Words Action Words

Story Problem Words

Write one question you have about the story.


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Teaching Active Reading StrategiesIn the past, reading has been described as more of a skill than an active mentalprocess. We now know that reading is neither automatic nor passive. Readingis a highly interactive process in which students construct meaning from text(Anderson and Pearson, 1984). Readers do not passively receive an author’sideas.

No two students understand a selection exactly the same way, because eachbrings a unique background and set of experiences to the task (Rosenblatt,1978, 1994). Comprehension depends on those individual reader experiences.It also depends on the characteristics of the written text, the learning contextthat defines the reader’s task, and the strategies that are consciously applied bythe reader to construct meaning from printed words on a page.

We know that students learn what they are directly taught and what they havean opportunity to practice. The strategies and activities that appear on pages44–91 of this book provide carefully scaffolded unified lessons that develop stu-dents’ strategic reading behaviors. Through explicit instruction, teachers modelthe most effective reading strategies and provide opportunities for students topractice and eventually internalize the behaviors of effective readers.

Strategies are carefully thought out plans that readers use adaptively to makesense of what they read. The strategies that follow help students develop interactive reading behaviors that build comprehension of all types of text.

PreviewingWhen students preview or look over a selection before they read, they begin to activate what they already know. They also begin to see what they will need to know to make sense of the text. As students look at the title, illustra-tions, headings, picture captions, and graphics, teachers can guide students tooffer what they already know about a specific topic or about the author, genre,or ideas in the text. As students formulate questions about the text they arepreviewing, they can predict the selection’s content and thereby set a purposefor reading.

Activating Prior KnowledgeBy collectively discussing what students already know about a topic, teacherscan capitalize on opportunities to build background where student knowledgeis weak. They can also offer students a chance to learn from the prior knowl-edge of others. Most important, they actively cultivate the cognitive soil wherefuture knowledge can be planted. What students learn from the selection theyread is most effectively attached to what they already know. Using a KWLgraphic organizer (Ogle, 1986) helps students activate what they know,encourages them to generate questions about what they will read, and helpsthem record and review what they learn. Elaborated KWLH organizers (Carrand Ogle, 1987) invite students to consider questions for further research andto specify where information will be found and how it will be organized.



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PredictingOne excellent way for readers to interact with text is to make an informedguess about what they will read. When students make predictions, they usetheir prior knowledge and the information they gather from previewing to create an expectation for what they will read. This expectation then providesa purpose for their reading and generates interest in the selection. As studentsread, they adjust or change their predictions on the basis of new informationthey encounter in the text, or they confirm that their prediction was accurate.In both instances, using the text to inform their predictions is essential.

QuestioningSeveral types of questioning are important in reading strategically. Studentsneed to ask general questions about the text before, during, and after theyread. They also need to question their own understanding of the content asthey read—that is, they need to conduct a running dialogue with themselves aspart of the metacognitive process of thinking about their own thinking. Thismetacognitive process will naturally lead students to ask specific questions toclarify text. Finally, students need to ask themselves questions about whatinformation is most important in a selection and about what concepts or information teachers will require them to know.

Monitoring ComprehensionResearch suggests that the most efficient readers have mental conversationswith themselves as they read (Dickson et al., 1998). They notice when some-thing does not make sense, and they apply fix-up strategies appropriate to theselection organization and to their own learning styles. Often good readers

T40 KWL Chart

KWL Chart

From Experience

Topic:

From Previewing

K - What I Already Know

W - What I Want to Learn

L - What I Learned

What I Want to Know More About How I Will Learn More


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accept a certain amount of ambiguity in the text and forge ahead, looking forways to clarify ideas as they read further. They may also decide to stop, rereada particular section, or adjust their reading rates. Students need to internalizea variety of fix-up strategies and to be able to use the strategies flexibly,depending on their own learning preferences, the structure of the text, or thedemands of the reading task.

VisualizingOne of the most powerful aids to comprehension, especially for younger read-ers, is visualizing (Pressley, 1977). Effective readers form mental pictures basedon a writer’s descriptions and on their own prior experiences. These mentalpictures help students understand what they read and increase their ability torecall the information for later use. Visualizing is helpful for both expositorytexts and descriptive fiction. Picturing the steps in a process is as powerful anaid to comprehension as is picturing the descriptive details about characters orsetting in a short story. Students often enjoy sketching what they see in theirmind’s eye as teachers read aloud.

InterpretingMore than just understanding and remembering the actual events in a story orthe information in a textbook, students need to use higher-level thinking skillsto attach meaning to events or to information. When students interpret, theyconstruct meaning from their own understandings about the world and aboutthe text.

AnalyzingWhen students look critically at the separate parts of a selection to under-stand the entire selection, they are analyzing. For example, students may breakapart a story to look at character, setting, plot, and theme to understand thestory as a whole. They may bring in outside information about the author tohelp with their analyses. In a nonfiction selection, students analyze the causesand effects of volcanoes to understand a selection on the eruption of MountSaint Helens. Whenever students use the organizational pattern of a piece ofwriting to help determine the main ideas and the author’s message, they areanalyzing text structure.

ConnectingStudents who actively connect what they read to events in their own lives aswell as to other selections they have read establish a conduit for constructingmeaning in text. By connecting ideas, emotions, and events to themselves, students also increase their enjoyment of a selection and increase their abilities to comprehend and recall information and ideas.

RespondingWhen students offer personal responses as they read, they are interacting witha text in an important way. Teachers can help students become engaged in a



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selection by asking questions about what students like, what they don’t like,what surprises them, and how they feel about characters in a story or ideas in anonfiction selection.

ReviewingAs students read, teachers should pause at various points to review. Periodicreview is especially important when students read informational text densewith new concepts. Reading guides help students negotiate their way throughdifficult text and keep struggling readers on task. These guides are also helpfulmodels to use when reviewing a selection. Outlines, charts, graphic organizers,and other visual aids help students organize information as they read and arealso valuable aids for reviewing information after reading.

EvaluatingAs students have access to increasingly larger amounts of print materials,including a variety of electronic resources, they need to be able to evaluatewhat they read. Evaluating requires making a judgment or forming an opinion.For example, students evaluate when they form an opinion about characters ina story. They evaluate when they judge a writer’s ability to use compellingdescription. They also evaluate expository texts—newspapers, editorials, adver-tisements, and essays—when they distinguish between fact and opinion. Toevaluate whether information is reliable, students should pose questions suchas Is the author qualified to write on this subject? Is the point of view biased? Is thereanother point of view not expressed here? Are opinions backed up with facts, statis-tics, and examples?


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Teaching Reading and Thinking SkillsEffective readers use the strategies described above to maneuver meaningfullythrough text. They apply these strategies flexibly and internalize good readingbehaviors so that those behaviors become automatic. To become independentreaders, however, students also need to acquire the reading and thinking skillsbuilt around and supported by those strategies. Teachers need to teach criticalreading and thinking skills and to explain why those skills are important.Teachers also need to know when and how to teach the skills.

Identifying Main Idea and Supporting DetailsTrying to find the main idea of a passage is a difficult task—it requires the criticalthinking skill of distinguishing between what is important and what is secondary.Determining supporting details means locating the ideas or examples that extendthe main idea or give additional information. Essentially readers determine anauthor’s purpose when they find main ideas in a selection. To do that, studentsneed to use information about how a particular text is structured (cause andeffect, compare and contrast, problem and solution, chronological order) andcombine that information with what they know about a topic, idea, or author.Teachers can help guide students to determine what is important in a selection bymodeling their own thought processes and by discussing how to use text structureto locate main ideas. Students should be reminded that the main idea of a para-graph is often found in the topic sentence; however, they will sometimes need toinfer the main idea of a paragraph by using prior knowledge and the informationpresented in the paragraph.

Teaching students to find main ideas and supporting details is helpful duringand after reading. It helps students prepare to summarize. By activating priorknowledge and previewing text before reading, students learn to anticipatewhat main ideas they will find.



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SummarizingSummarizing is a critical reading and thinking skill. To summarize, studentsneed to be able to determine the most important ideas in a selection and thenrestate those ideas in their own words and in a logical sequence.

Summarizing teaches students to reduce information and allows them torethink what they have read. As students summarize, they learn material moredeeply and can more easily retrieve what they have learned for subsequent academic tasks.

Techniques for Determining Main Ideas and Supporting Details

• Ask students to share prior knowledge about an author or a topic.

• Guide students to anticipate what might be important in a selection.

• Look at the text structure of a selection to see how the author organizesideas in a selection, for example, cause and effect, compare and contrast,or chronological order.

• Invite students to read one paragraph of text and ask questions such asWhat one idea are all the sentences in this paragraph about? How does thatidea fit in with what I know about this topic? About this author? About howthis selection is organized? What sentences add information to the most important idea?

• Remind students to look for headings, captions, illustrations, and othertext features to help them determine main ideas in a selection.

Main Idea/Details Chart T41

Details

+MainIdea


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Summarizing is a skill that can be used flexibly both as an oral and writtenactivity. Students can summarize as often as necessary to monitor their under-standing of a selection. Teachers should encourage students to summarize morefrequently when text material is difficult.

Making InferencesMaking inferences requires that students use their reason and their experienceto take educated guesses about what an author implies or suggests. Becausewriters often do not directly state what they want readers to know, makinginferences is essential to constructing meaning in a selection.

Selections that encourage character analysis or that suggest a theme for discus-sion provide good opportunities for students to learn to make inferences.

Drawing ConclusionsA conclusion is a general statement that can be made and explained with reasoning or with supporting details. Drawing conclusions is part of the processof inferring. For example, if students read three separate selections about tor-nadoes—a fictional story about a boy who loses his family in a tornado, aninformational selection about how weather forecasters chart wind speeds anddirectional paths of tornadoes, and an autobiographical piece by someone whosurvived a terrible tornado—they may conclude that tornadoes are monumen-

Techniques for Making Inferences

• Guide students to look for text clues. Encourage them to notice descrip-tions, dialogue, events, or relationships that might signal information awriter is suggesting.

• Ask students to think about what they already know–either from priortext clues or from their own experiences.

• As students read, ask questions that require them to think beyond theliteral events of a selection.

• Model your own process of inferring when you read aloud.

Techniques for Summarizing

• Ask students What is this passage about?

• Invite students to begin their summaries by answering who, what, where,when, why, and how?

• Remind students that only main ideas should be included in a summarybut that all the main ideas should be included.

• To determine if students have included all main ideas, ask: Can yoursummary be easily understood by someone who has not read the selection?

• To help students determine if they have included unnecessary informa-tion, ask: If this information were excluded, would your summary still soundcomplete?



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tal forces of nature that can inflict unimaginable damage. Students may drawconclusions about character traits of people in stories based on events and dialogue within a selection.

Drawing conclusions helps students see connections between ideas and events as they read and is useful both in constructing meaning in fiction andnonfiction and in analyzing and interpreting ideas.

Understanding SequenceThe order in which thoughts are arranged is called sequence. A good sequenceis logical. When writers present the steps in a scientific process or providetechnical directions for operating machinery, they follow a logical sequence.Cookbooks rely on a specific sequence to help readers follow a recipe. Somewriters choose to arrange their ideas by order of importance, placing the mostimportant idea either first or last. In narrative writing, chronological, or time,order is used most often.

If a written sequence is either illogical or incomplete, readers may fail to com-plete an important task, follow a complicated thought process, or understandevents as they occur.

One of the best ways for teachers to help students recognize sequence in a selec-tion is to teach them to look for signal words, transitional words and phrasesthat indicate chronological order, steps in a process, or order of importance.

Techniques for Identifying Sequence

• Have students preview the selection. Does the author intend to tell astory? To explain how something works? To present information?

• Ask students to consider what sequence might be most logical given thewriter’s purpose.

• Direct students to look for clues, or signal words, to help them determinesequence.

• Have students restate the sequence in their own words.

Techniques for Drawing Conclusions

• Ask students to notice specific details about characters, ideas, and information as they read.

• Invite students to use the information they have and their own priorknowledge to think about a larger or more general statement that might be made.

• Caution students not to overgeneralize and not to draw unsound conclusions based on insufficient or inaccurate information.


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Determining Fact and OpinionA fact is a statement that can be proved or tested. An opinion, on the otherhand, is a statement of belief that cannot be proved. Writers, though, canoften lend validity to their opinions by gathering support from experts and bysupporting opinions with facts.

The ability to distinguish fact from opinion has never been more importantthan it is today. Internet sites and other online resources provide a vastamount of information that is not always accurate. Whenever students readexpository texts, they need to determine whether they are reading fact or opinion.

Techniques for Determining Fact and Opinion

• Ask students what information is presented.

• Have students determine the source or sources of the information. Howis the information supported? Can it be proved? How reliable are sourcesused to prove statements?

• Is the author or source of information qualified to speak with authority?What are his or her credentials?

• Invite students to evaluate the motivation of the writer. Sometimes writersslant information to convince readers to agree with them.

Chronological order

Steps in a process

Order of importance

first, second, next, then, earlier, later, eventually, finally, last, earlier, later

first, then, add, proceed, finally

most important, least important, most significant, the chief reason, most meaningful

Sequence Signal Words



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Analyzing Cause-and-Effect RelationshipsA cause is an action or event that makes something happen; an effect is theresult of that action or event. A single cause (for example, a tornado) can pro-duce multiple effects. Similarly, a single effect (for example, a war) may haveseveral causes. Writers use clue words to indicate cause-and-effect relationships.

Students who can determine why something occurred and what happened as a result can more clearly see relationships that will allow them to interpret,analyze, and evaluate ideas in a selection.

Techniques for Analyzing Cause-and-Effect Relationships

• To help students find the cause in a passage, ask the question Why?

• To help students find the effect, ask the question What is the result?

• Ask students to look for clue words that signal cause-and-effect relation-ships, such as because, since, as a result, so, the reason that, and consequently.

• Caution students that just because one event precedes another, causalityis not necessarily established.

Cause and Effect/Problem and Solution Chart T43

Cause and Effect/Problem and Solution


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Comparing and ContrastingStudents who are able to see similarities and differences in events, people, andideas in text are better able to construct meaning from a selection. Comparingmeans to look at the ways items, people, or ideas are similar. Contrastingmeans to look at the ways things or people are different.

When writers compare items, they frequently use signal words such as both,same, alike, like, also, and similarly to provide clues.

Signal words such as unlike, but, although, yet, however, on the other hand, instead,and even though provide clues to contrasting items.

Writers may juxtapose two dissimilar characters or ideas to make each moredistinct. They may also compare an unfamiliar person or idea with someone orsomething familiar to help students understand and interpret what they read.

Techniques for Comparing and Contrasting

• Ask students to look carefully at the descriptions and other details anauthor includes in a selection.

• Have them look for clue words that signal that the author is comparingor contrasting items.

• Invite students to think about why a writer might compare or contrastthings or people. Is there a larger purpose or idea an author may wish toconvey?

• Tell students that sometimes there are no signal words to indicate comparison or contrast. Students must use descriptive details in thoseinstances to infer similarities or differences between items.

T44Venn D

iagram

Both

Venn Diagram



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Analyzing Problem and SolutionIn both fiction and nonfiction, readers often need to identify a particular problem and its solution. Certainly story grammar is organized around a problem,or conflict, known as the plot and a series of events that lead to a solution, orresolution. Informational texts and other expository materials may also askreaders to reflect on a problem or challenge. Sometimes writers provide solu-tions they think are logical and appropriate, and sometimes they ask readers to consider what steps or actions might work to solve a particular problem.

Helping students identify and analyze a problem in a selection enables themto see the complexity of an issue or an idea that a writer presents. Askingthem to define, evaluate, or even determine a solution to a given problemgives students practice in thinking logically and systematically.

Reproducible Graphic OrganizersTo enhance your teaching of reading skills and strategies, see the reproduciblegraphic organizers that follow.

Techniques for Analyzing Problem and Solution

• Ask students to identify through their reading the main problem in apassage or selection.

• Ask students how that problem is defined. Does a person in a story havethe problem? Is the problem part of an academic task (such as a mathproblem) or the beginning of the explanation of a process (such as a science experiment)?

• What logical steps or actions may be taken to solve the problem? Are possible or partial solutions presented? If so, what are they?

• What happens as a result of the steps or actions taken?

• What other actions may be taken to provide a more permanent solution?

• Ask students to evaluate why a solution did or did not work. How mightthey have solved the problem differently?


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Word Map 33

Wor

d M

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34 Concept-Definition Map

Concept-Definition Map

What is it like?

What are some examples?

What is it?

Semantic Feature Analysis Grid 35

Sem

anti

c-Fe

atu

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nal

ysis

Gri

d

Cate

gory

Features

36 Vocabulary Story Map

Vocabulary Story Map

Characters Setting

Feeling Words Describing Words Action Words

Story Problem Words

Write one question you have about the story.

Story Map 37

Story MapTitle:

Problem:

Solution:

Theme:

Event 1

Event 2

Event 3

Event 4

Event 5

Characters:

Setting:

38 KWL Chart

KWL Chart

From Experience

Topic:

From Previewing

K - What I Already Know

W - What I Want to Learn

L - What I Learned

What I Want to Know More About How I Will Learn More

Main Idea/Details Chart 39

Details

+MainIdea

40 Sequence Chart

1

2

3

4

Seq

uen

ce C

har

t

Cause and Effect/Problem and Solution Chart 41

Cause and Effect/Problem and Solution

42 Venn Diagram

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STRATEGIES

ANDACTIVITIES

Assign Activity 1 for students to completeindependently. After students finish, havethem tell what lesson they chose and thenshare their answers to the preview ques-tions. If several students chose the samelesson, have them compare and contrasttheir answers. Help students to under-stand that a preview can help them beginto think about topics and ideas, and thatas they read they will learn more.

EL ACTIVITY Previewing vocabularyis especially important for English

Learners since unfamiliar language canlimit reading comprehension. As theycarry out the Applying the Skill activity,have these students list the key vocabu-lary terms and then find each word andits definition in the glossary. EncourageEL students to learn the meanings ofunfamiliar terms each time they previewa new lesson.

44

OBJECTIVES• To preview a sample reading passage

• To preview a lesson from a social studies textbook

WHY IS THIS SKILL IMPORTANT?

Previewing text provides a systematicprocess for helping students to identify thetopics and concepts they are likely toencounter as they read. Previewing helpsstudents focus their attention. It can alsoprompt students to recall prior knowledgeand to establish purposes for reading. Inaddition, students who build strong pre-viewing strategies will be able to applysimilar strategies as they review and studytheir reading.

TEACHING THE SKILL

To introduce the process, work with stu-dents to preview the features and contentsof their social studies book or another text-book. Draw attention to the book’s titleand ask students to tell what general topicthey would expect to find there. Tell stu-dents to turn to the table of contents andtogether read the chapter titles. Ask stu-dents to tell which chapters cover specifictopics. Point out special features in thebook, such as the glossary, atlas, andindex.

Then have students look at a lesson. Guidestudents to note specific text structuressuch as checkpoint questions, end-of-les-son summaries, graphic organizers, andany other features that students might findhelpful as they preview.

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PREVIEWING THE TEXTTeaching Strategy 1

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When you go to an unfamiliar restaurant, what do you do? You probably startwith a quick look at the menu. You may read the headings that point to meal choicesor daily specials. You glance at the pictures. Finally, you settle in to read the detailsbefore you order and enjoy your meal. Preparing to read nonfiction follows a similarprocess. You take a look around the text before you dig in. Previewing text can helpyou get comfortable with what lies ahead so that you will understand and enjoyyour reading more completely.

LEARNING THE SKILL

Previewing the text means browsing a passage before you start reading.The purpose of previewing is to help you get a general idea of what you will bereading. By knowing what to expect, you can be more aware of importantdetails and facts.

Directions: Follow these steps to preview nonfiction text.

1. Read the title of the unit, chapter, or lesson to learn the topic.

2. Read the headings and subheadings. What topics and ideas are named?How is the text organized?

3. Scan the graphics. Notice the graphs, maps, photos, diagrams, and timelines. Read the captions to see what information each shows.

4. Skim the opening paragraph to get a quick overview.

5. Look for text features that point out key words and concepts. Do check-point questions focus your attention on main points? Are key wordsshown in bold print or in color? Read the questions and preview thevocabulary.

6. Use your own words to tell the topic and key ideas you expect to readabout.

Previewing the text means browsing a passage to get a general idea of whatyou will be reading.

Pre-Reading Strategy

ACTIVITY 1: Previewing the Text

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ACTIVITY 1: Previewing the Text (continued)

Name Date Class

PRACTICING THE SKILL

Directions: Preview this excerpt from a history textbook. Then answer the questionsthat follow in the spaces provided.

The Eastern Woodlands

Almost all of the Native Americansin the Eastern Woodlands provided forthemselves by combining hunting andfishing with farming. Deer were plenti-ful in the region, and deer meat regu-larly supplemented the corn, beans,and squash the people planted. Deerhide was also used for clothing.

The Peoples of the Northeast Mostof the peoples of the Northeast weredivided into two major language

groups—those who spoke Algonquian(al•GAHN•kwee•UHN) languagesand those who spoke Iroquoian(IHR•uh•KWOY•uhn) languages. TheAlgonquian-speaking peoples includedmost of the groups living in what laterbecame known as New England.Among these peoples were theWampanoag in Massachusetts, theNarragansett in Rhode Island, and thePequot in Connecticut.

1. What is the topic of the passage?

2. What key words does the passage emphasize?

3. In which section of this passage would you expect to find informationabout peoples living in what is today Connecticut?

4. If this passage included a map, what part of the world would it mostlikely show?

APPLYING THE SKILL

Directions: Previewing Your Social Studies Text Choose a lesson in your social stud-ies textbook. Follow the steps listed on page 45 to preview the text. Then answer thequestions below in the spaces provided.

1. What is the topic?

2. List two vocabulary words taught in the lesson.

3. Name three ideas, events, or topics that are discussed in the lesson.

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OBJECTIVES• To make predictions and set purposes for reading (based on a sample paragraph)

• To make predictions and set purposes for reading a social studies lesson


The point of making predictions and set-ting purposes is to engage readers morefully in noticing and remembering whatthey read. Reading is an active processthat involves a give-and-take betweenreaders and text. The more active the read-er, the more he or she gains. Even whenreading assigned text, students should beencouraged to establish their own purpos-es for reading.

TEACHING THE SKILL

Model the strategies for making predic-tions and setting reading goals. Have stu-dents join you in looking at a page from asocial studies book or other textbook.Verbally preview the page with students.To do this, draw a web diagram on theboard, listing the main topic as the hub ofthe web. Ask students to call out words orphrases that relate to the topic and tobriefly tell how their ideas relate to thetopic. Based on students’ prior knowledgeand the web, have students tell what theypredict the text might discuss. Then havestudents identify questions they hope thetext might answer. Record their ideas onthe board. Conclude by asking students toshare how they might read the passage tobest answer their questions and learnabout the ideas they expect to find there.

Some students may complain that theironly purpose for reading is because a par-ticular text is assigned reading. Discussthese concerns, but encourage students toestablish their own purposes. Have stu-dents think about why the teacher or oth-ers might consider a particular lesson to beimportant. Urge students to identify keyconcepts or questions the text is likely toaddress. Prompt students to think of atleast one reason why a selection mightinterest them.

Assign Activity 2 for students to completeindependently. After students finish, dis-cuss the sample passage and have stu-dents share their answers to the questions.

EL ACTIVITY The lack of back-ground knowledge can adversely

impact English Learners, particularly in social studies. Suggest that some students acquiring English may want to pre-read the lesson to compensate for a lack of familiarity with the subject.Then have these students use what theylearned by pre-reading as the basis formaking predictions and establishingreading purposes.

MAKING PREDICTIONS AND SET TING PURPOSESTeaching Strategy 2

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ACTIVITY 2: Making Predictions and Setting Purposes

Name Date Class

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Good readers think about a text before they begin to read. They form ideas aboutwhat to expect. They identify what they want to find out and why they need to findit. Sometimes a reader’s goal is narrowly focused, such as to answer a specific ques-tion. Other times the goal is broader, such as to learn new concepts and facts. Ineither case, knowing what, why, and how you want to read a text can help youboost your understanding and memory of what you read.

LEARNING THE SKILL

Making predictions about text means stating what you expect to find asyou read. Then as you read, you can compare your findings against yourexpectations. Setting purposes means identifying goals for what you wantto get from a passage and why you want that knowledge. You can use yourpredictions and goals to help you determine how best to read a passage.

Directions: Follow these steps to make predictions and set reading purposes.

1. Preview the text to identify the topic. Then think about what you alreadyknow about this subject. Is the topic familiar— or is it one you havenever given much thought to? What personal experiences have you hadthat aid your understanding?

2. Use your prior knowledge and what you learned from your preview tomake predictions. Identify key topics and concepts you expect to find.

3. Set your reading purposes. List questions you hope to answer. Identifypossible problems, such as unfamiliar words or ideas to watch for as youread.

4. Decide how to read the text. If the material is unfamiliar, you may needto read more slowly or read it several times to gain full understanding.You might decide to take notes or create an outline as you read. Perhapsreading with a buddy and then discussing the text would best help youmeet your goals.

Predict what you expect to learn as you read. Set reading purposes to tell whatyou want to find out, why it matters, and how you can best meet your goals.

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ACTIVITY 2: Making Predictions and Setting Purposes (continued)

Name Date Class


Directions: The following paragraph introduces a lesson about amend-ments to the United States Constitution. Preview the passage. Think aboutwhat you already know about this topic. Then answer the questions that fol-low to record your predictions and identify your reading purposes.

A Congressional SessionThree amendments to the Constitution passed as a result of the Civil

War. These amendments extended the rights of African Americans inthe United States. The amendments ended slavery, guaranteed equalprotection under the law for citizens, and granted African Americanmen the right to vote.

1. Recall what you know about the topics introduced in this paragraph.Write one fact or idea that relates to this subject.

2. Write two topics or ideas you would expect to find in this lesson.

3. List two questions you have about this topic.

4. Write a plan for how you would read a lesson on this topic in order tobest remember the information.

APPLYING THE SKILL

Directions: Making Predictions and Setting Purposes Choose a lessonfrom your social studies book. Preview the lesson. Think about your back-ground knowledge on the subject. On a separate sheet of paper, write threethings you expect the lesson to discuss. Write three questions you wantanswered by the reading. List two new words or concepts you will watchout for as you read. Write a plan for how you will read the lesson to get themost from it.

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OBJECTIVES• To complete a KWLH chart based on a short paragraph

• To draw and complete a KWLH chart for a textbook lesson


A KWLH chart provides a tangible struc-ture for enhancing students’ involvementin their own reading. The chart promptsstudents to access prior knowledge, identi-fy their own purposes for reading, reflecton and summarize text, and identify unan-swered questions. It also provides anopportunity for students to take charge oftheir own learning by identifying ways toexplore topics in greater depth.

TEACHING THE SKILL

On the board write the following phrases.

Access prior knowledge

Set purposes

Reflect

Go further

Explain to students that these four phrasesdescribe some of the ways that good read-ers prepare for and respond to their read-ing. Then draw a KWLH chart on theboard. (See the example on the studentactivity page, page 51.) Discuss with stu-dents how the four strategies listed aboverelate to the four questions listed on the KWLH chart.

Assign Activity 3 for students to completeindependently. For the Applying the Skillexercise, you might want to choose anupcoming lesson in a textbook and havestudents begin the chart now and add to itas time goes on. After students finishActivity 3, have them share their KWLHcharts. Guide students to see that becauseeach person’s background knowledge,questions, and responses differ, there areno right or wrong answers for KWLHcharts.

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EL ACTIVITY Pair English Learnerswith other students to preview and

read the textbook lesson. Encouragepartners to share what they know aboutthe subject, then list some of their sharedbackground knowledge. Have them discuss what they might want to findout from the lesson before they recordtheir questions. Then have partners taketurns reading the lesson and completingthe last two columns on the charttogether.

USING A KWLH CHARTTeaching Strategy 3

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ACTIVITY 3: Using a KWLH Chart

Name Date Class

Good readers are active readers. They prepare themselves for reading before tack-ling new material. They stay involved as they read. One way to get the most fromyour reading is to use a KWLH chart. You start a KWLH chart before you begin toread. As you read you add to the chart. Complete the chart after you have finishedreading.

LEARNING THE SKILL

KWLH stands for Know-Want-Learn-How. A KWLH chart provides aplace to record what you know, what you want to find out, what you learned,and how you can learn more. A KWLH chart helps you to think about yourreasons for reading, make links to the things you already know, reflect onwhat you are learning, and identify new questions and ways to explore.

Directions: Follow these steps to use a KWLH chart.

1. Draw a KWLH chart on a separate sheet of paper. Use the chart below asa model.

2. Before you begin to read, preview the passage. Identify the topic.Brainstorm what you know about this subject from past experience andreading. Write your comments in the first column of the chart.

3. Think about your reading goals. What do you want to find out from thepassage? Record your questions in the second column.

4. Read the passage and respond in the third column. Take notes on keypoints. Summarize what you learned. Respond to the questions youasked earlier.

5. Identify new questions. How does the information connect with whatyou already know? What new questions or problems does it raise? Howcan you follow up? Record your ideas in the fourth column.

A KWLH Chart

K W L H

What do you knowabout this topic?

What do you wantto find out?

What did you learnwhile reading?

How can you learnmore?

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ACTIVITY 3: Using a KWLH Chart (continued)

Name Date Class

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Directions: Read the title of the following passage, then fill in the K and Wcolumns of the KWLH chart below. Then, read the passage and completethe last two columns on the chart.

THE PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT

The ancient Egyptians built pyramids on the west bank of the NileRiver. They built the pyramids as huge tombs for their pharaohs, orrulers. It took thousands of people and many years to build the pyra-mids. Stonemasons cut huge blocks of granite and limestone. Bargescarried the stones across the Nile River. Workers dragged the hugestones up mud ramps to lay the stones in place.

APPLYING THE SKILL

Directions: Using a KWLH Chart Select a short lesson in a textbook.Preview the lesson. Draw a KWLH chart. In the first column, list facts,vocabulary terms, and ideas you already know about the topic. In the sec-ond column, write at least two questions you hope to have answered byreading the lesson. Then read the passage. Jot down notes and ideas as youread. Record them in the third column. After you finish reading, record newquestions and ideas for exploration. Write how you could learn more aboutthe topic.

K W L H


What do you wantto find out?



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OBJECTIVES• To read a paragraph and answer comprehension questions

• To monitor comprehension and compare the reading strategies used on two

types of reading material


Comprehension is the heart of reading. Nomatter how good a student is at decodingwords, without comprehension, there is noreading. Good readers generally under-stand most of what they read. They knowthat different reading purposes requirethem to use different reading strategies.They continuously monitor their owncomprehension by asking questions, paus-ing to reflect on the meaning of a passage,and by comparing what they have readwith their own experiences and prior read-ing. Experienced readers know that whentheir comprehension is weak, they need toapply new strategies to improve it.

TEACHING THE SKILL

Choose a few sentences from a familiarcurrent-event story in the newspaper.Choose a passage of equal length on acomplicated topic in an encyclopedia,almanac, or other reference. Copy bothpassages onto the board or on an overheadtransparency. Have a volunteer read aloudthe passages while students follow alongsilently. To gauge students’ comprehen-sion, ask them factual questions abouteach passage. Then have students reflecton the difference between the two readingpassages by asking questions such as:

• Which passage was easier to understand? • What did you know about the current event

before the reading? What did you knowabout the topic in the reference source?

• How did your prior knowledge affect yourunderstanding of each passage?

Guide students to understand that beingable to say each word is not the samething as reading. Reading involves com-prehending, or understanding, what youread.

Assign Activity 4 for students to completeindependently. After students finish, havethem share strategies they used to monitortheir comprehension and what they didwhen they noticed that they were having ahard time understanding what they read.

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EL ACTIVITY Remind EnglishLearners that unfamiliar vocabulary

and grammar may make full compre-hension more difficult for them. Becausecontext can often clarify difficult termsand sentence structure, suggest that EL students use the read-ahead andrereading strategies for complicatedmaterials.

MONITORING COMPREHENSIONTeaching Strategy 4

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As-You-Read Strategy

ACTIVITY 4: Monitoring Comprehension

Name Date Class

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ompanies, Inc.

Do you like to watch your favorite movies over and over? Each time you watch,do you notice new things? Reading a book can be somewhat the same. Each timeyou read, you learn something new. Your understanding deepens and your memoryfor details—both big and small—improves. The primary purpose of reading is com-prehension. Comprehension means understanding what you read. Good readersmonitor, or check, their comprehension. When comprehension breaks down, theytake action.

LEARNING THE SKILLYou’ve probably noticed that you don’t read a magazine or an entertain-

ing story in the same way as you read a textbook. What you want out of thetwo materials is different. Monitoring comprehension requires you to com-pare what you are learning from a text against what you want and need tolearn.

Directions: Follow these steps to monitor your comprehension and take steps toimprove it.

1. Stay alert as you read. Does the text make sense? Are you finding theneeded information? Ask yourself questions about the material. Do youknow the answers?

2. When you get to the end of a paragraph or section, stop reading. Lookaway from the book and use your own words to retell what you havejust read. You cannot retell what you don’t understand. Retelling alsohelps you remember what you’ve read.

3. If your comprehension is not as good as it needs to be, change your read-ing rate. Reading slower might give your thoughts enough time to catchup with your eyes!

4. Read ahead to see if things clear up. The next sentences could clarify thepoint. This is a good strategy to use when a specific fact or word confus-es you.

5. Reread the passage. Rereading can help you find details you didn’t seebefore. Sometimes the fine points are just what you need to make senseof the text. You may need to return to an earlier section and reread it, too.Authors often layer facts and ideas on top of earlier ones. If you do notremember or understand a concept that was introduced before, you mayfail to understand the current one.

Monitoring comprehension means checking to see that you understandwhat you’re reading.


Directions: Read the following passage and answer the questions that fol-low in the spaces provided. Monitor your comprehension as you go along.

UNITED STATES COURTS OF APPEALSFederal courts of appeals hear cases that have come to them on

appeal from lower district courts or from federal regulatory agencies.Congress established these courts in 1891 to ease the burden of theUnited States Supreme Court, which had more cases than it could han-dle.

There are no trials held in federal courts of appeals. Instead, judgeshear arguments from attorneys for both sides of the case. The judges donot decide questions of guilt or innocence. They rule only on whether adefendant’s rights have been protected and on whether he or shereceived a fair trial.

1. When and why did Congress establish the United States courts of appeals?

2. What kinds of cases appear before federal courts of appeals?

3. On what rights do judges in federal appeals courts base their rulings?

4. Think about the way in which you read the passage above. Consider theprocess you used to answer the questions. Did you remember the infor-mation after one reading? Explain how you found the answers to thequestions above.

APPLYING THE SKILL

Directions: Monitoring Comprehension Choose two different kinds ofreading material— one that is light and easy to read and a second one withmany facts and concepts. Read each passage. On a separate sheet of paperwrite a short paragraph to compare and contrast the way you read thesematerials. Discuss your comprehension of each one. What strategies couldyou use to improve your understanding and memory of the more compli-cated passage? Why might this be helpful?

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ACTIVITY 4: Monitoring Comprehension (continued)

Name Date Class

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OBJECTIVE• To use word parts, related words, and context to identify the meaning of key

words


To understand content-area concepts andfacts, students must understand and thenlearn relevant vocabulary. Learning to usea variety of strategies to unlock the mean-ings of unfamiliar terms can help boostreading comprehension and fluency anddecrease students’ frustration with com-plex materials.

TEACHING THE SKILL

Write the following sentence on the board.

During the 1400s and 1500s, many Europeansbegan to call for a reformation in the teach-ings and practices of the Roman CatholicChurch.

Read the sentence aloud, drawing atten-tion to the word reformation. Tell studentsto read the sentence silently to determinethe meaning of reformation. Prompt stu-dents to use the context of the sentence tofigure out the word’s meaning. Withoutasking students to share their contextualdefinitions, move on. Point to the prefix re-in reformation and ask students to tell whatit means (again). Ask students to tell howthe prefix re- changes the word form (bychanging form to mean “to form again.“)

Then ask students to name other wordsthey know that are related to reformation,such as reform and reformer. Ask volunteersto explain the meanings of reform andreformer. Then have students use the con-text of the sentence and the meanings ofword parts and related words to develop aworking definition for reformation. Ask avolunteer to find the word in the diction-ary and read the definition aloud. Discusshow students’ informal definitions com-pare with the dictionary definition.

Assign Activity 5 for students to completeindependently. After students finish havethem brainstorm a list of other wordsformed from the word parts shown on thechart. List students’ ideas on the board.Have volunteers check these words in thedictionary and read the definitions aloud.

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EL ACTIVITY Point out to English Learners that knowing word parts

can help them determine the meaningof many new words. Have EL studentscomplete Practicing the Skill independ-ently and then complete the Applyingthe Skill assignment with a nativeEnglish-speaking partner.

UNDERSTANDING KEY WORDSTeaching Strategy 5

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ACTIVITY 5: Understanding Key Words

Name Date Class

All readers occasionally have trouble understanding key words. Sometimesyou’ve heard a word before but have never seen it in print. Sometimes a word iscompletely new to you. Good readers know how to use a variety of strategies tounlock unfamiliar words.

LEARNING THE SKILL

What do you do when you come across a new word? The first step is tosay it. Use what you know about letter-sound relationships to sound out theword. If the word is a long one, break it into smaller parts or syllables, thensound out each part. Use the dictionary’s pronunciation guide to checkyourself.

Once you can say the word, take these steps to understand and learn its meaning.

1. Use context clues. Read the surrounding sentences. An author maydefine the term or give enough information so that you can build aninformal definition on your own. Sometimes a description, an example,or a comparison in the text will help you understand the new word.

2. Think of related words that you know. For instance, dictatorship containsthe word dictator. If you know what dictator means, you can figure outthe meaning of dictatorship.

3. Look for familiar word parts, such as prefixes, suffixes, and roots. Theroot anthrop means “human.“ The root logy means “study of.“ Knowingthe meaning of these roots allows you to figure out the meaning ofanthropology.

4. Consult a dictionary or the textbook glossary when context, relatedwords, and word parts don’t help.

5. Learn the word. Using and reusing a word is one way to remember it.Another way is to make word cards. Think of a picture that will help youremember the word. Write the word and draw a picture on one side of anindex card. Write the definition on the back. Quiz yourself.

6. Create a word map. Draw a web with the new word in the center.Surround the word with a list of related words, words with similarmeanings, and examples. (For an example of a word map, see page 86.)

To understand a key word you should say the word, determine its mean-ing, and then commit the word and its meaning to memory.


Directions: Use the chart at right,the context of the sentences below,and your knowledge of relatedwords to answer the followingquestions. Circle the letter of thecorrect answer.

1. Which of the following terms means “to bend around“?

a) circumflex b) hemisphere c) antithesis d) chronology

2. During his 1992 presidential campaign, Arkansas governor Bill Clintonproclaimed that he was a new kind of liberal politician, different fromthose of the past. Which of the following terms best fits Clinton’sstatement?

a) anti-liberal b) hemi-liberal c) pro-liberal d) neo-liberal

3. Roman engineers devised a canal or passage that was used to bringwater from remote locations to the city of Rome. What term below is thename of this invention?

a) arboretum b) aqueduct c) antithesis d) circumference

4. As Mesoamericans began to abandon their nomadic way of life and stayin one place, their villages developed into large, impressive cities. Whichterm gives another name for these great areas of settlement?

a) decagon b) hemisphere c) metropolis d) arboretum

APPLYING THE SKILL

Directions: Understanding Key Ideas In a textbook, select five unde-fined and unfamiliar words. On a separate sheet of paper, write each word.Use word parts, context clues, and related words to write a working defini-tion for each word. Then find the words in a dictionary. Write the defini-tions and compare them to your own.

Word Part Meaning

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ACTIVITY 5: Understanding Key Words (continued)

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anti

aqua

arbor

chrono

circum

deca

hemi

neo

polis

pro

against

water

tree

time

around

ten

half

new

city

for

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OBJECTIVES• To identify the main idea in a paragraph

• To identify the main idea in a news article


Whether it is a paragraph, an article, or achapter, most content-area reading focuseson a main idea that is developed withfacts, details, and examples. Students canlearn to use this text structure to helpthem comprehend and remember key con-cepts and information. In addition, know-ing how to identify the main idea and sup-porting details provides the basis fordeveloping other critical reading andstudy skills, including outlining, note-tak-ing, and test-taking strategies.

TEACHING THE SKILL

On the board write the following sentence.

News of the gold rush brought a wave of new-comers to California.

Ask students what topic, or subject, theythink this sentence introduces. (California’sgold rush) Then ask students to identify theauthor’s main idea or point about the goldrush. (great numbers of newcomers rushed toCalifornia because of gold) Guide students tosee the difference between a topic, whichsimply identifies the subject, and the mainidea, which makes a point about the topic.Then ask students to speculate about whattype of details they might expect to read ina paragraph with this opening sentence.Help students to understand that theauthor might include specific information

about the numbers of people who went toCalifornia, where they came from, andhow they got there.

Then present the following sentences.

Successful stores, hotels, and law firms servedthe miners.

Homebuilders stayed busy constructing bighouses for wealthy miners.

Landowners made huge profits selling land tosettlers.

Explain that these three sentences presentsupporting details. Have students offer amain idea that is supported by these sen-tences. (Possible answer: The gold rushbrought success to many people who workedoutside mining.)

Assign Activity 6 for students to completeindependently. After students finish, havethem share their current event and tell themain idea of the article.

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EL ACTIVITY Pair English Learnerswith fluent English speakers to

buddy-read a news article. Then havefluent speakers write a sentence statingthe main idea. Have second-languagelearners use their own words torephrase and then write the sentence.

IDENTIFYING THE MAIN IDEATeaching Strategy 6

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ACTIVITY 6: Identifying the Main Idea

Name Date Class

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As you read textbooks and other nonfiction materials, you come across historicaldates, events, and names. These details are easier to understand and rememberwhen they are connected to one main idea. Understanding the main idea will helpyou to grasp the whole story. By understanding the big picture, you can betterunderstand the significance of the details and the relationships between them.Identifying the main idea can also help you to know what ideas and details are mostimportant to review as you study for tests and quizzes.

LEARNING THE SKILL

Identifying the main idea means understanding the author’s main point. The mainidea is more than a topic. A topic names a specific subject. The main idea makes a pointabout the topic. Often an author states the main idea of a paragraph in the first sentence.Then other sentences support the main idea with details, facts, and examples. Sometimesthe main idea appears at the end of a paragraph. In this case the author presentssupporting details that lead up to the main idea. When the author does not directlyexpress the main idea, the reader can infer it by looking for the connections betweenthe supporting details.

Directions: Follow these steps to identify the main idea in a paragraph.

1. Read the first sentence, the title, and the headings to identify the topic.

2. Read the passage, noting the specific details. Ask yourself, why does theauthor include this information? How are these details connected?

3. Think about what you just read. Consider the most forceful statements inthe material. What message does the author want you to understand orremember?

4. Reread the first and last sentences. Does the author directly state themain idea? If not, review the details and examples. What conclusions canyou draw?

5. Use your own words to state the main idea or central point.

A topic names the subject. The main idea is the main point. Supportingdetails explain, prove, or develop the main idea.

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ACTIVITY 6: Identifying the Main Idea (continued)

Name Date Class


Directions: Read the following passage to identify the main idea. Then list the topic,main idea, and supporting details on the graphic organizer below.

Although greatly outnumbered by men, women made important economic contributions during the California gold rush. Most marriedwomen looked after the family. They cooked, raised a small garden,and did the sewing and washing. Some wives staked their own claims,thus giving the couple twice as much land to mine. Single women andmarried women who needed to earn a living worked as cooks and wait-resses. Some women rented out cots, did laundry, or sold home-bakedpies and breads to hungry miners. Women owned their own businesses,too. They ran hotels and taverns to serve miners and travelers.

APPLYING THE SKILL

Identifying the Main Idea Select a short newspaper or magazine article about a currentevent. Read the headline and the text. Circle the word or phrase that names the topic ofthe article. Underline the supporting details. In the space below, use your own words towrite the main idea of your selection.

Topic:

Main Idea:

Suppo

rting

Deta

ils:

1. 1.

2. 2.

3. 3.

Topic:

Main ideas: Facts, examples, and supporting details:

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OBJECTIVES• To take notes from a nonfiction passage

• To take notes from a news article and use the notes as the basis for a brief

presentation


Taking notes keeps students engaged asthey read and can help them rememberimportant information. Note-taking ismost beneficial when students take thetime to reflect on what they read beforethey write. Rewording the informationensures that students understand whatthey read and are not blindly copyingfrom the text.

TEACHING THE SKILL

Model the process of taking notes. Choosea passage from a social studies book orother textbook. Read the text aloud as stu-dents follow along. Guide students in not-ing the headings, subheadings, and bold-faced terms in the passage. On the boarddraw a two-column chart like the oneshown below. On the chart, list the topic ofthe reading. Then identify the first mainidea. Ask students to tell key facts, exam-ples, and supporting details that relate tothis main idea. Continue the process byhaving students identify other main ideas

and details. Tell students that they can usea chart like the one below as they takenotes or they can write their notes in anyform that is helpful to them.

Assign Activity 7 for students to completeindependently. After students finish, invitethem to share their notes. Point out thatthere are many ways to rephrase andorganize information into notes. Thenhave students take turns using their notesfrom the news articles as the basis forshort presentations.

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ompanies, Inc.

EL ACTIVITY Suggest that EnglishLearners read the Practicing the Skill

passage once through before writingnotes, a second time to strike out theleast important information, and a thirdtime to take notes and complete thegraphic. Have EL students work withpartners on their news articles. Haveone student read the passage aloud anddictate notes while the partner recordsthe notes.

TAKING NOTESTeaching Strategy 7

One of the best ways to understand and remember what you read is to take notes.To be an effective study tool, taking notes requires more than copying from thetext. You must decide what is most important and organize the information in away that makes sense.

LEARNING THE SKILL

One important skill in taking notes is keeping them brief. Only the most important concepts and ideas are recorded. Your notes should serve as a shorter version of the text.

Directions: Follow these steps to take notes from a text passage.

1. Read a section or several paragraphs of text. Pay attention to the head-ings.

2. Think about the information. Ask yourself: What is the main idea? Whatdetails are most important? Which dates, people, or events do you needto know?

3. Write down the key points. Use your own words. Read the section againif you do not understand the ideas well enough to retell them.

4. Use graphics. You can show a lot of information in a visual way withconcept maps, webs, sequence charts, flowcharts, and time lines.

5. Leave plenty of space in the margins. Skip lines between key points. Youmay want to add related information later.

6. Move on to the next section in the text and repeat the process.

7. Reread your notes when you are done. Use a colored marker to highlightkey points. Keep your notes in a notebook or folder so you can return tothem again.

ocean currents

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ACTIVITY 7: Taking Notes

Name Date Class

climate

air movement

CauseJames Marshallfinds gold in aCalifornia riverbed.

EffectMany people movewest to search forgold.

Show relationshipsbetween ideas anddetails in a conceptmap or web diagram.

latitude

altitude

Show why anevent occurredin a cause-and-effect chart.

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ACTIVITY 7: Taking Notes (continued)

Name Date Class

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

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ompanies, Inc.


Directions: Read the following passage. Take notes on the key points and vocabularyterms. Write your notes on a separate sheet of paper. Then complete the web diagrambelow to summarize key points.

Stamp Act ControversyIn 1765 the British Parliament passed the Stamp Act. This law forced

the American colonists to pay a tax on common products, such asnewspapers and playing cards.

Up to this time, the colonists had made their own decisions abouttaxes and expenses. Now Parliament was trying to tax them. Thecolonists claimed that Parliament violated the right of British citizensto be taxed only by their elected representatives. Americans did notvote in elections to Parliament. Angry colonial lawyers, merchants, andnewspaper printers organized friends and neighbors to oppose theStamp Act.

Some angry colonists formed a protest group called the Sons ofLiberty. They burned piles of the British stamps. Many merchantsdecided to boycott, or refuse to do business with, the British. The merchants agreed not to buy or sell British goods.

APPLYING THE SKILL

Directions: Taking Notes Find a current events article in a newspaper or magazine.Read the article. Draw a line through the least important information. Take notes on thekey points. Put your notes in order, and then use them to summarize your article for yourclassmates.

Stamp Act

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OBJECTIVES• To answer questions based on a partial outline

• To create an outline of a textbook lesson or chapter


Outlining can provide a structured formatfor note taking. It can help students identi-fy and understand the connectionsbetween details and larger concepts.However, outlining only becomes an effec-tive study skill for reading in a contentarea when students actively process andorganize the information on their own.Using headings and subheadings in thetext can help students put names to keytopics and subtopics, but if students donot stop to reflect on links between topicsand the meaningful details that supportthose topics, the value of outlining is minimal.

TEACHING THE SKILL

Choose a short textbook passage or lessonwith which students are familiar. With stu-dents, create an outline of the text. Askstudents to scan the lesson to note theheads and subheads. If needed, read aloudor have students reread the lesson to iden-tify the main ideas. Help students chooseseveral main ideas to list as main topics inthe outline. Record them on the board oron an overhead transparency.

Have students identify subtopics for themain topics, and then subtopics undersubtopics. As you write their ideas on theboard, point out the placement and use ofRoman numerals for main topics, and

capital letters, Arabic numerals, lowercaseletters, and numbers in parentheses forsubtopics. Explain that each subtopic neednot have further subtopics, but that whenthey do, at least two items must be listed.Help students understand that to use anoutline as a review tool, they should thinkabout key points and details and be sureto show them at the appropriate point inthe outline.

Assign Activity 8 for students to completeindependently. You may wish to have allstudents outline the same lesson for theApplying the Skill activity. After studentsfinish, have them share their answers tothe Practicing the Skill questions and thencompare the outlines they created inApplying the Skill with those of other class-mates who outlined the same lesson.

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EL ACTIVITY To help English Learners identify main topics

and subtopics in the Applying the Skillactivity, have students write each maintopic on a separate sheet of paper. Thenhave students review the lesson to findkey words or phrases that belong undereach main topic. Have students listthem as subtopics on the appropriatepages, leaving plenty of space betweenitems, and then review the passageagain to find the details that belongunder each subtopic.

OUTLININGTeaching Strategy 8

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ACTIVITY 8: Outlining

Name Date Class

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

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ompanies, Inc.

An outline is a written plan that shows how information is organized. It pro-vides an overview of a topic by listing main ideas and details. Outlining a text canbe an effective way to learn and study what you read. However, creating a good out-line requires more than just copying headings and subheadings from the text. Agood outline requires you to think about the text to summarize the information andfind the links between key concepts and facts.

LEARNING THE SKILL

An outline organizes information into three categories: main ideas; subtopics, or partsof each main idea; and supporting details. Outlines begin with broad ideas, followed bymore specific ideas. A formal outline follows a standard format.

Directions: Follow these steps to create a formal outline of a reading passage.

1. Read the material to identify the main ideas. Textbook section heads mayprovide clues to main ideas. Make each main idea a main topic. Labeleach topic with a Roman numeral followed by a period, such as I., II.,III., and so forth.

2. Identify subtopics that explain the main ideas. Label subtopics with capital letters and periods, as in A., B., C., and D.

3. List supporting details that provide more information about thesubtopics. Label supporting details with Arabic numerals and periods,such as 1., 2., and 3.

4. Use lowercase letters and then numbers in parentheses to divide thesubtopics into even smaller subtopics.

5. Check the number of entries. Each level should have at least twoentries— or none. For example, if you have an A. subtopic, you shouldalso have a B. subtopic. Indent each entry from the level above it.

6. Check the style of your outline. All entries should follow the same form.In other words, all entries should be either sentences or phrases.

An outline organizes information into topics, subtopics, and levels of sup-porting details.


Directions: Read this partial outline. Then answer the questions that follow in thespaces provided.

1. What are the two major topics in this outline?

2. Under what subtopic would you find information about powers sharedby both the federal government and the state government?

3. If you wanted to add information about how experiments in state gov-ernments influenced the role of the federal government, where wouldyou put it? How would you label that information in the outline?

4. How could you make this outline a better study aid?

APPLYING THE SKILL

Directions: Outlining Choose a lesson from a textbook. Read the lesson and use theheadings and subheadings to create a brief outline. Then return to the lesson to find additional subtopics for your outline. Insert sufficient details in the outline to create athorough overview of the lesson.

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ACTIVITY 8: Outlining (continued)

Name Date Class

I. Federalism

A. Definition

B. Benefits

1.Unity without uniformity

2.State “laboratories”

3.Divides power between stateand federal governments

II. Federal Division of Powers

A. Expressed Powers

B. Implied Powers

C. Inherent Powers

D. Denied National Powers

1. Bill of Rights

2. “Constitutional silence”

3. “Destructive” powers

4. Reserved powers of the states

E. Exclusive Powers

F. Shared Powers

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OBJECTIVES• To interpret a political map and a bar graph

• To analyze a map and a chart


Maps, graphs, and charts deliver signifi-cant textbook content. By learning to readand interpret visuals, students—particu-larly those for whom reading comprehen-sion is a weakness—gain valuable infor-mation. In analyzing charts, graphs, andmaps, students should concentrate ondrawing inferences from the data. Theyshould start by noting the details andmove on to examining the relationshipsbetween groups or categories of data.

TEACHING THE SKILL

Write the following paragraph on an over-head transparency or on the board. Thenread the paragraph as students followalong.

Of all of the Axis Powers, Germany experi-enced the greatest number of military deathsduring World War II with a total of 3,250,000.Japan was next with 1,506,000. China, not amajor member of the Allied Powers, lost1,324,000 soldiers as a result of the war. TheUnited States lost 405,000 military personnelduring the war but it was the Soviet Unionthat experienced the greatest loss of life duringWorld War II, with a total of 13,600,000military deaths.

Ask students how they could use the datain the paragraph to create a chart or graph.Guide students to see that such informa-tion could be displayed in a table or in acircle graph. Have students decide how toshow the data, and then draw their sug-gested graphics on the board. Ask stu-dents to draw conclusions from the dataand help them to see that it is easier todraw conclusions when the numbers arein a graphic form rather than embedded intext. Ask students how they could use amap to better understand the graphic data.(They could locate the countries named on thechart or graph.)

Assign Activity 9 for students to completeindependently. After students finish, havethem share the conclusions they gatheredfrom the maps, graphs, and charts theyanalyzed in the Applying the Skill activity.

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ompanies, Inc.

EL ACTIVITY Pair English Learnerswith fluent English speakers to

complete the Applying the Skill activity.Have partners analyze and discuss themap and chart or graph. Then havethem work together to write their paragraphs.

READING MAPS, GRAPHS, AND CHARTSTeaching Strategy 9

Nonfiction texts often include maps, graphs, and charts. Maps show the loca-tion of places and events. Graphs show change over time or make comparisonsbetween sets of data. Tables or charts are often used to report numerical data.

LEARNING THE SKILL

Maps, graphs, and charts can make certain information clearer and more understand-able. To get the most out of these visuals, you need to learn how to read and interpretthem.

Directions: Follow these steps to read and interpret maps, graphs, and charts.

Maps1. Read the title to tell the map’s

subject and purpose.

2. Examine the map scale. It tellshow many miles or kilometersare represented by a givenmeasure on the map.

3. Read the map key, or legend.It explains the meaning of shapes, colors, and other symbols on the map.

4. Look for the compass rose or direction arrow to find north, south, east,and west on the map.

Graphs and Charts1. Read the title to find the subject.

2. Examine the headings and labels.They explain what the graph orchart compares, measures, orreports. Read the key.

3. Analyze the data. Make compar-isons, search for trends, or draw conclusions.

Currency in Circulation

DenominationAll Bills$1$5$10

$535,350.07,043.88,003.9

13,582.0

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ACTIVITY 9: Reading Maps, Graphs, and Charts

Name Date Class

Table

Circle graph

12%8%

4%76%

12%8%

4%76%

Texas

California

Ohio

all otherstatescombined

Energy Consumption, by State

Total in circulation(in millions of $)

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ACTIVITY 9: Reading Maps, Graphs, and Charts (continued)

Name Date Class

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

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ompanies, Inc.


Directions: Use the map and graph below to answer the questions that follow in thespaces provided.

1. Look at the map. What is its subject? What type of map is it?

2. Which parts of South Africa have the lowest elevations?

3. For Cape Town, South Africa, which month—January or July— has thehighest temperatures?

4. Which city has the least difference between January and July high tem-peratures? Which city has the greatest difference?

APPLYING THE SKILL

Directions: Reading Maps, Graphs, and Charts Select one map and one chart or graphfrom your social studies textbook. Choose a map and chart or graph that are related insome way. On a separate sheet of paper write a paragraph about the visuals. Tell how themap and chart or graph are related. Use information on the chart or graph to draw conclu-sions about the places on the map. Use the map to help explain the information on thechart or graph.

0 250 500

0 250 500

mi.

km

NN

EE

SS

WW

N

E

S

W

SOUTHSOUTHAFRICAAFRICASOUTHAFRICA

ELEVATIONS

10,0005,0002,0001,0000

3,0001,500

600300

0

Feet Meters

The World Almanac & Book of Facts 2001

0

50

100

79

6370

74

28

80

High Temperatures in January and July

Tem

pera

ture

in D

egre

es F

ahre

nhei

tCape Town,South Africa

Mexico City,Mexico

Toronto,Canada

C i t yJanuary

July

South Africa: Elevation

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OBJECTIVES• To interpret a photograph and a diagram

• To compare a photograph or illustration with that of a diagram of the same

subject


Good readers visualize what is happeningin the text and form mental images as theyread. Visualization helps readers under-stand complex processes and rememberkey details. Photographs, illustrations, anddiagrams thus help students to more accu-rately visualize a scene, time period, event,or process. However, many students skipover pictures and diagrams as they read.They see them as superfluous to theirmain task—reading words on the page.Encourage students to take the time tostudy and interpret photographs andimages. Help them to see that visuals mayprovide information that is not available inthe text and can also help them betterunderstand and remember what they read.

TEACHING THE SKILL

Read aloud the following passage of text.

When a volcano erupts, molten rock calledmagma rises through cracks in the earth’scrust. Gases form and pressure builds until thevolcano erupts. Gases, dust, and pieces of rockspew from the volcano. Layers of lava and ashbuild up around the volcano opening and, intime, form a cone-shaped mountain.

Have students look at the photograph andthe diagram of a volcano on page 73. Askstudents to tell how they pictured the vol-cano as they listened to the passage. Havestudents compare their mental imageswith the photograph and diagram shownin the Practicing the Skill activity. Guidestudents to note that the visuals make iteasier to understand the description pro-vided in the text.

Assign Activity 10 for students to com-plete independently. After students finish,have them tell what picture and diagramthey interpreted for the Applying the Skillactivity. Invite students to share theirinterpretations and comparisons.

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EL ACTIVITY Gathering informationfrom photographs and diagrams

can simplify content-area reading forEnglish Learners. However, some stu-dents may still need help in reading andinterpreting diagram labels. Encouragestudents to use the glossary or a diction-ary to check the meaning of unfamiliarwords in the Practicing the Skill andApplying the Skill diagrams.

INTERPRETING PHOTOGRAPHS AND IMAGESTeaching Strategy 10

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ACTIVITY 10: Intrepreting Photographs and Images

Name Date Class

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

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ompanies, Inc.

How often have you heard the expression "A picture is worth a thousandwords?" Photographs, illustrations, and diagrams are three ways that picturesprovide valuable information— often much more information than what you getfrom words alone.

LEARNING THE SKILL

The photographs and illustrations you find intextbooks are not just for decoration. Their pri-mary purpose is to help you visualize andunderstand what is in the text. Diagrams alsohelp you to visualize concepts. They provide aglimpse into the way something works, thestages in a cycle, the steps in a process, or howsomething is put together.

Directions: Follow these steps to interpret pho-tographs, illustrations, and diagrams.

Photographs and Illustrations1. Read the caption to learn the subject, location, and time period shown.

2. Study the people, places, and events shown. Notice the background.Think about what may be excluded from view.

3. Ask yourself: What feeling or impression does the photographer or artistwant to convey? What is the center of interest? What messages do light,shadow, and color deliver?

Diagrams1. Read the title or caption to find

out the subject.

2. Read the labels to determinetheir meanings.

3. Trace the lines to see what partof the diagram each labelexplains.

4. Look for arrows that showmovement, stages of a cycle, orthe order of steps.

The sun warms the ocean.

Evaporationfrom ocean

Clouds

Condensation

Precipitation(snow, sleet, hail, rain)

Evaporationfrom lakes and

streams

Surface collection

Groundwater to rivers and oceans

Evaporationfrom ocean

Clouds

Condensation

Precipitation(snow, sleet, hail, rain)

Evaporationfrom lakes and

streams

Surface collection

Groundwater to rivers and oceans

The Water Cycle

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ACTIVITY 10: Intrepreting Photographs and Images (continued)

Name Date Class


Directions: Use the photograph and diagram below to answer the questions that followin the spaces provided.

1. What is the subject of the photograph and diagram?

2. What is the name for the point where ash and smoke erupt from the volcano?

3. What is magma called after it flows onto the earth’s surface?

4. What do you learn from the diagram that you do not learn from the photograph? What do you learn from the photograph that you do notlearn from the diagram?

APPLYING THE SKILL

Directions: Interpreting Photographs and Images Select a photograph and a diagramabout a related subject from your social studies or science textbook. On a separate sheetof paper write a paragraph to explain your interpretation of both visuals. Compare theinformation you receive from each one. Which is more informative? Explain why youthink so.

Ash and smoke

Vent

Pipe

Magma chamber

Lava flow

Layers of ash and lava

Pipe

Magma chamber

Lava flow

Layers of ash and lava

Mt. St. Helens erupted in 1980. An Erupting Volcano

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OBJECTIVES• To compare and contrast information

• To compare and contrast points of view


One of the best ways to understand andremember new information is to makeconnections between topics or ideas. Oneway to relate such topics or ideas is bylooking for the similarities and differencesbetween them. When readers compare andcontrast, they compare the features orcharacteristics of one topic or eventagainst the features or characteristics ofthe other topic or event.

TEACHING THE SKILL

On the board write the following sen-tences.

Canada shares the landform called the RockyMountains with the United States.

The climate of Canada is much cooler than thatof the United States.

Read the first sentence with students.Point out that the sentence compares theUnited States with Canada. Ask studentswhether the sentence points to a similarityor a difference. (similarity) Have studentsfind the signal word that points to the sim-ilarity. (shares) Read the second sentenceand ask students whether it points out asimilarity or a difference. (difference)

On the board, draw a comparison chart,similar to the one on page 75. Label thecolumns Feature, Canada, and United States.Label the rows Landforms and Climate.Model how to use the chart to comparefeatures. Then draw a Venn diagram anduse it to compare and contrast the sen-tences you wrote on the board.

Assign Activity 11 for students to com-plete independently. After students finish,have them read the editorial letters theyselected and show their Venn diagrams orcomparison charts.

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ompanies, Inc.

EL ACTIVITY Suggest that English Learners work with fluent English

speakers to complete the Applying the Skill activity. Have fluent Englishspeakers read the letters aloud. Thenhave partners choose which features to compare and contrast. Have ELstudents record the similarities and dif-ferences on the Venn diagram or com-parison chart.

COMPARING AND CONTRASTINGTeaching Strategy 11

You make comparisons all the time. For instance, if you are shopping for a newstereo, you probably compare and contrast different models and brands of stereos.Just as comparing and contrasting is a good consumer skill, it is also a good skill touse as you read.

LEARNING THE SKILL

When you compare you look for how things are alike. When you contrastyou look for differences. One good way to understand and remember whatyou read is to look for similarities and differences between people or events.Sometimes an author directly states how things are alike and different. Moreoften, you will do your own comparing and contrasting as you think aboutwhat you read.

Directions: Follow these steps to compare and contrast information.

1. Decide what subjects, people, events, or opinions to compare and contrast.

2. Identify key features or characteristics of the subjects.

3. Look for similarities. Authors use words such as both, same, also, share,and in common to point out similarities.

4. Look for differences. Words such asalthough, however, on the other hand,instead, and but point to differences.

5. Use a Venn diagram or a comparisonchart to record your findings. Then, examine your chart or diagram and draw conclusions.

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ACTIVITY 11: Comparing and Contrasting

Name Date Class

Both• could declare

war upon othernations

Articles of Confederation• could not create taxes for

states to pay• could not establish a

national judicial system

U.S. Constitution• had the ability to impose

taxes on states• was authorized to create

national court system

Comparison chart

Venn diagram

Feature

Declaring War Yes Yes

Imposing Taxes No Yes

No Yes

Articles ofConfederation

U.S.Constitution

Create acourt system

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ACTIVITY 11: Comparing and Contrasting (continued)

Name Date Class

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

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ompanies, Inc.


Directions: Read the following passage. Compare and contrast American education of the early 1800s with education today. Then use the Venn diagram below to list the similarities and differences.

Today all school-age children are entitled to free public education.States fund the schools and make laws that require school attendance.Such ideas about education were not always the case. While Americansof the early 1800s valued education just as they do now, schools variedfrom place to place. In some areas the town paid for schools. In others,private groups raised money for schools or asked parents to contribute.Sometimes neighbors banded together to hire a minister or a tutor toteach a small group of students. Children were not required to attendschool. In certain schools African Americans, girls, and those withphysical challenges were not welcome.

APPLYING THE SKILL

Directions: Comparing and Contrasting On the editorial page of a newspaper or mag-azine find two letters on the same subject. Compare and contrast the letters. Identifypoints the letters have in common and points about which the writers disagree. Create acomparison chart or a Venn diagram to compare and contrast the letters.

Both

Schools Today Schools of the 1800s

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OBJECTIVES• To identify cause-and-effect relationships in historical events

• To identify cause-and-effect relationships in current events


Determining why something occurred andwhat happened as a result of it can helpstudents clarify relationships betweenevents so that they can better analyze andunderstand them. To understand causeand effect, students identify the initiatingaction or circumstance—the cause. Thenthey determine the consequence orresult—the effect.

TEACHING THE SKILL

Introduce the concepts of cause and effectby inviting students to share somethinggood that happened to them in the pastweek. Ask the volunteers to then answerthese questions: “What caused this eventto happen?” “What was the effect of theevent on your life?” Make a cause-and-effect diagram on the board to chart thestudents’ responses. Then have all stu-dents draw a diagram showing the causeand effect of an experience in their ownlives.

Explain to students that many historicalevents have more than one cause andeffect. In fact one of the tasks of historiansis to analyze the complex long-term causesand effects of historical events.

Advise students that just because oneevent precedes another, a cause-and-effectrelationship does not necessarily exist.

Assign Activity 12 for students to com-plete independently. After students finish,have them check their own papers whilereviewing the answers to the Practicing theSkill exercises. Then have students sharethe diagrams they made to chart thecause-and-effect relationship of a currentevent.

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EL ACTIVITY For the Practicing theSkill exercises, suggest that English

Learners eliminate answers they knoware wrong, then reread the passagebefore marking the final answer in eachitem. Have English Learners and fluentEnglish speakers work together on theApplying the Skill activity, first choosinga news article and then buddy-readingit. Have both students share responsibil-ity for creating the diagram.

UNDERSTANDING CAUSE AND EFFECTTeaching Strategy 12

78


ACTIVITY 12: Understanding Cause and Effect

Name Date Class

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

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ompanies, Inc.

You know that if you oversleep you will be late for school. This is an example of acause-and-effect relationship. The cause—sleeping late, creates the effect— beinglate for school. A cause is an action or situation that produces an event. An effectis a result or consequence of an action or situation. Learning to identify cause-and-effect relationships can help you understand the reasons why events happen or whypeople behave as they do.

LEARNING THE SKILL

When you look for why or how an event or chain of events took place, youare developing the skill of understanding cause and effect.

Directions: Follow these steps to identify cause-and-effect relationships.

1. Identify an action, event, or behavior that answers the question, “Whathappened?”

2. Look for the cause or causes. Ask yourself, “Why did this happen?”Watch for signal words such as because, since, therefore, led to, broughtabout, produced, as a result of, and so that. These words may help you iden-tify whether one event caused the other.

3. Identify the outcome or impact of the event or situation. Look for logicalrelationships between events.

4. Recognize that a cause can have multiple effects and that some effectshave more than one cause. Note that a chain of events may occur. That iswhen one effect becomes the cause of subsequent effects.

5. Draw a diagram to show the cause-and-effect relationship.

Cause: Soviet Union launches Sputnik space satellite

Effect: United States launches itsown satellite a few months later

Effect: American schools place increasedemphasis on science and math education

One Cause—Multiple Effects

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ACTIVITY 12: Understanding Cause and Effect (continued)

Name Date Class


Directions: Read the following passage to identify cause-and-effect relationships. Thenanswer the questions that follow by circling the letter of the correct answer.

The United States and the Soviet Union became increasingly hostiletoward each other near the end of World War II. This hostility, whichlasted from about 1946 to 1990, was known as the Cold War.Tensions grew because the two nations had different goals. TheSoviets wanted to keep Germany weak while maintaining Sovietcontrol of Eastern European countries, establishing a buffer zoneagainst any future German invasions. American leaders believed thateconomic growth was the key to global peace and therefore encour-aged widespread economic recovery in Europe, especially inGermany. Americans also disliked Soviet control of Eastern Europe,which they viewed as a threat to the ideals of democracy.

1. Which of the following was NOT a cause of U.S.–Soviet tension?

A. differing national C. disagreement over Germany’s goals recovery

B. growth in American D. the future of Easternunemployment Europe

2. What effect did postwar hostility bring about?

A. increased trade between the C. decades of tension called thenations Cold War

B. military warfare between D. the devastation of Europe the superpowers

3. What was one of the Soviet Union’s goals?

A. to protect itself from future C. to become allied with a new, German invasion stronger Germany

B. to withdraw from Europe D. to encourage German economic recovery

4. Identify the signal word or phrase in the following sentence that pointsto the cause-and-effect relationship.

Another issue that led to the Cold War was radically different political philosophies.A. another B. issue C. led to D. support

APPLYING THE SKILL

Directions: Understanding Cause and Effect Read a news account (in a newspaper ormagazine) about a recent event in your community. Determine at least one cause and oneeffect of that event. On a separate sheet of paper, draw a diagram to show the cause-and-effect relationship.

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OBJECTIVES• To summarize a paragraph

• To write a summary of a social studies passage


Few people can remember everything theyread. One important skill in both school-work and everyday life is to learn to filtervast quantities of information, identifyingwhat is most important and then summa-rizing key concepts and ideas.

Summarizing is also the basis of manylonger writing activities, including bookreports and reviews, research reports, labreports, and news stories. Following theguidelines for writing a summary willhelp students create these other writingforms, as well as a brief summary para-graph.

TEACHING THE SKILL

Ask a volunteer to share what he or shehas done in the last 24 hours. Encouragethe student to provide as much detail aspossible while you list the student’s activi-ties on the board. Then invite students tosummarize the volunteer’s description.Model the thinking necessary to summa-rize the events by asking questions such as"Which event is most important for us toremember or understand?" "What conclu-sions can we draw from the description ofthe events?" Record the summary on theboard. Have the volunteer review thesummary to see if he or she thinks it accu-rately summarizes the day’s events andactivities.

Assign Activity 13 for students to com-plete independently. After students finishthe Practicing the Skill activity, have themshare their summaries. You might want toselect two or three sections in the socialstudies text and have different groups readand write summaries for each section.Then have students compare their sum-maries. Remind students that because theyare using their own words, the summarieswill differ. However, the summariesshould each contain the main points anddetails.

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EL ACTIVITY Have English Learnerswork with partners, taking turns

reading aloud the Practicing the Skillpassage. Encourage students to discussthe passage and underline the mainideas and significant details before theybegin writing. Then have students workin pairs to write the summary. Use asimilar procedure for the Applying theSkill activity. You may wish to haveEnglish Learners record the main ideaand supporting details on a graphicorganizer before they write each summary.

SUMMARIZING INFORMATIONTeaching Strategy 13

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Post-Reading Strategy

ACTIVITY 13: Summarizing Information

Name Date Class

Much of the information you learn in school comes through reading. How canyou understand and remember so much? One way to check your understanding andsort through all that information is to write a summary. A summary states themain ideas, key facts, and important vocabulary. Writing a good summary can helpyou organize information so that it is easier to remember. A summary is a perfectstudy tool to use as you review for a quiz or test.

LEARNING THE SKILL

A key characteristic of a summary is that it is brief. A summary includesonly the most important details from a reading passage—it does not retellevery point. You should write a summary in paragraph format.

Directions: Follow these steps to summarize information.

1. Read the passage to get the overall meaning. Ask yourself, "What is thisselection about?" Take notes on longer passages.

2. Review the passage to find the main ideas. Find the topic sentences.Often, a topic sentence states the main idea of a paragraph or section.

3. Use your own words to write the main ideas and key concepts. Write incomplete sentences. Arrange your ideas in logical order.

4. Use key vocabulary and terms. Provide definitions that help you betterunderstand the words and concepts.

5. Add dates, names, and the most important details.

6. Write a concluding sentence that ties all your points together.

7. Revise your summary. Check that it includes all the important facts. Seethat it makes sense. Edit your writing, if necessary, to remove excessdetail and to improve the order of information.

8. Use your summary to help you review and study the text.

A summary is like a mini report that provides the main ideas and mostimportant details of a reading selection.

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ACTIVITY 13: Summarizing Information (continued)

Name Date Class

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Directions: Read the following passage. Then write a brief summary of the informationin the space provided. Use complete sentences.

During the Renaissance, Italian city-states often competed againsteach other to hire the best painters and sculptors. Once hired, theartists were expected to make paintings and sculptures for royalpalaces and gardens. Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti,and Raphael Santi are among the most famous Renaissance artists.Da Vinci painted Mona Lisa, a portrait of an Italian noblewoman,and The Last Supper, a fresco that adorns the walls of an Italianmonastery. Da Vinci also spent time sketching his inventions, includ-ing parachutes, flying machines, and mechanical diggers.Michelangelo created the sculpture David. At the request of the pope,he painted the ceiling of Rome’s Sistine Chapel. While lying on hisback on scaffolding 70 feet above the floor, Michelangelo paintedscenes from the Bible. Raphael’s most famous work, The School ofAthens, is in the Vatican.

APPLYING THE SKILL

Directions: Summarizing Information Read a section from a social studies textbook.Take notes as you read. Then use your notes to write a summary of the section. Writeyour summary on a separate sheet of paper. After you have written a draft of your summary, compare it to that of another student who summarized the same reading selection. Revise your summary to add or delete details, put information in logical order,and clarify fuzzy language.

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OBJECTIVES• To sequence and categorize information by completing a time line and

answering questions

• To categorize survey responses and describe a sequence of steps


By sequencing and categorizing informa-tion, students structure information into aform that is easier to understand andremember. Understanding the sequence ofevents is particularly important in history.Categorizing is also important for histori-ans as they seek to understand the rela-tionships between individuals, groups,and ideas. Categorizing information alsohelps students recognize patterns.

TEACHING THE SKILL

Ask a volunteer to describe what he or shedid the day before. On the board, list eachbehavior or event in the order in which itoccurred. Then have the class look forways to categorize the student’s experi-ences. For instance, students could catego-rize events as school, family, chores, and soforth, grouping all the school-related activ-ities together, the family events together,and so on.

Review with students signal words thatindicate order and those words that pointout similarities that can be used for classi-fication and categorization. Challenge stu-dents to add to these word lists.

Assign Activity 14 for students to com-plete independently. After students finishthe Applying the Skill activity, have themshare their bar graphs and sequence chartswith classmates.

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EL ACTIVITY Have English Learners rehearse their survey

questions with one another before theysurvey other classmates. Encourage stu-dents to write survey questions, thenpractice asking the questions, listeningto answers, and recording sample sur-vey results.

SEQUENCING AND CATEGORIZING INFORMATIONTeaching Strategy 14

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ACTIVITY 14: Sequencing and Categorizing Information

Name Date Class

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ompanies, Inc.

When you describe how to play a game, you probably explain it in the sequence,or order, in which steps are done. You may also categorize, or classify, game strate-gies to use in particular instances. By telling the sequence of steps and by categoriz-ing the game moves, you help your listener better understand the game. When youread, you can identify the sequence of events and categorize information to help youmake sense of the material you are reading.

LEARNING THE SKILL

To sequence information you put events and actions into the order in whichthey took place. When you categorize information, you sort people, objects,events, behaviors, or ideas into groups. Each group shares a common set ofcharacteristics.

Directions: Follow these steps to sequence and categorize information.

To sequence information:1. Read the text. Look for dates that tell when things happen. Put the

events in order from earliest to most recent.

2. Note signal words that show order, such as first, next, second, then, last,finally, and at last.

3. You can show the sequence on a diagram, such as on a flowchart or atime line. Add arrows, numbers, or dates to show the order of events.

To categorize information:1. Read the text. Identify characteristics shared by more than one group,

event, or individual.

2. Look for signal words, such as all, some, these, other, and another that pointout relationships among similar items.

3. Place similar items into a single category. Give the category a name.

4. Split large categories into smaller ones.

To sequence, you put events in the order in which they took place. To categorize, you sort items into groups.

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ACTIVITY 14: Sequencing and Categorizing Information (continued)

Name Date Class


Directions: Read the following passage. Then complete the time line and the questionsthat follow.

In late June 1914, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, theArchduke Franz Ferdinand, was assassinated by a Bosnian revolution-ary named Gavrilo Princip. The Austro-Hungarian government blamedSerbia for the attack and declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914.Because Russia competed with Austria-Hungary for influence in south-eastern Europe, the Russian army began mobilizing in defense of Serbiaon July 30. On August 1, Austria-Hungary’s Triple Alliance partner,Germany, declared war on Russia. On August 3, Germany also declaredwar on Russia’s alliance partner France and began an invasion of west-ern Europe by marching through Belgium. This invasion of Belgiumcaused Great Britain to declare war on Germany on August 4, 1914.The First World War was underway.

1. Which nations mentioned above would you categorize under TripleAlliance?

A. Germany B. Austria-Hungary C. Great Britain D. Serbia A. and France B. and Germany C. and Belgium D. and Russia

2. Which of the following statements best explains the start of World War I?

A. Gavrilo Princip single-handidly C. a complex alliance system began the conflict magnified a regional conflict

into a continental oneB. German aggression started D. Austria-Hungary desired

World War I. control of all of Europe

APPLYING THE SKILLDirections: Sequencing and Categorizing Information Conduct a survey of your class-mates. Start by identifying a topic, such as pets. Collect information based on your topic,such as the type and number of pets your classmates own. On a separate sheet of paper,draw a bar graph based on the categories of information you gathered. Then draw a flow-chart or make a numbered list to show the steps you followed to conduct your survey andmake the graph.

Franz Ferdinandassassinated

Austria-Hungarydeclares war

against Serbia

July 30, 1914

Definition:

Term:

Examples:

Characteristics:

CHECKS AND BALANCES

Each branch of government can usechecks, or controls, over the others.

President vetoesacts of Congress

Congress refuses toconfirm presidentialappointment

Executive branch checkson Congress and Courts

Legislative branch checkson President and on Courts

Judicial branch checks onPresident and on Congress

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OBJECTIVES• To complete a study guide based on a reading passage

• To write study questions on a textbook lesson


Learning to efficiently and effectivelystudy is a critical goal for students. Manystudents find it difficult to organize keyconcepts and information into a formatthat they can then study. Learning to makeflash cards, concept lists, word maps,study questions, and diagrams can pro-vide the tools students need to help themstudy effectively for tests.

TEACHING THE SKILL

Ask students to share techniques they useto prepare for tests. Encourage students todemonstrate their most effective strategies.List students’ ideas on the board. Thenintroduce the idea of creating a studyguide as a way to review key concepts,names, dates, and ideas in preparation fora test. Explain that the format a studyguide takes will vary based upon the typesof information students need to learn.

Model the process of creating a word mapby drawing on the board the map shownbelow. Point out the features of the map,including the definition listed at the top,the characteristics or traits listed on theright, and the examples listed at the bot-tom of the map. Explain that a word mapcan be an effective way to review complexinformation that might be tested in anessay question.

Assign Activity 15 for students to com-plete independently. You might want tohave all students write study questionsabout the same textbook lesson. After stu-dents finish, have them take turns askingand answering one another’s study ques-tions. Encourage students to look up theanswers to any questions that they cannotanswer from memory.

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EL ACTIVITY For the Applying theSkill activity, pair English Learners

with fluent English speakers to buddy-read the lesson and write study questions.

Word Map

MAKING A STUDY GUIDETeaching Strategy 15

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ACTIVITY 15: Making a Study Guide

Name Date Class

Developing strong reading skills can help you to understand and remember whatyou read. Even so, no matter how well you read, you need to study in order to dowell on tests. One of the best ways to study efficiently is to make a study guide. Astudy guide includes all the dates, events, names, concepts, terms, and other infor-mation you need to know in order to succeed on a test.

LEARNING THE SKILL

A study guide may include one or more parts, depending upon the informa-tion you need to learn.

Directions: Follow these steps to make a study guide.

1. Make flash cards to help you learn important terms, names, and dates.Write the word, date, or name on one side of the flash card. Write thedefinition or explanation on the other side.

2. Organize information on a running concept list. Divide a sheet of paperinto two columns. Write terms, names, concepts, or dates in the left col-umn. Write definitions, explanations, and descriptions in the right-handcolumn.

3. Draw a word map to organize information about a specific term, place,person, event, or time period. List the person, place, event, or term in thecenter box. At the top of the page, write a short description or definition.To the right, list characteristics of the person, place, event, or item. At thebottom of the word map, list examples.

4. Write practice test questions and sample answers. Write your questionsin the same format as the test. For example, if the test will have multiplechoice questions, write multiple choice questions. If the test will have fill-in-the-blank exercises, write your questions in that form.

5. Draw a diagram to graphically point out connections between relatedideas. Show similarities and differences in a Venn diagram. List relatedideas in a web or concept map. Analyze causes and effects in a cause-and-effect chart.

A study guide contains the key concepts, names, dates, and ideas youneed to know for a test.

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ACTIVITY 15: Making a Study Guide (continued)

Name Date Class

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ompanies, Inc.


Directions: Read the following passage. Then use the information from the readingto complete the concept list below. In the right column, write an explanation of eachword or date that appears in the left column.

The development of the modern computer began at the end of WorldWar II. The world’s first electronic digital computer, called ENIAC(Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), went into operation inFebruary 1946. ENIAC weighed over 30 tons and took up as much floorspace as a medium-sized house. In 1957 Gordon Moore, Robert Noyce,and other young scientists and engineers developed the first integratedcircuit—a complete electronic circuit on a single chip of the element sil-icon—which made circuits vastly easier to manufacture. Other electron-ics companies sprang up south of San Francisco, an area soon nick-named Silicon Valley.

1. ENIAC

2. integrated circuit

3. Gordon Moore

4. Silicon Valley

APPLYING THE SKILL

Directions: Making a Study Guide Choose a lesson in a social studies or science text-book. Read the lesson carefully. On a separate sheet of paper, write five questions aboutthe most important information. Write the answers too.

1.

2.

3.

4.

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OBJECTIVES• To use test-taking strategies to answer objective and essay questions

• To use and describe test-taking strategies to answer review questions


Tests are a reality of the school experience.One way to help students perform well ontests and to reduce testing anxiety is tohelp students learn and practice effectivetest-taking strategies. Some students mayintuitively apply such strategies. Thosewho do not can learn effective strategiesand should be encouraged to use them inauthentic testing situations.

TEACHING THE SKILL

On the board write the following testquestions.

• Which of the following did not contribute tothe success of the Greek Empire?

• This mineral is found only in __________.• Describe what the immigrants saw when

they first landed in America.

One by one read the questions aloud.Model the process of interpreting eachquestion by restating what information isasked for. Point out key words, such asnot, only, and describe.

Then, choose a set of questions from anold test or from a chapter review. Readeach question aloud. Have students taketurns using their own words to ask thequestion in another way. Have studentspoint out key words and tell how thewords affect what the question asks.

Assign Activity 16 for students to com-plete independently. You may want tohave all students base the Applying the Skill activity on the same set of reviewquestions.

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EL ACTIVITY Review with EnglishLearners the key words mentioned

in the student lesson. Encourage stu-dents to write each word and its defini-tion on one side of an index card and asentence using the word on the oppositeside of the card. Then allow these stu-dents to work together to read and dis-cuss the Practicing the Skill passage andits questions.

TEST-TAKING STRATEGIESTeaching Strategy 16

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ACTIVITY 16: Test-Taking Strategies

Name Date Class

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ompanies, Inc.

Good preparation is the key to doing well on tests. Part of that preparation lies in learning to read and interpret test questions. There are two basic types of testquestions—objective questions and essay questions. Objective questions can includetrue/false, multiple choice, and fill-in-the blank or matching questions. Essay questions require you to write one or more paragraphs in response to a question.

LEARNING THE SKILL

Some test-taking strategies apply to all tests. Others are specific to the typeof test given.

Directions: Follow these test-taking strategies.

1. Carefully read the directions.

2. Skim the test. Look at the types and difficulty of questions and the testlength. Decide how much time to spend on each test section or question.If time is limited, answer easy questions first, then come back to theharder ones.

3. Check your answers, as time permits.

For Objective Tests:1. Read the entire question before answering. Read each answer choice.

2. Pay attention to key words such as not, only, always, never, and except.

3. Eliminate answers that are obviously wrong. Reconsider the remainingones. Choose the best answer, not the okay answer.

4. If the test contains a reading passage and you get stuck on a question,skim the passage to hunt for a specific answer.

5. Watch your place. Make sure you fill in the correct blank or write theanswer beside the correct item number.

For Essay Tests:1. Read the question several times. Look for key words that tell you how to

respond, such as describe, discuss, classify, compare, explain, summarize, andevaluate.

2. Either mentally or on paper, quickly outline the main points you willcover.

3. Write your essay, beginning with a strong introduction. Support yourpoints with specific facts and details. Wrap up with a strong closing.

4. Reread your answer to check for spelling and grammar. Revise as timepermits.

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ACTIVITY 16: Test-Taking Strategies (continued)

Name Date Class


Directions: Read the following passage. Then use test-taking strategies to answer thequestions that follow by circling the letter of the correct answer or writing the answer in the space provided.

In the early 1800s, religious leaders organized to revive Americans’commitment to religion. The resulting movement came to be called theSecond Great Awakening. Various Protestant denominations—most oftenthe Methodists, Baptists, and Presbyterians—held camp meetings wherethousands of followers sang, prayed, and participated in emotional out-pourings of faith. As membership in many Protestant churches swelled,other religious groups also flourished, including Unitarians,Universalists, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints—commonly known as Mormons.

1. Which of the following faiths is not mentioned as benefiting from theSecond Great Awakening?

A. Methodists B. Anglicans C. Baptists D. Unitarians

2. All of the following statements are true for the Second Great Awakening,except

A. many Americans returned C. Mormons saw no benefit from to a religious faith. the national movement

B. camp meetings attracted D. membership in many Protestantthousands of worshipers churches grew

3. What activities occurred at the Second Great Awakening camp meetings?

4. What does the following essay question ask you to do?

Tell how life during the Industrial Revolution differed from that of the colonial days.

A. describe the daily life of C. contrast life during the two the colonists periods

B. analyze the Industrial D. trace the changes in the Revolution everyday lives of Americans

APPLYING THE SKILL

Directions: Test-Taking Strategies Choose a chapter or lesson review in a social studiesor other textbook. Read each question. Then, write which test-taking strategy or strategiesyou could use to help you answer the question. Explain how the strategies you pick makesense. Finally, write the answer to the review questions.

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Activity 3

Practicing the Skill

Applying the SkillStudents should draw and complete a K-W-L-H chart for a lesson in a textbook. On the chart students should list prior knowl-edge, identify questions they hope to answerby reading, summarize what they read, andidentify new questions and ways to learnmore about the topic.

Activity 4

Practicing the Skill1. in 1891; to ease the burden of the Supreme

Court2. those on appeal from lower district courts

or from federal regulatory agencies3. the right to a fair trial and the right to equal

protection under the law4. Students’ answers will vary. Typical

answers may include rereading and readingmore slowly.

Applying the SkillStudents’ answers should contain a compari-son-and-contrast paragraph that describestheir comprehension of two kinds of readingmaterials and the strategies they used tounderstand each passage.

Activity 1Practicing the Skill1. Native Americans of the eastern woodlands2. Algonquian, Iroquoian3. under the subheading The Peoples of the

Northeast4. northeastern United States

Applying the Skill1. Students should identify the topic of the

lesson.2. Students should identify two vocabulary

words from the lesson.3. Students should list three ideas, events, or

topics from the lesson.

Activity 2

Practicing the Skill1. Students’ answers may reflect what they

know about the Civil War, the rights ofAfrican Americans, the U.S. Constitution, or specific amendments to the Constitution.

2. Students may say they would expect to find information about the specific rightsgranted by the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, andFifteenth Amendments, the dates when theamendments passed, or how the passage ofthe amendments affected life in the UnitedStates.

3. Students should list two questions theyhave about the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, orFifteenth Amendments or related issues.

4. Students’ plans may mention reading slow-ly, rereading to learn details, or using studystrategies such as outlining or taking notes.

Applying the SkillStudents’ answers should include three topicsthey predict they will find in the lesson, threequestions and two words or concepts relatedto the topic, and a plan they could follow tomeet their reading goals.

ANSWER KEY

K W L H


What do you want tofind out?



Students’ answerswill vary. Typicalanswers may includeinformation relatedto pharaohs, the NileRiver, and pyramidconstruction meth-ods.

Students’ answerswill vary. Typicalquestions mayinclude: How werethe pyramids built?Why did theEgyptians build thepyramids? How longdid it take to buildthem?

Possible answersinclude: pyramidswere on west bank ofNile; pyramids weretombs for pharaohs;pyramids were madefrom limestone andgranite; thousands ofpeople worked on thepyramids; workersdragged rocks upmud ramps.

Students’ responseswill vary. Studentsmay say they coulduse reference sourcesto learn more aboutpyramid constructionand use encyclope-dias to learn moreabout Egypt and thehistory of thepharaohs.

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Activity 5

Practicing the Skill1. a2. d3. b4. c

Applying the SkillStudents’ answers will vary but should list

five words and the informal and dictionarydefinitions for those words.

Activity 6


Applying the SkillStudents should write the main idea of a newsarticle.

Activity 7

Practicing the SkillStudents’ notes will vary but may say that theBritish Parliament passed the Stamp Act, thelaw charged a tax on common products, thetax passed without colonists’ consent, andcolonists protested the Stamp Act.

Students’ webs will vary. Typical answers areshown.

Applying the SkillStudents’ notes will vary but should containthe main points of a current events story andshould be organized in a way that makessense.

Activity 8

Practicing the Skill1. federalism, federal division of powers2. II. F. Shared powers3. I. B. 2. State “laboratories”; possible answer:

a. successes; b. failures4. Possible answers include: add more details,

reread text to check the accuracy of theinformation

Applying the SkillStudents’ outlines should follow the formaloutline style and list topics and subtopics ina textbook lesson or chapter.

Activity 9

Practicing the Skill1. South Africa; elevation map 2. the coastal areas3. January4. Mexico City, Mexico; Toronto, Canada

Applying the SkillStudents’ paragraphs should describe how themap and chart or graph are related. Studentsshould draw conclusions about the places onthe map and the data on the chart or graph.

Activity 10

Practicing the Skill1. erupting volcanoes2. vent3. lava4. Answers will vary. Students may say that

the diagram shows what goes on inside thevolcano and the photograph shows what anerupting volcano actually looks like.

Applying the SkillStudents’ answers should explain what thephotograph and diagram show, and comparethe information supplied by each visual. Theyshould tell which visual is more informativeand explain why.

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Stamp

Parliament makes taxTax violates

citizens’ rights

Sons of Libertyburn stamps

Merchants boycottBritish goods

Topic: Women in California gold rush

Main Idea: Women filled a variety of economic roles during the gold rush.

Suppo

rting

Det

ails:

care

d for

fam

ily

mine

d cla

ims

worke

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wag

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prov

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serv

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such

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aund

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owne

d bu

sines

ses,

such

as h

otels

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Activity 11


Applying the SkillStudents should create a Venn diagram orcomparison chart to compare and contrast theviews expressed in two letters to the editor.You may wish to have students turn in the letters with their assignments.

Activity 12

Practicing the Skill1. B2. C3. A4. C

Applying the SkillStudents should create a diagram that showsthe cause-and-effect relationship of a currentevent. You may wish to have students attach acopy of the news account to their diagram.

Activity 13

Practicing the SkillSample summary: During the RenaissanceItalians valued and supported artists and theirworks. Three of the world’s most famousartists worked during this period: Leonardoda Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti, andRaphael Santi.

Applying the SkillStudents’ summaries should be written in anwell-organized paragraph and should includethe main ideas and most important detailsfrom a section in a social studies text.

Activity 14Practicing the SkillTime line answers: June 1914; July 28, 1914;Russian army begins mobilizing to defendSerbia; August 1, 1914—Germany declareswar on Russia; August 3, 1914—Germanydeclares war on France and invades Belgium;August 4, 1914—Great Britain declares war onGermany.1. B2. C

Applying the SkillStudents’ bar graphs should group informa-tion into categories. Students’ lists of flow-charts should show the sequence of steps theyfollowed to conduct their surveys and maketheir graphs.

Activity 15

Practicing the Skill1. the first electronic digital computer, letters

stand for Electronic Numerical Integratorand Computer

2. a complete electronic circuit manufacturedon a single chip of silicon

3. One of the scientists who developed thefirst integrated circuits in 1957, makingelectronic circuits easier to manufacture.

4. A geographical area south of San Franciscoso nicknamed because many electronicscompanies located there following the cre-ation of the integrated circuit.

Applying the SkillStudents’ questions will vary. Students shouldwrite five questions and the answers.

Activity 16

Practicing the Skill1. B2. C3. singing, praying, emotional expression of

faith4. C

Applying the SkillStudents’ answers will vary. Students shouldtell what test-taking strategies they would useand why. They should also write answers tothe review questions.

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Both

Schools Today Schools of the 1800s

• free public education• states pay for schools• mandatory attendance• open to all

• variations in schools• parents or other groups

often paid• not mandatory• some children excluded

• importance ofeducation

Documents

Reading Strategies and Activities for the Social …glencoe.com/ebooks/social_studies/9780078909399/anc/rsa.pdfReading Strategies and Activities for the Social Studies Classroom New