4th International Language and Education Conference

Bangkok, 6-8 November, 2013

Anwei Feng (anwei.feng@nottingham.edu.cn)

University of Nottingham, Ningbo, China

Reducing Tensions for Additive Multilingual Education through

Research

Outline in Title

Reducing Tensions for Additive Multilingual Education through Research 1. An assumption 2. A concept that begs defining 3. An argument for Additive multilingual education

Ultimately, I argue that high-quality research leads to tension reduction, which is the prerequisite of MLE.

*A research project conducted in China to be used to illustrate the points.

1. Assumption Tensions exist regarding MLE in all countries

(Example from China) At the policy level: (the Constitution vs Regional policies

and views held by policy makers, e.g., Tsung, 2009) In the literature: while we see notions such as MLE, equality

in education and language rights, we also see ‘to develop a minority region, Chinese should come first’; ‘backward (minority) culture’; ‘resistance to otherness or to advanced Han culture’

On the ground: frequent and fervent debates; doubts of parents

Reasons Behind

‘Greater Han’ mentality (Lin, 1997) or Linguistic fusionism (Teng, 2000)

Concealed assimilation (Feng, 2007) …

Misconceptions with regard to (the value of) minority languages and bilingualism or multilingualism

2. Concept of Additive MLE

Multilingualism – refers in simplistic and general terms to competence in two or more languages. In a situation where a minority group dominates, it typically refers to competence in mother tongue language (L1), national language (L2), and a foreign language (L3).

Additive MLE – developed on the basis of Additive bilingualism to refer to teaching and learning that aim to add L2, L3, … to the linguistic repertoire of a pupil whose L1 is well maintained and developed. If the acquisition of L2, L3, … is achieved at the expense of L1, it is Subtractive.

Terminology Does Matter MTB-MLE applies to many minority communities

where people still speak a minority language as their MT.

Additive MLE applies to all, as some communities such as the Manchu, Tujia, and She are so assimilated that the vast majority speak Mandarin as L1. Attempts to teach / learn their own language are revitalisation programs.

Example of Additive MLE Additive Trilingual Education (ATE) in many parts of China

(Feng, 2013) – programs developed in minority-dominated schools that aim to nurture trilinguals who master not only oracy but also literacy in L1, strong competence in L2, given its absolute importance for life opportunities, and peer appropriate competence* in L3, usually English. *Peer appropriate competence in L3 means oracy and literacy in L3 comparable to that of the peers of the majority Han group. Balanced trilinguals or multilinguals are rare. Thus, additive MLE should be defined carefully in accordance with the specific context.

3. The Argument Arguments are made from three

perspectives: i) Economic perspective

Cross-border trade and career opportunities (e.g., Koreans, Russian, etc.)

Tourism that promotes ‘show culture’ (Naxi in Lijiang, Dai in Xishungbanna, Inner M., etc.)

However, economic reasoning is often weak and there is a

danger behind over-emphasis on this logic. Many minority languages become endangered owing to this logic, including some with a long history and strong ethnolinguistic vitality.

More Importantly,

It is argued that for MLE for minority groups, it is crucial to go beyond economic reasoning:

ii) Correlationship between bi/multilingualism and cognition: Research in psychology, education, and linguistics has categorically shown evidence of additive bi/multilingualism for children’s cognitive development.

iii) Affective reasoning: Language is an important boundary marker and thus essential part of one’s identity, self-esteem, and human dignity. There is a strong correlation between these and suppression. With one’s confidence in claiming one’s identity etc., comes socio-political stability and ethnic harmony.

Argument in Graphics

Genuine equality, social harmony, and political stability are based on mutual respect, mutual understanding, and empathy in a culturally and linguistically diverse society!

Economic Cognitive Affective

Additive Multilingual Education

Educational and Socio-political Ideals

Questions Arise How can you convince me that there is a correlationship

between bilingualism or multilingualism and cognition in my country/region? Many people I know seem to say the opposite.

Affectively, yes, language is important as far as one’s identity and dignity are concerned. However, there is danger of inculcating Quebec-style nationalism. It seems that the more a member of a minority group is assimilated into the mainstream, the less likely he is engaged in trouble making.

They beg convincing evidence through high quality research!

4. Quality of Research

Less convincing evidence: Data focusing solely on performance in the majority

language (L2) or a foreign language (L3). Data drawn solely from results of standard assessments. Data collected through an over-simplistic (quantitative)

method without taking contextual factors into account. Research that is isolated and thus has poor

generalizability …

Better Data

Convincing data come from: Research that takes the multifaceted nature of minority

education into account: history, geography, economy, demography, political relationship with the majority, ethnolinguistic vitality, etc.

Valid and reliable methodology Ethical research Well-coordinated research projects through concerted efforts

of many teams Strategic dissemination of convincing evidence easy to

understand and overwhelming

Trilingualism-in-China Project

Questions Ethnolinguistic vitality (both objective & subjective) Language allocation in curriculum Perceptions and attitudes of stakeholders

Theoretical underpinning: Threshold hypothesis Instruments A suite of 12 tools

Execution Field work by 11 regional teams

Linguistic Map

Vitality at a Glance

Selected regions/prefectures/communities on a continuum in terms of objective ethnolinguistic vitality

Yanbian Qinghai Yunnan Ningxia Xinjiang Liangshan Inner Mongolia Guangxi Tibet Gansu Guizhou Hong Kong? Guangzhou?

Communities with L1 that has the most vitality

Communitieswith L1 that has the least vitality

Major Findings of Phase 1 After 5 years of research, we identified 4 models

adopted in different regions Strong models – Aiming for additive trilingualism

Accretive Balanced

Less effective or weak models – aiming for limited bi- or trilingualism or monolingualism Transition Depreciative

Revitalisation (in Type 3 communities) Laissez–faire models ‘Political’ models, such as Neidiban

Details on Website We have set up a website for the project

which contains important information for the project, such as project aims, project teams, project outcomes, technical papers, briefing papers, symposia, etc.

Let’s take a look

http://www.ied.edu.hk/triling/

Now in Phase 2

Types of Research Questions: What is the situation? (seeking understanding) e.g., What are the schools really doing? Why is it so? (seeking explanation/interpretation) e.g., The model is weak. Is it because of the local policies?

What happens when or if …? (taking action to see if the situation can be improved)

e.g., Will it help if I use Model Z in this school?

Action-Oriented Phase First strand – To impact policy

Policy-curriculum-implementation process at macro-, meso-, and micro-levels for each region

What can we do to influence policy/curriculum?

Second strand – To identify (in)effective factors in real practice Factors concerning stakeholders Factors concerning language allocation … What can we do to improve practice?

Third strand – To plan an action How can we promote strong models to promote

additive trilingualism?

Final Remarks Tensions surrounding MLE do exist and need

addressing. MLE needs to be defined very carefully on the

basis of thorough understanding of the context.

High-quality research is an effective way to address tensions at the policy level, given a politically stable environment.

There is a very successful case in China. Evidence shows MLE is most effective through both top-down and bottom-up initiatives!

C & Q Acknowledgement

We would like to acknowledge the generous funding received from the Hong Kong Research Grants Council (General Research Fund 840012).

诚谢 我们真诚感谢香港研究资助局慷慨资助（研究基金编号 GRF-840012）