Reforma Cautin MALLON

7/23/2019 Reforma Cautin MALLON

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Political Power and Social TheoryEmerald Book Chapter: Land, morality and exploitation in Southern Chile:Rural conflict and the discourses of agrarian reform in Cautn, 1928-1974

Florencia E. Mallon

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Florencia E. Mallon, (2001),"Land, morality and exploitation in Southern Chile: Rural conflict and the discourses of agrarianreform in Cautn, 1928-1974", Diane E. Davis, in (ed.) 14 (Political Power and Social Theory, Volume 14), Emerald Group

Publishing Limited, pp. 143 - 195

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L A N D M O R A L I T Y A N D

EXPLOITATION IN SOUTHERN CHILE:

R U R A L C O N F L I C T A N D T H E

D I S C O U R S E S O F A G R A R I A N R E FO R M

IN CAUTIN 1928-1974

Florencia E M al lon

B S T R C T

This essay is a historical case study of southern Chilean rural society and

its transformation across the twentieth century. It moves beyond questions

of unionization and political parties in the agrarian sector to debates about

land, subsistence and exploitation to show how notions o f moral

econo my in rural politics were for m ed and transformed in ongoing

dialogue with the policies and discourses of the Chilean welfare state.

Using jud icia l records, newspapers, go vernm ent docum ents and interviews

with almost all the major protagonists, it explores the contradictory effects

of both class and ethn ic strategies of agrarian restitution, tracing three

generations o f mobilization in a Mapuche community. Through local

evidence, it demonstrates how the Pinochet dictutorship (1973-1990)

reorgan ized and du sted off a state discourse on market-based, efficient

agrarian exploitation that had been central to all official explanations and

justifications of agrarian reform offered between 1964 and 1973.

Polit ical Power and Soc ial Theory Volum e 14 pages 143-195.

2000 by Elsevier Sc ience Ltd.

ISBN: 0-7623-0763-3

43


3/54

1 44 FLOR E NC IA E . M A LLO N

I N T R O D U C T I O N

B e t w e e n 1 9 6 4 a n d 1 9 7 3, t h e C h i l e a n c o u n t r y s id e u n d e r w e n t a d r a m a t i c a g r a r i a n

re fo rm t h a t , f o r a l l i n t en t s an d p u rp o s es , ab o l i s h ed t h e t r ad i t i o n a l s y s t em o f t h e

latifundio

o r g r e a t e s t a t e . B u i l d i n g o n w h a t w a s s e e n a s t h e u n i q u e C h i l e a n

c o m p r o m i s e s t a te - i n w h i c h t h e s t ro n g e le c t o r a l p r e s e n c e o f l a b o r a n d l e f ti s t

p a r t i e s h a d b e c o m e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d s i n c e t h e f i r s t P o p u l a r F r o n t g o v e r n m e n t

b r o u g h t t o p o w e r a c o a l i t i o n o f C o m m u n i s t , S o c i a l i s t , a n d R a d i c a l p a r t i e s i n

1 9 3 8 - t wo r e fo r m i s t p re s i d en t s we re e l ec t ed i n 1 9 6 4 an d 1 9 7 0 , fi r st t h e

C h r i s t ia n D e m o c r a t E d u a r d o F r e i M o n t a l v a a n d t h e n th e S o c i a l i st S a l v a d o r

A l l e n d e G o s s e n s. E a c h h a d p r o m i s e d a m a j o r t r an s f o r m a t io n o f C h i l e a n a g r i-

c u l t u r e , t h e f i r s t t h r o u g h t h e p r o m u l g a t i o n o f a g r a r i a n r e f o r m l e g i s l a t i o n a n d

t h e s e c o n d t h r o u g h t h e d e e p e n i n g a n d r a d i c a l i z a ti o n o f t he a g r a r i a n r e f o r m

p r o c e s s i t s e l f . W h i l e b o t h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s t o s o m e d e g r e e d e l i v e r e d o n t h e i r

p r o m i s e s , in d i f f e re n t w a y s b o t h w e r e a l s o b u f f e t e d b y w a v e s o f m o b i l i z a t io n

a n d r i s in g e x p e c t a t i o n s t h a t t h e y w e r e u n a b l e t o c o n t ro l . B y t h e m i d d l e o f 1 9 73 ,

t h e c o u n t r y f a c e d a m a j o r c r i si s o f r u le t o w h i c h a n e v e r m o r e v i o l e n t c o n f r o n t a -

t i o n b e t ween t h e l an d l e s s an d t h e ru ra l p ro p r i e t o r s g rea t l y co n t r i b u t ed . W h en a

b l o o d y m i l i t a r y c o u p b r o u g h t d o w n t h e A l l e n d e g o v e r n m e n t i n S e p t e m b e r o f

t h a t y e a r , m a n y e x p r o p r i a t e d l a n d o w n e r s s u p p o r t e d t h e n e w r e g i m e in t he h o p e s

o f h a v i n g t h e i r l a n d s r e tu r n e d , a n d s o m e o f t h e m w e r e n o t d i s a pp o i n t e d . Y e t

a t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e f r e e - m a r k e t g r o w t h m o d e l p r e f e r r e d b y t h e m i l it a r y j u n t a

p r e v e n t e d t h e r e tu r n o f t h e t r a d it io n a l l a r g e e s t a te a s a m o r e g e n e r a l s y s t e m o f

p ro d u c t i o n ( s ee C h o n ch o l , 1 9 9 4 ; Hu e r t a , 1 9 8 9 ; Kay & S i l v a , 1 9 92 ; Kay , 1 9 7 4 ;

M arch e t t i , 1 9 7 5 ; M ar t i n ez & Dfaz , 1 9 9 6 ; S i l v a , 1 9 8 7 ; Th i e s en h eu s en , 1 9 7 0 ) .

T h e s t o r y I w i s h t o t e ll i n th i s e s s a y d o e s n o t p r e t e n d t o e n c o m p a s s t h e w h o l e

o f t h i s b r o a d a n d d r a m a t i c h i s t o r i c a l e p o c h . F r o m t h e s i n g l e M a p u c h e i n d i g e -

n o u s c o m m u n i t y w h o s e n a r r a t i v e c r is s c r o s se s t h e t e xt ; to t h e

onefundo

o r l a r g e

es t a t e , i n wh o s e

toma

o r i l l eg a l t ak eo v e r , t h i s co m m u n i t y p a r t i c i p a t ed ; t o t h e

l o n e C E R A , o r a g r a r i a n r e f o r m c e n t e r , c r e a t e d o n t h a t

fundo

in ear ly 1971 ; th i s

s t o ry i s b u t a s i n g l e s l i c e o f t h e b ro ad p ro ces s o f ag ra r i an r e fo rm , s o c i a l ch an g e ,

a n d c o n f l ic t t h a t s w e p t C h i l e b e t w e e n 1 9 64 a n d 1 9 73 . T h e v i o l e n c e t h a t e n g u l f e d

C a u t i n p r o v i n c e ' s c o a s t a l r e g i o n , o f w h i c h t h is C E R A w a s a p a r t , b e t w e e n

A u g u s t a n d S e p t e m b e r 1 9 7 3 ; t h e t o r tu r e a n d im p r i s o n m e n t o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y

s i x ty r u ra l l e a d e r s f r o m t h is a n d s u r r o u n d i n g f a r m s ; a n d t h e u l t i m a t e r e t u rn o f

the fundo

t o i t s o r i g i n a l o wn e r s i n Ap r i l 1 9 7 4 : t h e s e ev en t s a r e b u t a s c rap o f

t h e r e p r e s s i o n a n d h u m a n t r a u m a t h a t f o l l o w e d t h e m i l i t a r y c o u p o f 1 1

S e p t e m b e r 1 9 73 . A n d y e t t h is s t o r y , w o v e n f r o m s o u r c e s a s d i v e r s e a s j u d i c i a l

r e c o r d s , n e w s p a p e r s , g o v e r n m e n t d o c u m e n t s , a n d i n t e rv i e w s w i t h a l m o s t a ll t h e

m a j o r p r o t a g o n i s ts , d o e s h a v e t h e l a r g e r p r e te n s i o n o f p r o v i d i n g a l o c al , f in e l y


4/54

Land M orality and Exploitation in Southern Chile 145

g r a i n e d l o o k a t h o w t h e s e b r o a d e r p r o c e s s e s l o o k e d n e a r t h e g r o u n d t o t h e

p e o p l e w h o s t ru g g l e d , p a r ti c i p a te d , a n d s u f f e r e d w i t h in t h e m . T h r o u g h a d e ta i le d

h i s t o r i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n g o v e r n m e n t p o l i c y , a s w e l l a s

t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f l o c a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d m e m o r y , i t m a k e s t h r e e c o n t r i b u -

t io n s t o o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f C h i l e a n r u r a l s o c i e t y a n d i t s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a c r o s s

t h e t wen t i e t h cen t u ry .

I t s f i r s t co n t r i b u t i o n i s t o p ro v i d e a r eg i o n a l l y an ch o red v i ew o f t h e l o n g u e

d u r d e o f C h i l e a n a g r a r i a n p o l i t i c s a n d c o n s c i o u s n e s s . I n l a r g e p a r t b e c a u s e

C h i l ean l aw an d p o l i t i c a l p rac t i ce m ad e ru ra l u n i o n i za t i o n d i f f i cu l t i n t o t h e

1 9 60 s , m o s t s c h o l a r s h a v e a r g u e d t h a t t h e c o u n t r y s i d e r e m a i n e d r e l a t i v e l y q u ie s -

c e n t t h r o u g h m o s t o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y w h i l e m i n e s a n d c i t i e s m o b i l i z e d ,

t hu s m a k i n g C h i l e ' s u n i q u e c o m p r o m i s e s t at e a p r e d o m i n a n t l y u r b a n a n d

i n d u st ri a l p h e n o m e n o n . W i t h t he n o ta b l e e x c e p t i o n o f B r i a n L o v e m a n ' s 1 9 73

w o r k o n r u r a l m o b i l i z a t i o n a n d u n i o n iz a t io n , m u c h o f t h e n e w s o c ia l a n d l a b o r

h i s t o ry h as co n t i n u ed t o fo cu s o n u rb an a rea s , an d m a i n l y o n n i t r a t e f i e l d s ,

m i n es , an d f ac t o r i e s ( s ee , fo r ex am p l e , DeSh azo , 1 9 8 3 ; K l u b o ck , 1 9 9 8 ;

Montern , 1982 ; Or tega , 1991 ; P in to , 1998 ; Sa lazar , 1985 1990 ; Winn , 1986) .

B y c o n t ra s t, t h i s e s s a y e x a m i n e s l o c a l e v i d e n c e o f l a n d h u n g e r a n d m o b i l i z a -

t i o n b e t w e e n t h e l a t e 1 9 2 0 s a n d 1 9 7 0s i n o r d e r t o m o v e b e y o n d q u e s t i o n s o f

u n i o n i za t i o n an d p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s t o d eb a t e s ab o u t l an d , s u b s i s t en ce , an d

ex p l o i t a t i o n . As we s h a l l s ee , t h e r e s u l t i s a m o re n u an ced , p o l i t i c a l l y co m p l ex ,

a n d i n t er n a l ly c o n te n t i o u s p i c t u r e o f h o w n o t io n s o f m o r a l e c o n o m y i n r u r a l

p o l i t i c s w e r e f o r m e d a n d t r a n s f o r m e d i n o n g o i n g d i a l o g u e w i t h t h e p o l i c i e s a n d

d i s c o u r s e s o f th e C h i l e a n w e l f a r e s ta t e.

T h e s e c o n d a i m o f th i s e s s a y i s to r e c o n s i d e r t h e r e l a ti o n s h ip b e t w e e n c l a s s-

b a s e d m o b i l i z a t i o n a n d s t a t e p o l i c y , a n d t h e p a r t i c u l a r h i s t o r y o f e t h n i c a n d

r a c i a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a n d u s u r p a t i o n t o w h i c h t h e M a p u c h e p e o p l e h a v e b e e n

s u b je c t . A s w a s t r u e i n m a n y p a r ts o f L a t i n A m e r i c a , th e M a p u c h e i n d i g e n o u s

p e o p l e w e r e t h e m a i n p r o t a g o n i s t s o f a n e t h n i c r e v i v a l m o v e m e n t t h a t b e g a n

i n t h e l a t e 1 9 7 0 s an d wi t n es s ed i t s f i r s t p eak d u r i n g t h e t r an s i t i o n t o d em o c-

ra t i c ru l e b e t w een 1 98 9 a n d 1 99 2. Fo r t h e f ir s t t i m e i n t h e 2 0 t h cen t u ry , t h i s

i n d i g e n o u s m o v e m e n t p u t t h e i s s u e o f c u lt u ra l d i v e r s i t y a n d r e s p e c t f o r e th n i c

i d en t i t y s q u a re l y o n t h e C h i l ean p o l i t i c a l ag en d a . S i m i l a r l y t o i n d i g en o u s

a c t i v i s t s i n c o u n t r i e s a s d i v e r s e a s G u a t e m a l a , C o l o m b i a , E c u a d o r , N i c a r a g u a ,

a n d B o l i v i a , s o m e M a p u c h e a c t i v i s t s h a v e s u b s e q u e n t l y b e e n s h a r p l y c r i t i c a l o f

M a r x i s t a n d o t h e r s t a t e - a n d c l a s s - b a s e d e f f o r t s a t e c o n o m i c a m e l i o r a t i o n t h a t

a t t em p t ed n a t i o n a l i n teg ra t i o n t o th e d e t r i m e n t o f cu l t u ra l an d e th n i c au t o n o m y .

A t t h e s a m e t im e J a c q u e s C h o n c h o l , M i n i s t e r o f A g r i c u l tu r e d u r i n g t h e P o p u l a r

U n i t y G o v e r n m e n t , h a s r e c e n t l y a r g u e d t h at , in c o n t r a s t to i ts l a c k o f a s y s t e m -

a t i c p o l i c y t o w a r d n o n - M a p u c h e s m a l l p r o d u c e r s , t h e A l l e n d e g o v e r n m e n t


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146 FLORENCIA E . MALLON

m a n a g e d n o t o n l y t o g i v e b a c k t h o u s a n d s o f h e c t ar e s t o th e M a p u c h e , b u t a l so

s p o n s o r e d a n e w i n d i g e n o u s la w t h a t h a d b e e n w r i tt e n l a rg e l y b y t h e M a p u c h e

o rg an i za t i o n s t h em s e l v es (Ch o n ch o l , 1 99 4: 2 9 9 ) . 1 B y c o n s i d e r i n g a s p ec i fi c ca s e

o f M a p u c h e m o b i l i z a ti o n , t h is e s s a y e x p l o r e s t h e c o n t r a d i c t o r y e f fe c t s o f b o t h

c l a s s an d e t h n i c s t r a t eg i e s o f r e s t i t u t i o n , t r ac i n g h i s t o r i ca l l y h o w t h r ee g en e ra -

t io n s w i t h in a M a p u c h e c o m m u n i t y e x p e r i e n c e d th e p a i n fu l i n ad e q u a c i e s o f

each , an d t h e f ru s t r a t i o n o f h av i n g a l w ay s t o ch o o s e b e t w een t h em.

T h e e s s a y ' s t h i r d c o n t r i b u t i o n i s t o e x a m i n e c o n t e m p o r a r y d e b a t e s a b o u t

a g r a ri a n r e f o r m a n d t h e f r e e - m a r k e t m o d e l o f t he 1 9 8 0s a n d b e y o n d t h r o u g h a

r eg i o n a l l y an d h i s t o r i ca l l y s p ec i f i c l en s . A s man y s ch o l a r s h av e a rg u ed , t h e

Ch i l ean mi l i t a ry g o v e rn men t , d e s p i t e i t s s o c i o p o l i t i c a l co n s e rv a t i s m, d i d n o t

s i mp l y r ew ard t h e t r ad i t i o n a l l an d l o rd c l a s s b y r ev e r s i n g t h e p r ev i o u s ag ra r i an

re fo rm an d r e t u rn i n g a l l p ro p e r t y t o i t s f o rmer o w n er s . I n s t ead , t h e r eg i me t o o k

a d v a n t a g e o f th e a g r a ri a n o l i g a r c h y ' s p o l it ic a l a n d e c o n o m i c f r a g m e n t a t io n t o

c rea t e a mu ch m o re co m p e t i t iv e , c ap i ta l is t ex p o r t ag r i cu l tu r e t ha t , f r o m t h e mi d -

1 9 8 0s , s p e a r h e a d e d a m a j o r n a ti o n a l e c o n o m i c b o o m ( C h o n c h o l , 1 9 94 :

e s p ec i a l l y 3 0 0 -3 0 2 ; K a y S i l v a , 1 9 9 2 ; M ar t / n ez D faz , 1 9 9 6 ; S i l v a , 1 9 8 7 ) .

W h a t my l o ca l ev i d en ce ad d s t o t h i s p i c t u r e i s t h e co n t i n u i t y i n a mark e t -

o r i en t ed d i s co u r s e o f e f f i c i en cy acro s s a l l th e r eg i m es i n q u es t i o n : t h e m i l it a ry

g o v e r n m e n t i n f a c t r e o r g a n i z e d a n d d u s t e d o f f a s ta t e d i sc o u r s e o n e f f ic i e n t

ex p l o i t a t i o n t h a t h ad ex i s t ed i n Ch i l e fo r f i f t y y ea r s , an d h ad b een cen t r a l t o

a l l o f f i c i a l ex p l an a t i o n s an d j u s t i f i c a t i o n s o f ag ra r i an r e fo rm o f f e r ed b e t w een

1964 and 1973.

T H E M A R K E T M O R A L E C O N O M Y A N D E T H N IC

L E G I T I M A C Y IN A G R A R I A N D I SC O U R S E : T H E

P O P U L A R U N IT Y G O V E R N M E N T I N

H I S T O R I C A L P E R S P E C T I V E 1 9 28 -1 9 71

I n 1 9 38 , w h e n P e d r o A g u i r r e C e r d a h e a d e d t h e f ir st P o p u l a r F r o n t g o v e r n m e n t

t h a t i n c l u d ed w i t h i n i t s r u l i n g co a l i t i o n t h e So c i a l i s t an d Co mmu n i s t p a r t i e s ,

t h e c o u n t r y h a d a l r e a d y s e e n m o r e t h a n a d e c a d e o f d e b a t e o n l a n d t e n u r e a n d

ag ra r i an p o l i cy . A t t h a t p o i n t i t w as a l r ead y p o s s i b l e t o d i s ce rn t w o b ro ad

s t ran d s , s o m e t i mes i n t e r s ec t in g an d s o m e t i mes n o t . O n e i n v o l v ed t h e h i s t o ry o f

s ta te p o l i c y t o w a r d t h e M a p u c h e , f r o m t h e t im e o f m i li ta r y d e f e a t ( 1 8 8 3 ) t o t h e

p as s ag e o f t h e f i r s t l an d d i v i s i o n l aw (1 9 2 8 ) . T h e o t h e r co n ce rn ed l an d co l o -

n i za t i o n p o l i cy mo re b ro ad l y , an d e s p ec i a l l y t h e s o c i a l w e l f a r e i mp l i ca t i o n s o f

t h e g r o w i n g la n d le s s p o p u l a t i o n b e i n g g e n e r a t e d b y a n i n c r e a s in g l y u n e q u a l

pa t t e rn o f l and d i s t r ibu t ion .


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Land, Mo rality and Ex ploitation in Southern C hile 147

I n t h e c a s e o f t h e M a p u c h e , t h e C h i l e a n s t a t e h a d g r a n t e d l a n d s t o in d i g e n o u s

co m m u n i t i e s a f t e r f i n a l m i l i t a ry d e fea t i n 1 8 8 3 , wh en t h e t e r r i t o ry ex t en d i n g

s o u t h f r o m t h e B f o - B f o t o th e T o l t r n r i v e r s - w h a t i s t o d a y r o u g h l y t h e

p r o v i n c e s o f M a l l e c o a n d C a u t/ n , o r t h e V I I I a n d I X R e g i o n s - w a s f o r m a l l y

b r o u g h t u n d e r t h e a u t h o r i ty o f th e C h i l e a n s ta te . R e g i s t e r e d i n t h e n a m e o f t h e

c a c i q u e ( l o n ko i n t h e M a p u c h e l a n g u a g e ) w h o p r e s i d e d o v e r a n e x t e n d e d l in e a g e

a t t h e m o m e n t o f t h e g r a n t o r r ed u cc id n , the t f t u l o d e m e r c e d t e c h n i c a l l y p r o -

v i d e d p r o t e c t i o n f r o m u s u r p a t i o n b y p r e v e n t i n g f o r m a l s u b d iv i s i o n a n d s a l e ,

t h o u g h i n d i v i d u a l h o u s e h o l d u s u f ru c t p red o m i n a t ed . In p rac t i ce , l o ca l s ta t e i n s ti -

t u t i o n s f a v o r e d n o n - M a p u c h e l a n d o w n e r s a n d d i d l i t t l e t o p r o t e c t t h e r i g h t s o f

M a p u c h e c o m m u n i t i e s . J o s 6 B e n g o a ' s c a l c u l a t i o n t h a t t h e la r g e s t u s u r p a t io n s o f

l a n ds g r a n t e d t o i n d ig e n o u s c o m m u n i t i e s in t ft u lo s d e m e r c e d o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n

1 9 0 0 an d 1 9 3 0 i s h a rd l y s u rp r i s i n g i n s u ch a co n t ex t . Of t en t h e s e u s u rp a t i o n s

o c c u r r e d w i t h i n a d e c a d e o f t h e t i m e w h e n t h e l a n d s w e r e o r i g i n a l l y g r a n t e d b y

t h e s ta te , a n d i n m o s t c a s e s it w a s t h e s a m e g e n e r a t i o n w h o h a d b e e n g i v e n t h e

o r i g i n a l t f tu lo t h a t a ls o b e g a n f ig h t in g C h i l e a n n a t i o n a l s a n d i m m i g r a n t c o l o n i s ts

fo r re s t i tu t i o n . W h en t h e f i rs t l an d d i v i s i o n l aw p as s ed C o n g re s s , p ro v i d i n g t h e

b a s i s f o r l e g a l s u b d i v i s i o n a n d s a l e i f t h e m e m b e r s o f a c o m m u n i t y s o d e si re d ,

m a n y c o m m u n i t i e s s a w i n it s p r o v i s i o n s a n o t h e r o p p o r t u n i ty f o r r es t it u ti o n . T h i s

w a s t h e c a s e b e c a u s e b e f o r e a c o m m u n i t y c o u l d b e s u b d i v i d e d i t w a s n e c e s s a r y

t o co n f i rm i t s co n t ro l o v e r a l l t h e l an d s o r i g i n a l l y g ran t ed i n t h e t ft u lo d e m er ced .

B y F e b r u a r y 1 9 2 9 , i n f a c t , m o r e t h a n 1 , 5 0 0 h e c t a r e s h a d b e e n r e t u r n e d t o

M a p u c h e c o m m u n i t i e s t h r o u g h t h e a p p l i c a ti o n o f t h e la n d d i v i s io n l a w , c a u s i n g

a m o d i f i c a t i o n in t h e l a w t o m a k e t h e i n s ti tu t io n o f s u b d i v i s io n p r o c e e d i n g s m o r e

d i f f icu l t (B en g o a , 1 98 5: 3 7 2 ; Fo e r s t e r & M o n t ec i n o , 1 98 8: 7 3 -7 4 , 7 9 , 81 ) .

I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e M a p u c h e c a s e , w h e r e l e g i t i m a c y o f a c c e s s t o l a n d w a s f o r -

m u l a t e d i n t e r m s o f r e st it u t io n o f e t h n i c a l l y - b a s e d r ig h ts , d e b a t e s a b o u t l a n d c o l -

o n i za t i o n i n t h e b ro ad e r s o c i e t y h ad b een o rg an i zed , s i n ce 1 9 2 8 , a ro u n d t h e

p r i n c i p l e o f a m i n i m u m s t a n d a r d o f s o c i a l w e l f a r e a s e s t a b l is h e d i n t h e 1 92 5

C o n s t i tu t i o n . A s i n t e r p r e te d b y t h e e m p l o y e e s o f th e C a j a d e C o l o n i z a c i 6 n

A g r f c o l a i n 1 9 3 6 , w h e n L a w 4 4 6 9 h a d c r e a t e d t h e C a j a in D e c e m b e r 1 9 28 , it

w a s in o r d e r t o i m p l e m e n t A r t i c le 1 0 o f t h e 1 9 25 C o n s t it u ti o n , w h i c h a s s u r e d

t o a ll in h a b i t a n ts o f t h e R e p u b l i c t h e r ig h t t o w o r k p r o d u c t i v e l y a n d t o e n j o y t h e

b e n e f i ts o f s o c i a l w e l f a r e , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h r e g a r d t o h e a l th y h o u s i n g a n d c o n d i -

t i o n s o f l i f e , s o a s t o g i v e each p e r s o n a m i n i m u m s t a n d a r d o f s o c i a l w e l f a r e i n

k e e p i n g w i t h h i s p e r s o n a l n e e d s a n d t h o s e o f h i s f a m i l y an d ad d ed t h a t the

S t a te w i l l s e t c o n d it io n s f o r t he d i v i s io n o f p r o p e r t y s o a s t o p r o m o t e t h e c o n -

s t it u t io n o f f a m i l y u n i t s ( m y e m p h a s i s ) . 2

D u r i n g C a r l o s I b ~ i fi ez 's f ir s t g o v e r n m e n t ( 1 9 2 7 - 3 1 ) , t h en , t h e C a j a w a s

c h a r g e d w i t h t h e ta s k o f f o r m i n g , d i r e c ti n g a n d a d m i n i s te r i n g c o l o n i e s t h a t


7/54

148 FLOR E NC IA E . M A LLON

w i l l i n t e n s i f y a n d o r g a n i z e p r o d u c t i o n , e n c o u r a g e t h e s u b d i v i s i o n o f a g r i c u l -

t u r al p r o p e r t y , a n d f o m e n t c o l o n i z a t i o n w i t h n a t io n a l a n d f o r e i g n s m a l l h o l d e r s . 3

T h e s a m e l a w t h a t c r e a t e d t h e C a j a a l s o a l lo c a t e d 1 0 0 m i l li o n p e s o s , to b e u s e d

t o a c q u i r e a n d p r e p a r e l a n d f o r p a r c e li z a t io n ; g i v e i n d i v id u a l o r g r o u p c r e d i t to

c o l o n i s t s b e g i n n i n g p r o d u c t i o n ; i n v e s t i n b r o a d e r p r o j e c t s f o r t h e i m p r o v e m e n t

o r c o m m e r c i a l a d v a n c e m e n t o f a g ri c u l tu r e i n g e n e ra l ; a n d c o v e r t h e c o s ts o f

f o r e i g n c o l o n i z a t i o n . T h e l a w a l s o p a s s e d c o n t r o l o f a l l s t a t e l a n d s o u t h o f t h e

B i o - B f o r i v e r t o t h e C a j a a n d e s t a b l i s h e d d i f f e r e n t m o d e l s f o r n e w a g r i c u l t u r a l

c o l o n i e s , d e p e n d i n g o n r e g i o n , ty p e o f la n d , a n d c o n d i t i o n s o f p r o d u c t i o n u n d e r

p r e v i o u s o w n e r s . 4

N o t u n t il F e b r u a r y 1 9 35 , h o w e v e r , d i d a n o t h e r l a w s e t th e t e r m s f o r t h e f u n c -

t i on i n g o f th e C a j a d e C o l o n i z a c i 6 n A g r f c o l a , c h a r g in g i t w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g

tasks :

( 1 ) T o c o l o n i z e s t a t e o r p r i v a t e l a n d s i n o r d e r t o i n c o r p o r a t e t h e m e f f e c t i v e l y

i n t o p ro d u c t i o n .

( 2) T o c a r r y o u t t h e s u b d i v i si o n o f l a n d i n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e s o c i a l a n d

e c o n o m i c n e e d s o f t h e c o u n t r y a n d o f e a c h re g i o n .

( 3 ) T o o r i e n t , i n t e n s i f y a n d i n d u s t r i a l i z e p r o d u c t i o n t h r o u g h t h e f o r m a t i o n o f

o rg a n i zed ag r i cu l t u ra l c en t e r s . 5

T o m e e t t h e s e g o a l s , t h e C a j a w a s g i v e n t h e l e g a l r i g h t t o b u y l a n d s f r o m t h e i r

p r e v i o u s o w n e r s , th r o u g h p r i v a t e p u r c h a s e o r a t p u b l i c a u c ti o n . I f t h r o u g h t h e s e

p r o c e d u r e s t h e C a j a c a n n o t r e a c h i t s o b j e c t i v e , i t c a n p e t i t i o n t h e P r e s i d e n t o f

t h e R e p u b l i c t o p e r m i t t h e e x p r o p r i a t i o n o f t h e l a n d n e c e s s a r y t o f o r m o r

c o m p l e t e a n a g r i c u l t u r a l c o l o n y , w h i l e p r o t e c t i n g t h e r i g h t o f t h e p r e v i o u s

o w n e r s t o u p t o 3 0 0 h e c t a r e s t o t h e n o r th o f t h e M a n l e r i v e r a n d n o t m o r e t h a n

5 0 0 t o t h e s o u t h . 6 In k ee p i n g wi t h c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s , a l l t h e p ro v i s i o n s

o f t h e n e w l a w e m p h a s i z e d t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e f a m i l y . C o l o n i s t s h a d t o b e

h e a d s o f h o u s e h o l d a n d c o u l d n o t t r a n s fe r , s e ll , s u b d i v id e o r m o r t g a g e t h e ir

p a r c e l s w i t h o u t t h e C a j a ' s c o n s e n t u n t il t h e n o r m a l p e r i o d f o r p a y m e n t o f th e i r

t o t al v a l u e h a d a l r e a d y p a s s e d . T h i s i s a w i s e m e a s u r e , C a j a e m p l o y e e s

ex p l a i n ed i n 1 9 36 , b eca u s e , in ad d i t i o n to p ro t ec t i n g th e f am i l y a s t h e

F u n d a m e n t a l C h a r t e r o r d e r s u s t o d o , i t a l s o e l i m i n a t e s a l l a t t e m p t s t o r e c o n -

s ti tu t e l a r g e p r o p e rt i e s, w h o s e s u b d i v i s io n h a s b e e n j u d g e d c o n v e n i e n t f o r s o c i a l

a n d e c o n o m i c r e a s o n s . 7

B y t h e t i m e o f t h e F ren t e Po p u l a r , t h en , ex i s t i n g l eg i s l a t i o n i n C h i l e h ad

e s t a b l is h e d f i v e p r i n c i p le s c o n c e r n i n g t h e q u e s t i o n s o f t e n u re a n d c o l o n i z a t io n

o n

n o n r e d u c c i 6 n

l a n d s . F i r s t , e v e r y C h i l e a n h a d t h e r i g h t t o a m i n i m u m s t a n -

d a r d o f w e l f a r e - w h a t o n e m i g h t c a l l t h e ri g h t to s u b s i s te n c e . S e c o n d , t h e


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Land Morality and Exploitation in Southern Chile

149

s t a te , a s th e g u a rd i an o f c i t i z en s ' r i g h t s , m u s t a s s u re t h e we l f a re o f t h e C h i l ean

p eo p l e b y p ro t ec t i n g t h e b a s i c u n i t o f s o c i e t y , d e f i n ed a s t h e f am i l y . Th i rd , t h e

c o u n t r y w o u l d b e n e f i t m o s t f r o m a l a n d t e n u r e o r g a n i z e d i n s m a l l o r m e d i u m -

s i z e d , w e l l c a p i t a l i z e d u n i t s w h o s e p r o d u c t i o n w a s o r i e n t e d t o w a r d t h e m a r k e t .

F o u r th , t h e s t a t e c o u l d l e g i t i m a t e l y o v e r r i d e t h e f i g h t to p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y w h e n

t h i s f i g h t en d an g e red m o re fu n d am en t a l p r i n c i p l e s , s u ch a s t h e r i g h t t o s u b s i s -

t en ce , p ro t ec t i o n o f t h e f am i l y , o r c r i t e r i a o f s o c i a l p ro d u c t i v i t y . F i f t h , b eg i n n i n g

w i t h t h e 1 9 35 l a w , a n e x p r o p r i a t e d l a n d o w n e r h a d t h e f i g h t to r e s e r v e a c e r t a in

a m o u n t o f l a n d t h a t c o u ld n o t b e c o n f is c a te d , w h o s e m a x i m u m s iz e d e p e n d e d

o n t h e q u a l i ty o f l an d o n each p ro p e r t y . B e t w een 1 93 5 an d 1 96 5 t h e s e f i v e

p r i n c i p l e s , an d t h e i n t e rp re t a t i o n s g i v en t h em b y d i f f e r en t s ec t o r s an d o rg an i -

z a t i o n s w i t h i n C h i l e a n s o c i e t y , w o u l d o r g a n i z e d e b a t e a r o u n d t h e u s e o f

non-reduccitn

r e s o u r c e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y . F o r C a u t f n , r e g i o n a l d o c u -

m e n t a t i o n p e r m i t s u s a c c e s s t o s e v e r a l c a s e s t h a t h e l p i l l u m i n a t e t h e e v o l u t i o n

o f d i f f e r en t p o s i t i o n s o n l an d t en u re , n o t o n l y w i t h i n t h e s t a t e , b u t a l s o am o n g

l an d o wn er s , co l o n i s t s , s m a l l h o l d e r s , an d t h e ru ra l l an d l e s s p o p u l a t i o n .

T w o t r e n d s s t a n d o u t f o r C a n t f n ' s a g r a r i a n s e c t o r b e t w e e n 1 9 40 a n d 1 96 0:

a h u n g e r f o r s c a r c e l a n d s a m o n g r u r a l i n h a b i t a n t s , b o t h M a p u c h e a n d n o n -

M ap u ch e ; an d t h e ab u s es an d s t ru c t u ra l d i f f i cu l t i e s p l ag u i n g s t a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s

t h a t a t t em p t ed t o d ea l w i t h t h e c r i si s o f r e s o u rces i n ag r i cu l t u re . 8 M i n i s t ry d o cu -

m en t s fo r t h e s e y ea r s a r e fu ll o f p e t i t io n s , f ro m i n d i v i d u a l s an d s o c i e t i e s o f

a s p i r i n g co l o n i s t s , r eq u es t i n g ac t i o n o n a p l e t h o ra o f s p ec if i c si t u a ti o n s . So m e

o f t h e s e i n v o l v e t h e a b u s e s o r b u r e a u c r a t i c s n a f us o f s t at e o f fi c ia l s, w h o m i g h t

l e t a d o cu m en t s i t o n t h e i r d e s k s fo r y ea r s , g a t h e r i n g d u s t , b e fo re s i m p l y f i l i n g

i t a w a y b e c a u s e i ts m o m e n t h a s p a s s e d . O t h e r s s p e a k m o r e d i r e c tl y t o t h e

f a c t t h a t t h e h u n g e r f o r l a n d c o u l d n o t b e r e s o l v e d w i t h f i sc a l p r o p e r t y , b e c a u s e

f i s ca l l an d i s a ll in t h e h an d s o f t h e l a rg e l an d o w n er s o f t hi s P ro v i n c e . I n a

n u m b e r o f c a s e s n e w l y f o r m e d g r o u p s o f a s p i ri n g c o l o n is t s id e n t if ie d a s p e c if i c

l a r g e p r o p e r t y a n d r e q u e s t e d e x p r o p r i a t i o n a n d s u b d i v i s i o n b y t h e C a j a d e

C o l o n i z a c i 6 n A g r f c o l a . 9

T h e i n s a t i a b l e l a n d h u n g e r r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h i s d o c u m e n t a t i o n w o u l d l i k e l y

n o t h a v e b e e n s o l v e d e v e n u n d e r t h e b e s t o f c i rc u m s t a n c e s ; b u t i n t h e C h i l e a n

c o u n t r y s i d e o v e r t h e s e y e a r s s t a t e p o l i c y o p e r a t e d a t b e s t i n a n u n e v e n m a n n e r .

N o t o n l y d i d m i n i s t r y b u r e a u c r a t s r o u t i n e l y s i t o n o r s i m p l y f il e a w a y p e t it io n s ,

b u t a n u m b e r o f c h a r g e s o f c o r r u p t io n w e r e a l s o b r o u g h t a g a i n s t t h e C a j a i t s el f.

A m o n g t h e m o r e t e l li n g o f t h e s e in a 1 9 39 p e t i t io n p r e s e n t e d t o t h e M i n i s te r i o

d e T i e r r a s y C o l o n i z a c i t n w e r e : t h e p u r c h a s e o f l a n d a t in f la t e d p r i c e s ; th e

i ll t r e a t m e n t o f th e m o r e i m p o v e r i s h e d c o l o n i st s ; a n d h i r i n g p e o p l e w i th

co n f l i c ts o f i n t e r e s t o r t h ro u g h n ep o t i s m . 1 In e s s en ce , t h en , t h e d i s co u r s e o f

t h e C a j a r a i s ed ex p ec t a t i o n s t h a t i t co u l d o r wo u l d n o t fu l f i l l . Th ro u g h t h e C a j a ,


9/54

1 50 F L O R E N C I A E . M A L L O N

t h e r e f o r e , t h e s t at e c r e a t e d t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e r a d i c a l i z a t i o n o f i ts o w n

d i s c o u r s e f r o m b e l o w , a n d i t s r e in t e rp r e ta t io n b y a s p i ri n g c o l o n i s t s w h o s e l a n d

h u n g e r s a t o u ts i d e t h e c a p a c i t y o f th e s y s t e m , o r w h o f o u n d t h e i r a m b i t i o n s

b l o c k e d b y c o r r u p t i o n o r b u r e a u c r a t i c m i s m a n a g e m e n t . 1~ T w o c a s e s i n t h e a r e a

b e t w e e n C a r a h u e a n d P u e r t o S a a v e d r a , i n t h e c o a s t a l r e g i o n o f C a u t f n p r o v i n c e

t h a t f o r m s t h e e m p i r i c a l l o c u s o f t h is s t u d y , p r o v i d e u s w i t h a m o r e d e t a i l e d

w i n d o w o n t he s e d e v e l o p m e n t s.

I n J a n u a r y 1 9 5 4 , 7 5 m e m b e r s o f a S m a l l A g r i c u l tu r a l is t s ' C o m m i t t e e s i g n e d

a p e ti t io n t o th e P r e s i d e n t o f t h e R e p u b l i c i n w h i c h t h e y a s k e d f o r t h e e x p r o -

p r i a ti o n o f t h e

fundos

E 1 P l u m o a n d L o b e r fa , b e l o n g i n g t o A n t o n i o K i n d . T h e

m e m b e r s o f t his m o n t h - o l d c o m m i t te e , a m o n g w h o m 6 4 o f t h e 7 5 c o u l d s i g n

t h e ir n a m e s w i t h d i f f e ri n g d e g r e e s o f l e g ib i l it y a n d o n l y o n e s p o r te d a M a p u c h e

l a s t n a m e , g a v e a s t h e i r m o s t i m p o r t a n t j u s t i fi c a t i o n t h e f a c t t h a t K i n d d i d n o t

e x p l o i t h i s p r o p e r t y e f f i c i e n t l y , s i n c e

he do es not liv e on it nor w ork it personally, turning it ov er to five or six families that

barely produce enough for their own subsistence, despite the fa ct tha t this is a property of

top n otch quality that could yield true private and public wealth if it w ere conveniently and

extensively exploited. The own er of this property, rather than taking advantage of its great

fertility, increasing production in crops, fru it trees, dairy prod uction, pou ltry, horticulture,

e tc .. . (in other words creating a new source of supply), dedicates the lan d almost exclu-

sively to livestock raising, which do es not derive in positive benefits for the region.12

T h i s p r o b l e m o f a g r ic u l t u ra l p r o d u c t i v i t y w o u l d b e s o l v e d , a c c o r d i n g t o th e

p e t i t io n e r s , w i t h e x p r o p r i a t i o n a n d s u b d i v i s i o n , i n c o r p o r a t i n g th e f a r m b e n e f i -

c i a ll y i n to t h e r e g i o n b y p r o v i d i n g l a n d f o r 1 0 0 o r 1 2 0 f a m i li e s i n t h e a re a w h o

l a c k l a n d o f t h e ir o w n a n d a r e w a s t i n g t h e i r e f fo r ts b e c a u s e t h e y a re f o r c e d t o

s h a r e c r o p o n s m a l l a n d u n p r o d u c t i v e p a r c e ls . I n a d d i t io n t o i n c r e a s i n g

e c o n o m i c p r o d u c t i v i ty , th i s m e a s u r e w o u l d r e so l v e a d e l ic a t e so c i a l p r o b l e m

b y g i v i n g l a n d t o t h o se w h o r e a l l y n e e d i t, m a k i n g b e n e f i ci a ri e s o u t o f n e a rl y

a t h o u s a n d c i ti z e n s w h o t o d a y l iv e i n m i s e r y o r u n e m p l o y m e n t . ~3

P e r h a p s t h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g a r g u m e n t i n t h i s p e t i t i o n w a s t h e l a s t o n e . T h i s

g r o u p o f ru r al i n h ab i ta n ts , a m o n g w h o m o n e c a n p r e s u m e t h e e x is te n c e o f m a n y

s h a r e c ro p p e r s a n d t e n a n ts w h o d i d n o t h a v e l a n d o f t h e ir o w n , c l a i m e d t h a t

M r . K i n d r e a ll y w o u l d n o t b e a f f e c t e d n e g a t i v e l y b y t h e l o s s o f th is

fundo

w h e r e a s s u c h a m e a s u r e w o u l d g i v e r e a l b e n e f it t o t h e m o s t a b a n d o n e d s e c t o r

o f o u r s o ci a l c o n g l o m e r a t e . W h y w o u l d K i n d n o t b e a f fe c te d ? B e c a u s e h e is

a m u l t i m i l l io n a i r e w h o o w n s l a r g e a m o u n t s o f la n d w i t h i n t h e p r o v i n c e a n d

o u t s i d e i t ; o n l y w i t h i n t h e p r o v i n c e w e c a n m e n t i o n , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e a f o r e -

s a i d p r o p e r t y , t w o p a r c e l s i n t h e C o l o n i a T r a n a p u e n t e i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e

fundo

' C h a c a m o ' o f m o r e t h a n 6 , 0 0 0 h e c t a re s . ~4 B e y o n d t h e a r g u m e n t o f s o c ia l

p r o d u c t i v i ty , t h e r e fo r e , t h is p e t i ti o n p r e s e n t e d a v e r si o n o f a m o r a l e c o n o m y


10/54


151

argument. Landless families had the right to subsistence; but even further, the

concept of bad or inefficient exploitation was also dependent on the total amount

of land belonging to Kind. This landowner did not exploit this

fundo

efficiently

because he did not need it in order to live; so much so, that it could be expro-

priated and Kind would not even know the difference.

It took the Ministry of Agriculture until December 1955 to send out a

representative to investigate the petitioners' claims. Antonio Kind himself

accompanied Gustavo Veloso Chfivez, Director of the Land Department in

Santiago, on a detailed tour of the combined territory of

thefundos

E1 Plumo and

Loberfa. Veloso was obviously impressed, both by Kind 's hospitality and by the

landowner' s explanation o f his system on Loberfa and E1 Plumo. When word got

out of the visit, the president of the petitioners' committee felt forced to send

another letter to the Ministry attempting to refute the arguments he imagined

Kind had made. The committee 's president emphasized that the land in question

was entirely appropriate for subdivision, even though it was coastal lowland,

since the

fundo

Tranapuente has already been subdivided by the Caja and is a

great deal lower and subject to flooding; the undersigned along with the rest of

the Committee feel that the lands we are requesting have greater advantage

because they are less exposed to flooding than the fundo Tranapuente . is

For the aspiring colonists, potential flooding during the agricultural cycle was

of paramount importance; but it was not the main criterion for the functionary

from the Ministry of Agriculture. Instead, Veloso was impressed by the amount

of infrastructure Kind had installed on the property to guard it from the effects

of the ocean. A significant part of the land closest to the sea was apparently

below sea level, making drainage of the waters, at first sight, seem impos-

sible . Kind had purchased the properties in 1935, Veloso explained.

A person without this gentleman's entrepreneurial spirit would not have dared to form a

Chilean

fundo

[here], under such adverse conditions: a forest of thickets and scrubland

growing in a swamp. This was a

hadi

typical of our southern zone.

Indeed, Kind's entrepreneurial spirit so impressed Veloso that he sang the

praises of this owner-businessman: The owner invested years of hard and deter-

mined labor, felling vegetation, then drying and removing stumps until he

managed to reach his desired goal . Veloso then dedicated several paragraphs

to a description of the incredible fertility and humidity of the land, which made

it well-suited for fattening livestock, but also for the cultivation of wheat and

potatoes, the latter producing 600 bags per cuadra without fertilizer. In addi-

tion to fattening 2,000 head of livestock per year in combination with his other

property, which Kind dedicated to livestock breeding, Veloso summarized the

production system on Loberfa and E1 Plumo in the following words:


11/54

152 F L O R E N C I A E . M A L L O N

They harvest 30 to 40 thousand bags o f potatoes pe r year. To handle this product [Kind]

has three warehouses, two of which are right on the Moncul river, each with i ts own wharf.

Wheat is produced only for the subsistence needs of the

fundo In

order to more ful ly meet

this need, a modem mill is presently being installed.

The property has two tractors, two threshers, automatic baling machines. They make 10,000

bales [of hay] only for the needs of the farm.

Forty-eight families l ive on the farm with a total population of 200 men, more or less.

This fundo necessitates a high investment of capital in i ts extensive system of drainage

canals. Indeed, there are 70 kilometers of canals that need to be kept clean all year. Not

doing so wo uld bring back the

~adi

or swamp. Som e of the canals are very wide and deep.

Cleaning is contracted out and the fee is charged by l inear meter. The total annual cost

reaches several mi l l ion p e so s. . . 16

B y t h e e n d o f V e l o s o s r e p o r t i t h a d b e c o m e a b u n d a n t l y c l e a r t ha t , a c c o r d i n g

t o t h e c o m m e r c i a l , m a r k e t a n d e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l c r i te r ia b e i n g a p p l i e d , K i n d s u s e

o f r e s o u r c e s o n E1 P l u m o a n d L o b e r f a w a s e n t i re l y s a t i s f a c to r y . V e l o s o d i d n o t

d e a l w i th th e p e t i t i o n e r s d e e p e s t a r g u m e n t - n a m e l y , th a t K i n d h a d l a n d i n

m a n y p l a c e s a n d t h a t h e w o u l d n o t h a v e f e l t t h e lo s s o f s o m e o f i t . T h i s a r g u m e n t

w a s n o t im p o r t a n t f r o m a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o i n t o f v i e w , b e c a u s e i t w a s n o t

a d d r e s s e d i n t h e e x i s t i n g le g i s l a t io n ; a t t h e s a m e t i m e , i t w a s t h e o n l y a r g u m e n t

m a d e b y t h e c o m m i t t e e t h at V e l o s o c o u l d n o t h a v e c o u n t e r a c te d . E v e n f u r th e r ,

g i v e n t h e h i g h l e v e l o f c a p i ta l i z a ti o n r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e d r a i n a g e s y s t e m , V e l o s o

s i m p l y c o u l d n o t i m a g i n e t h a t a g r o u p o f s m a l l h o ld e r s c o u l d h a v e m a i n t a i n e d

t h e c a n al s . H e e n d e d h i s r e p o r t - a n d w i t h i t t h e h o p e s o f th e c o m m i t t e e s

f a m i l i e s - w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g w o r d s :

Mr. Kind is Chilean and with his Chilean family (sons) he has carved out his

fundo

with

a determination and hard work worthy of imitation; he l ives and has always l ived on his

property (where he has a house with all the necessary comforts and beautiful gardens for

the recreation of the spiri t); forty-eight families with 200 men l ive there; the hacienda is

intelligently and preferentially exploited, given the natural propensity of the soil: livestock

and crops.

Given all this, and that the property is distant from regional markets and transportation is

difficult , there is no way i t could be subdivided, even into larger plots, part icularly given

the coordination necessary to maintain th e impressive network of drainage canals. 17

O n e w o n d e r s w h y a g r o u p o f 7 5 th a t i n c l u d e d s h a r e c r o p p e r s a n d p e r h a p s a f e w

s m a l l h o l d e rs f r o m t h e r e g i o n b e t w e e n M o n c u l a n d T r a n a p u e n t e s p e n t so m u c h

t i m e a n d e n e r g y o n a p e t i t i o n th a t h a d s o f e w c h a n c e s o f s u c c e s s . P a r t o f a n

a n s w e r c a n b e f o u n d , i n m y o p i n i o n , i n t h e d i f f e r e n t c r it e r i a o r lo g i c s o f p r o d u c -

t i v it y u s e d b y a l a r g e a g r a r i a n e n t r e p r e n e u r - d e d i c a t e d t o o r g a n i z i n g t h e k i n d

o f l a r g e c o m m e r c i a l e n t e r p r is e t h at so d a z z l e d t h e a g r a r ia n b u r e a u c r a c y - a n d


12/54


153

b y a g r o u p o f ru r a l d w e l l e r s w h o s a w t h e l a n d p r e d o m i n a n t l y a s a s o u r c e o f

s u b s i s t en ce . W e can s ee , i n t h i s co n t ex t , t h a t ev en i f t h e p e t i t i o n e r s h ad t o r e f e r

t o t h e c r i t e r i a o f s o c i a l p r o d u c t i v i t y c o n t a i n e d i n t h e l a w s g o v e r n i n g t h e C a j a

d e C o l o n i z a c i 6 n ( a n d t h e y w e r e t r u l y i m p r e s s e d b y t h e s u c c e s s o f th e c o l o n y

c r e a t e d o n t h e ex fundo Tran ap u en t e , s o l d t o t h e C a j a b y i t s o wn e r i n 1 9 3 8 ,

an d w ere c o n s c i o u s l y t ry i n g t o i m i t a t e i t) , t h e co re o f t h e i r p e t i t i o n w as d i f f e ren t .

Fo r t h e s e 7 5 t en an t s , s h a rec ro p p e r s , an d s m a l l h o l d e r s , i t was an i s s u e o f

m o r a l e c o n o m y : h o w c o u l d a la n d o w n e r w h o p o s s e s s e d th o u s a nd s o f he c ta r e s

i n s e v e r a l p l a c e s , a n d a l s o m a n a g e d t o a c q u i r e t w o l o t s o n t h e C o l o n i a

T r a n a p u e n t e , h o a r d s o m u c h w e a l th w h e n h u n d r e d s o r t h o u sa n d s o f f a m i l ie s

k n e w h u n g e r a n d i n s e c u r i t y ? D e s p i t e t h e s p i r i t o f t h e l a w s g o v e r n i n g t h e C a j a

d e C o l o n i z a c i 6 n A g r a r i a - a t l e a s t t h e s pi r it e m p h a s i z e d b y th e C a j a ' s f u n c -

t i o n a r i e s in 1 9 3 6 - t h is i n s ti t u t io n h ad n o p rac t i ca l o r s a t i s f ac t o ry an s w er t o

q u es t i o n s l i k e t h i s o n e .

I n N o v e m b e r 1 9 5 3 , a g r o u p o f 2 2 s m a l l a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s f r o m t h e P u e r t o

S a a v e d r a r e g i o n r e q u e s t e d t h a t t h e M i n i s t e r o f T i e r r a s y C o l o n i z a c i 6 n e x p r o -

p r i a t e t wo p ro p e r t i e s : t h e fundoL a E s p e r a n z a , 8 1 6 h e c t a re s ( h a s .) a n d b e l o n g i n g

t o t h e e s t a t e o f t h e l a t e G r a c i a n o D u h a l d e ; a n d t h e fundo L o s A r o m o s , 2 2 6

h a s . , b e l o n g i n g t o t h e H o l z a p f e t e s t a t e . L a E s p e r a n z a w a s c l e a r l y t h e p r o p e r t y

o f g rea t e s t i n t e r e s t t o t h e g ro u p , h o w ev e r , s i n ce t h ey s p en t t h e r e s t o f t h e p e t i t io n

d es c r i b i n g it. Th i s fundo s t an d s o u t i n t h e r eg i o n a s o n e o f t h e b e s t fo r ag r i -

c u l t u ra l p r o d u c t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y f o r p o t a t o e s , w h e a t , a n d p e a s , t h e y w r o t e . E v e n

s o , t h e p e t i t i o n e r s ex p l a i n ed , i t was d ed i ca t ed ex c l u s i v e l y t o f a t t en i n g l i v e s t o ck ,

a n a c t i v i ty th e g r o u p c o n s i d e r e d s p e c u l a ti v e . I f th e l a n d w a s d e d i c a t e d t o

p r o d u c i n g w h e a t a n d p o t a t o e s , t h e y c a l c u l a t e d i t c o u l d p r o d u c e i n e x c e s s o f 5 0

m i l l i o n p e s o s a n n u a l l y . T h e y t h e n d e t a i l e d t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e p r o p e r t y :

This

fundo

was exploited intensively by its former owner don Graciano Duhalde Silva who

passed away in 1939. From that date it passed into the hands of his sole heir his wife

dofia Berta Fagalde Maldonado who has settled permanently in the capital city and has

rented the

fundo

out with the sole purpose of receiving an income that will permit her to

live comfortably. At present the property is rented to the firm of Luer Hermanos who as

we have said are using it only for the speculat ive business of livestock fattening. 18

Th i s g ro u p fo u n d t h e u s e o f t h i s l an d fo r ca t t l e f a t t en i n g t o b e s can d a l o u s :

In this way the land does not live up to its destined social goal for its propose is not to

benefit a reduced group of people but rather to be a source of productivity that can benefit

society as a whole. And to reach this end the land must be given to men who will work

it personally and who will dedicate it to crops that are more appropriate to its nature and

climatic conditions. It is a crime against the nation to use the best agricultural lands to

fatten cattle when in Chile there is a surplus of land apt for livestock raising and every

day the area dedicated to agricultural production shrinks more. 19


13/54

154 FLORENCIA E. MALLON

It is interesting to note that this group of potential colonists, in contrast to the

petitioners who had earlier requested E1 Plumo and Loberfa, was sufficiently

prospe rous so that they were wil ling to pay 50,000 pesos each as an initia l

contribu tion to the expropriation. They also offered to finish payin g off their

plots within a total of eight years. In this way, they explained:

We want to show the Government hat we are willing to contribute our efforts and labors

to the solution of the serious problem facing Chile's population, hat is the constantlydimin-

ishing production of foodstuffs. We are all agriculturalists,born and raised on the land; we

make our living exclusively n agricultural abor, and we are honest patriots interested, more

than anything, n improving the future of our beloved nation. In order to take advantage of

the agricultural year and meet our promised payments, we wish the land handed to us by

April 1954.20

Along with their patriotic and democratic language and their support of state

policy designed to foment social productivity and small or medium-sized

agricultural properties, the petitioners included a clear commercial calculation.

Not o nly did these agriculturalists offer to pay the g over nmen t back in large

and rapid installments, but they also wished to receive the land prompt ly within

five months of the original petition. In this case the market principle and

commercial criteria of productivity were extremely clear, and thus this petition

would have seemed ideal for the pursuit of the C aja's goals. Interestingly, this

did not turn out to be true.

A topographer from the Office of Tierras y Coloniz aci6n in Temu co

traveled to the region in May 1954 and visited the property in the company of

the majority of the petitioners. As the head of the Temuco office explained in

his report to Santiago, the group was unable to enter because:

These people did not have the necessary permission to enter the fundo since it is private

property, entirely fenced in and behind locked gates; under these circumstances hey decided

to appraise the land from the public road between Carahue and Puerto Saavedra.

This information makes clear that the petitioners made their request without taking into

consideration the opinion of the owners or renters, and under these conditions it is very

difficult to enter the fundo.

It was possible to confirm from the road that the land is good for agriculture, and part

of it is cultivated and fenced off, which proves that the land is not abandoned, as the

petitioners said.21

After this visit, all efforts to reopen the case were useless. At first, the petitioners

were told that the Caja did not have the funds to consider expropriation. The

petitioners responded by reopening the case, forming a cooperative to finance

the f u n d o and offering new and better terms to pay off the property 22 The

Caja de Coloniz aci6n finally closed the door on the petitioners in October 1954.


14/54

Land M orality and Exploitation in Southern Chile

I55

Even though by that point they had offered to pay the cost of the

f u n d o

themselves, the Executive Vice President simply reiterated what had already

been said since the original report from the Land Office in Temuco: that

is, that there was no money for expropriation, and that the property was not

abandoned. 23 What was happening here?

At no point had the petitioners said that the property was completely aban-

doned, only that the owner did not exploit it directly but rented it out, and that

its use for fattening livestock was not socially productive. According to Law

5604, the case did indeed fit several of the categories that supposedly defined a

property as subject to expropriation, including the need to incorporate it more

effectively into production according to the social and economic needs of the

region. For whatever reason, however, the authorities decided to apply the most

pedestrian interpretation to the petition and refused to consider another solution.

Although bureaucratic inertia was probably an important factor, one suspects that

other factors were involved as well. One of these, alluded to in the Executive

Vice President s final memo, was that any expropriation in this case - as defined

by law - would have needed the approval of the President of the Republic. The

same law would have reserved 500 hectares for the owner in any process of

expropriation, leaving only 316 to be distributed; was the process worth it?

But there was another, even more important, reason for the government s

inaction. Expropriating La Esperanza would have stepped on some politically

and economically powerful toes. Though Dofia Berta Fagalde might not have

been as powerful in the region as her husband was before his death, still in

1951 she appeared in local tax records as one of the ten largest taxpayers in the

municipality. Fernando Ltier, mayor of Puerto Saavedra in 1951, was a partner

in the firm that rented the fundo 24 If the government had taken the side of a

group of smaller agriculturalists against the region s wealthier and more powerful

landowners - without first consulting them and getting their permission to

proceed - policymakers would have entered unknown territory where it became

possible to envision the expropriation of the landowning class as such. In Chile

in 1954, this was not a possibility. With this case we reach the limit of what was

feasible under existing legislation, no matter what the underlying principles,

because we reach the limit of what was conceivable under the existing balance

of powerY

When we compare the cases of Loberfa, E1 Plumo and La Esperanza, we

come face to face with the two structural limitations to the agrarian model that

operated with the Caja de Colonizaci6n. One of these was inherent in the

agrarian discourse that inspired the model; that is, in the discourse of national

and familial development within which social productivity could become as

important a value as private property. The case o f Loberia/E1 Plumo put this


15/54

1 56 FLOR ENC IA E . M A LLO N

d i s c o u r s e t o th e t e s t b e c a u s e i t p r e s e n t e d , t h r o u g h t h e p e t i ti o n o f t h e C o m m i t t e e

o f A s p i r i n g C o l o n i st s , a n a l t e r n a t iv e v i s i o n o f m o r a l e c o n o m y t h a t s t re t c h e d

t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f th e C h i l e a n w e l f a r e s t a t e ' s m o d e l o f a g r a r ia n j u s ti c e . I n d e e d ,

t h e p e ti t io n e r s i n t h i s c a s e c a l le d t h e q u e s t i o n o n t h e c o n c e p t o f a g r a r ia n r e f o r m

i n th e d i s c o u r s e o f n a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t b y d e m o n s t r a t in g t h a t i t w a s n o t b a s e d

o n i d eas o f s o c i a l j u s t i c e o r t h e r i g h t t o s u b s i s t en ce , b u t i n s tead o n n o t i o n s o f

m a r k e t - b a s e d a g r i c u l t u r a l i n n o v a t i o n t h a t f a v o r e d e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l l a n d o w n e r s

o v e r n e e d y o r l a n d le s s f a m i l i e s . T h e c a s e o f L a E s p e r a n z a d e f i n e d th e o t h e r

s t ru c t u ra l l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e C a j a ' s ag ra r i an m o d e l , t h i s o n e n o t i n h e ren t i n p o l i t -

i c a l o r l eg i s l a t i v e d i s co u r s e , b u t g i v en i n t h e de f cto b a l a n c e o f p o w e r i n

C h i l e a n s o c i e ty . I f t h e g o v e r n m e n t b e g a n t o e x p r o p r i a t e p r o p e r t y w i t h o u t th e

p r i o r c o n s e n t o f t h e o w n e r s , i t w o u l d h a v e o p e n e d t h e d o o r t o t h e e x p r o p r i a -

t i o n o f a n e n t i r e s o c i a l c l a s s , o n e t h a t w a s e x c e e d i n g l y p o w e r f u l i n n a t i o n a l

p o l i t i c s . Th i s was n o t p o s s i b l e i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s , w i t h o r w i t h o u t l eg a l p reced en t o r

jus t i f i ca t ion .

U l t i m a t e l y , t h e tw o c o n t r a d i c ti o n s h i g h l i g h te d i n th e a b o v e c a s e s w e r e r e s p o n -

s i b le , a t t h e n a t i o n a l l ev e l , f o r t h e d eep e n i n g ag ra r i an c r i s i s o f t h e 1 9 5 0 s. O n

t h e o n e h a n d , th e e x t r e m e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f l a n d e d p r o p e r t y - w h i c h t he l e g is -

l a t i o n a s s o c i a t ed w i t h t h e C a j a was u n ab l e t o d i m i n i s h s i g n i f i can t l y , i n l a rg e

p a r t b e c a u s e o f t h e s e c o n d c o n t ra d i c t io n - h a d c r e a t e d a n u n p r o d u c t i v e a g ra r i a n

s e c t o r , u n a b l e t o f e e d t h e g r o w i n g u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , l a n d

h u n g e r a n d i n c r ea s in g m i s e r y in t he c o u n t r y s i d e - p r o b l e m s t h a t e x is t in g

ag ra r i an l eg i s l a t i o n co u l d n o t ad d re s s d i r ec t l y , l a rg e l y b eca u s e o f th e f i r st co n t r a -

d i c ti o n - d a i ly b e c a m e m o r e i n t r a c t a b le a n d u r g e n t s o c i a l p r o b l e m s . 26 W h a t t o

d o ? D u r i n g h i s s e c o n d p r e s i d e n c y b e t w e e n 1 9 52 a n d 1 95 8, P r e s i d e n t C a r l o s

Ib~i f iez a t t empted two so lu t ions .

T h e f ir s t w a s t o p r o v i d e i n c e n t i v e s f o r t h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f t h e l a r g e e s ta t e s.

D e c r e e s p r o m u l g a t e d i n 1 9 52 , 1 9 53 a n d 1 9 54 b y t h e M i n i s tr y o f A g r i c u lt u r e

a n d t h e P r e s i d e n c y e s t a b l i s h e d m o n e t a r y i n c e n t i v e s f o r t h e u s e o f f e r t i l i z e r s i n

wh ea t p ro d u c t i o n . In 1 9 5 5 t h e S t a t e B an k , u s i n g t h e ea r l i e r d ec ree s a s p rece -

d en t , p a i d 8 . 4 % o f t h e co s t o f f e r t i li z e r s fo r th e ag r i cu l t u ra l y ea r 1 9 5 3 -1 9 5 4 ,

f o r a g r a n d t o t a l o f 2 . 2 5 m i l l i o n p e s o s . A m o n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l l a n d o w n e r s

a p p e a r i n g o n t h e p a y m e n t l i s t s w e f i n d P a t r i c i o F l o o d y T i g h e , o f C a r a h u e , w h o

b o u g h t l 0 m e t r i c to n s o f l i m e f r o m G i l d e m e i s t e r a n d C o ., in T e m u c o , i n o r d e r

t o f e r t i l i z e t h e 2 0 h ec t a re s u n d e r cu l t i v a t i o n o n h i s

fundo

E l C h a c a y , o u t o f

a to ta l o f 310 hec ta res . 27

T h e I b ~ fi e z r e g i m e a l s o p r o m o t e d a s e r i e s o f i n te r n a t io n a l a i d p r o je c t s

p r o v i d i n g i n c e n t i v e s t o l a r g e l a n d o w n e r s , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e f u n d e d b y t h e F o o d

a n d A g r i c u l tu r e O r g a n i z a t i o n ( F A O ) , t h e I n t e r - A m e r i c a n I n st it u te , t h e

R o c k e f e l l e r F o u n d a t i o n , a n d t h e O r g a n i z a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n S t a t e s ( O A S ) . I n


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Land, Morality and Exploitation in Southern Chile

157

m o s t o f th e s e p r o j e c t s t h e C h i l e a n s ta t e p r o m i s e d t o u se g o v e r n m e n t f u n d s t o

p a y f o r p a r t o f t h e p r o g r a m s p r o v i d i n g d i r e c t i n c e n t iv e s f o r a g r i c u l tu r a l m o d e r n -

i z a t io n . O f p a r t i c u l a r in t e r e s t fo r C a u t f n w a s t h e c a s e o f t h e T e c h n i c a l

I n t e r - A m e r i c a n D e p a r t m e n t f o r A g r i c u l tu r a l C o o p e r a t io n - t h e a g r a r i a n a r m o f

t h e I n t e r - A m e r i c a n I n s ti tu t e , w h i c h i t s e lf d e p e n d e d o n t h e U . S . M i s s i o n i n C h i l e .

T h i s d e p a r t m e n t c o n t r a c t e d w i t h i n d i v i d u a l l a n d o w n e r s i n t h e s o u th e r n r e g i o n ,

i n c l u d i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g c a s e s : t h e

fundo

P o c o a P o c o i n T e m u c o , o w n e d b y

V f c t o r C a r m i n e , e i g h t h e c ta r e s ( h a s. ) o f c u l t i v a t e d p a s t u re ; H u g o F l o o d y , o f

C a r a h u e , w h o c o n t r a c t e d f o r r e f o r e s t a t i o n o n 0 .1 0 h a s . ; t h e

fundo

N e h u e n t 6 e ,

b e t w e e n T r a n a p u e n t e a n d N e h u e n t t ie , o w n e d b y M i g u e l L a r ro u l e t, c u l t i v a te d

p a s t u r e o n 1 2 h a s . a n d r e f o r e s t a t i o n o n f o u r h a s. ;

thefundo

L a E s p e r a n z a , r e g i s -

t e r e d u n d e r t h e n a m e o f i t s r e n te r s L t ie r H e r m a n o s , P u e r t o S a a v e d r a , c u l t i v a t e d

p a s t u r e o n 2 0 h a s . a n d r e f o r e s t a t i o n o n f o u r h a s . ; a n d t h e

fundo

L a S u e r t e , i n

H u i c h a b u e , o w n e d b y H a r d y M o m b e r g , 1 20 h a s. o f c u l t i v a te d p a s tu r e a n d tw o

h a s . o f i r r i g a t i o n a n d d r a i n a g e c a n a l s . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t t h e L t i e r

f a m i l y , e s p e c i a l l y P a b l o L t ie r , a l s o p r o f i t e d fr o m t h e s a m e p r o g r a m i n Q u e p e

o n h i s

fundo

M a n z a n a l w h e r e h e p l a n n e d t o i n s t a ll 3 2 h a s . o f ir r i g a t i o n e q u ip -

m e n t , 2 2 h a s . o f i r r ig a t i o n c a n al s , a n d a f e r t i l i z e d a r e a c o m p o s e d o f f iv e h a s Y

B e y o n d t h e s e a t t e m p t s t o i n c e n t i v i z e la r g e a g r i c u l t u r e , t h e lb f if ie z r e g i m e a l s o

f o r m u l a t e d a n e w s e t o f R e g u l a t i o n s o n t h e S u b d i v i s i o n o f L a n d

Reglamento

de Parcelaciones AgdcoIas)

i n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 54 . T h e i n t r o d u c t io n t o t h e s e

R e g u l a t i o n s o p e n l y r e c o g n i z e d t h e p r o b l e m s

a n d s a i d i n p a r t :

The country's agrarian structure presents two very

side there are a few prope rties of very large size, that

e x i s t i n g i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r ,

clearly defin ed characteristics: on one

together make up a sizeable percentage

of the total agricultural area , and o n the other side, there are a h ug e number of properties

whose size is excessively small. Both of these types of property have been pointed to by

academics and technical experts as units wh ose size is inappropriate for the steady and even

progress of ou r national agriculture. Unfortunately, even th ou gh both problems have a

comm on cause, they h ave not been addressed consistently through legislation. Although an

attempt was m ad e to solve the first problem thr ou gh legislation creating the C aja de

Colonizacidn Agrfcola, for a variety of reasons irrelevant to detail here, i t has not made

visible progress in correcting this anomaly.29

T h e s e r e g u l a t io n s w e r e b a s e d o n a r t ic l e s 4 3 a n d 4 4 o f E c o n o m i c L a w 7 7 4 7 ( 23

D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 3) , w h i c h s e t o u t s p e c i fi c c r i te r i a u n d e r w h i c h i t w a s l e g i t im a t e

t o e x p r o p r i a t e a g r i c u l t u ra l p r o p e r t y . A r t i c l e 4 4 d e f i n e d c e r t ai n c a t e g o r i e s o f

p r o p e r t y a s p o s s e s s i n g p u b l i c u t i l i t y a n d t h us s u b j e c t t o e x p r o p r i a t io n . I n t h is

c a t e g o r y w e r e : a l l a g r i c u l tu r a l p r o p e r t ie s v o l u n t a r i l y o f f e r e d b y t h e i r o w n e r s o r

t h a t c o u l d b e a c q u i r e d a t p u b l i c a u c t i o n ; t h o s e b e l o n g i n g t o o r g a n i z a t i o n s t h a t

d i d n o t e x p l o i t t h e m d i r e c t l y ; a n d


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158 FLORENCIA E. MALLON

those lands that have not been cultivated or the part that is clearly badly exploited, whether

directly or because it has been rented out for more than eight years, defined as land whose

fertility and other characteristics would permit a better cultivation than what is presently

being carried out, as long as the relevant technical organisms attest to these circumstances.3

Perhaps it is superfluous to point out that neither effort under Ib~fiez had the

necessary effect; the Chilean agrarian crisis only deepened. In such a context,

when it became clear that the agrarian problem could not be solved by incen-

tivizing production on the great estates, the possibility of expropriating the

large estate as such began to emerge. Even the first law that attempted this,

Law 15020 passed under the government of Jorge Alessandri (1962), had little

effect in the countryside. Though the Alessandri regime created a new insti-

tutional structure to push forward with agrarian transformation, a structure that

replaced the Caja de Colonizaci6n with the Corporaci6n de la Reforma Agraria

(CORA) and created the Instituto de Desarrollo Agropecuario (INDAP), the

government as a whole still maintained a credit and colonization policy friendly

to the old agrarian regime. According to Loveman, opposition political parties

were right to call this first law a flowerpot reform

reforma de macetero).

Almost 70% of the land divided by Alessandri already belonged to state enti-

ties, and the legal provisions for expropriation contained in Law 15020 were

never really used. 31 It would only be under the presidency of Eduardo Frei

Montalva, who was forced to operate with the same law until a new one was

passed in 1967, that the process of agrarian expropriation and peasant orga-

nization intensified.

The agrarian reform law promulgated under Frei was, in this context, an

attempt to resolve the contradiction represented above by the case of the fundo

La Esperanza, a contradiction sharpened by the failure of Ibfifiez's programs

and maintained under Alessandri: that is, the impossibility of expropriating a

social class as such within the parameters established by a market economy.32

Nonetheless the 1967 law remained within the same general rules of the game

operating since 1928, in the sense that the principles that governed the emerging

national-level process of expropriation remained market-based, emphasizing the

need to increase social productivity while not punishing innovative landowners.

In the legislation passed between 1965 and 1970, moreover, one sees a clear

continuity with the criteria already established in Laws 4496, 5604 and 7747.

The greatest difference would be, according to Loveman, that the conditions

for expropriation would improve dramatically once the price of expropriation

was defined as the estimated value o f a property for tax purposes. 33

Serious attempts to solve the problem of the large estate, however, tended

to intensify the contradiction represented above by the Loberfa and E1 Plumo

case: the problem of social justice and moral economy. This was particularly


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Land M orality and Exploitation in Southern Chile 159

t r u e in C a u t i n a s o f 1 9 70 w i t h t h e c o m i n g t o p o w e r o f t he P o p u l a r U n i t y g o v e r n -

m e n t b e c a u s e t h e s t r a t e g y o f t h e M ovim iento de Izquierda Revolucionaria ( M I R ,

o r M o v e m e n t o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r y L e f t ) i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e w a s a b l e t o c a p i -

t a l i z e o n an d co n n ec t , f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n t h e h i s t o ry o f t h e r eg i o n , M ap u ch e

s t r u g g le s f o r r e s t it u ti o n a n d l o c a l n o n - M a p u c h e r u r a l d is c o u r s e s o f s o c i a l j u s t i c e

a n d m o r a l e c o n o m y . B e t w e e n N o v e m b e r 1 9 7 0 a nd M a r c h 1 971 C a u t fn b e c a m e

a b a t t l e f i e l d an d p o wd er k eg a s a r e s u l t ; an d t h e UP g o v e rn m en t , s t i l l u s i n g t h e

s a m e a g r a r i a n r e f o r m l a w p a s s e d u n d e r F r e i , w a s f o r c e d t o c o n f r o n t b o t h r e g i o n -

a l l y an d n a t i o n a l l y t h e d e f i n i t i o n s o f mala explotacidn t h a t c a m e b u b b l i n g u p

f r o m b e l o w .

A G R A R I A N R E F O R M E T H N I C L E G I T I M A C Y

A N D M O R A L E C O N O M Y U N D E R T H E U P : T H E

M A P U C H E C O M M U N I T Y O F N I C O L A S A IL IO

A N D T H E T O M O F T H E F U N D O R U C A L A N

A b o u t t h r e e o c l o c k o n th e m o r n i n g o f 20 D e c e m b e r 1 97 0, a g r o u p o f M a p u c h e

a n d n o n - M a p u c h e s m a l l h o ld e r s , s h a r e c r o p p e r s , a n d t e n a n t s f r o m th e c o m m u n i -

t i e s o f N i co f f ts A i l fo an d P i ch i n g u a l , a s w e l l a s s u r ro u n d i n g f a rm s an d t o wn s ,

i n v a d e d t h e

f u n d o

R u c a lf in , n e a r t h e c i t y o f C a r a h u e , a n d f o r c e d l a n d o w n e r J u a n

B a u t i s t a L a n d a r r e t c h e a n d h i s f a m i l y to r e ti r e t o th e n e a r b y t o w n . F o u r d a y s l a t er ,

o n C h r i s t m a s e v e a n d a c c o m p a n i e d b y h is s o n s a n d f r ie n d s , L a n d a r r e t c h e

r e t u r n e d t o t h e f a r m a n d o p e n e d f i r e o n t h e o c c u p a n t s , w o u n d i n g t h r e e a n d

fo rc i n g t h e r e s t o f t h e g ro u p , i n c l u d i n g w o m en , ch i l d ren , an d e l d e r l y m en , t o f le e

f o r t h e i r l i v e s . W h e n t h e A l l e n d e g o v e r n m e n t o p e n e d l e g a l p r o c e e d i n g s a g a i n s t

t h e l a n d o w n e r s f o r i ll e g a l w e a p o n s p o s s e s s i o n u n d e r t h e L a w o f I n te r n a l S e c u r i ty

o n 2 6 D e c e m b e r , t h e c a s e b e c a m e h e a d l in e n e w s i n m o s t o f t h e n a ti o n a l m e d i a .

A t t h e s am e t i m e , t h e s t a t e i n t e rv en ed t h e

f u n d o

u n d e r t h e s o c i a l co n f l i c t p ro v i -

s i o n o f n a t io n a l l a b o r l e g i sl a t io n a n d f o l l o w e d e x p r o p r i a t i o n p r o c e e d i n g s t h a t c u l-

m i n a t e d , a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f F e b r u a r y 1 97 1, i n th e c r e a t io n o f a n a g r a r ia n r e f o r m

cen t e r t o wh i ch t h e o r i g i n a l o ccu p i e r s we re i n v i t ed t o r e t u rn . 34

F o r t h e c o m m u n i t y o f N i c o l a s A i l fo , th e o c c u p a t i o n o f th e f u n d o R u ca l f i n

w a s t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f s ix d e c a d e s o f s t r u g g le t o t r y a n d a c h i e v e r e st it u ti o n o f

t h e l a n d s t a k e n f r o m t h e m i n 1 9 0 8 . O n l y t w o y e a r s a f t e r t h e C h i l e a n g o v e r n -

m e n t h a d g i v e n t h e e x t e n d e d f a m i l y o f cacique Nico l~ is Ai l fo a l and g ran t o f

1 3 0 h e c t a r e s , a lo c a l l a n d o w n e r o c c u p i e d 4 5 o f t h e m a n d m a n a g e d t o k e e p h o l d

o f i t , d e s p i t e l o ca l co u r t d ec i s i o n s t o t h e co n t r a ry , fo r 3 0 y ea r s . A l t h o u g h t h e

c a s e o f A i l f o t u r n e d o u t t o b e p a r t i c u l a r l y d r a m a t i c , t h i s k i n d o f a b u s e w a s n o t

u n u s u a l i n t h e d e c a d e s o f s t a t e l a n d - g r a n t s p o l i c y t o w a r d M a p u c h e f a m i l i e s . A s


19/54

1 60 FLOR E NC IA E . M A LLON

wr i t t en i n th e s ec o n d h a l f o f t h e n i n e t een t h cen t u ry , C h i l ean l aw s t a t ed t h a t th e

l a n d g r a n t s t o t h e M a p u c h e w e r e t o b e c o n s o l i d a t e d a n d l e g a l i z e d f i r s t , b e f o r e

a n y o t h e r l a n d w a s s o l d a t a u c t i o n o r t u r n e d o v e r t o c o l o n i z a t i o n c o m p a n i e s ,

i n o r d e r t o a s s u r e t h a t a l l M a p u c h e f a m i l i e s r e c e i v e d p r o p e r t y . I n p r a c t i c e ,

h o w e v e r , t h i s p r e c o n d i t i o n w a s n o t o b s e r v e d , a n d i n m a n y a r e a s a u c t i o n s t o

p r i v a t e l a n d o w n e r s , a n d e v e n c o n c e s s i o n s t o c o l o n i z a t i o n c o m p a n i e s , o c c u r r e d

b e f o r e t h e M a p u c h e l i n e a g e s w i t h p r i o r c l a i m i n a r e g i o n h a d t h e i r s i t u a t i o n

r e g u l a r i z e d . T h e r e s u l t w a s a m a z e o f o v e r l a p p i n g c l a i m s t h a t f a c i l i t a t e d t h e

e n t r y o f n o n - M a p u c h e l a n d o w n e r s i n t o m u c h o f t h e r i c h e s t t e r r i t o r y p r e v i o u s l y

c l a i m e d a n d u s e d b y t h e M a p u c h e . I n d e e d , t h i s h a d b e e n t h e s t r a t e g y u s e d b y

t h e o r i g in a l u s u r p e r o f A i l / o ' s l a n d s , w h o h a d b e e n s u c c e s s f u l i n a r g u i n g o n

a p p e a l t h a t t h e t e r r i t o r y b e i n g c l a i m e d b y t h e c o m m u n i t y h a d b e e n s o l d t o h i m

b y a n e a r l i e r n o n - M a p u c h e o w n e r w h o h a d b o u g h t i t a t a u c t i o n i n S a n t i a g o a

f u l l t e n y e a r s b e f o r e A i l f o h a d r e c e i v e d i t s

tftulo de merced 35

In 1 93 8, t h i r t y y ea r s a f t e r t h e o r i g i n a l ex p ro p r i a t i o n o f A i l f o ' s l an d , i n an

e f f o r t t o a v o i d a l e g a l b a t t le o v e r i n h e r it a n c e , t h e s a m e l a n d o w n e r ' s s o n o f f e r e d

to se l l the

fundo

T r a n a p u e n t e , m a d e u p i n p a r t o f th e 4 5 h e c t a r e s u s u r p e d f r o m

t h e c o m m u n i t y , t o t h e C a j a d e C o l o n i z a c i 6 n A g f f c o l a . S e v e r a l o f t h e c o l o n i s t s

w h o r e c e i v e d p l o t s o n th e r e su l t in g C o l o n i a T r a n a p u e n t e - s o a d m i r e d b y t h e

p e t it i o n e rs w e m e t e a r l ie r w h o w e r e a t t e m p t i n g t o g e t a c c e s s t o E 1 P l u m o /

L o b e f f a - l a t e r s o l d t o l o c a l a g r ic u l tu r a li s ts , a m o n g w h o m S a n t i a g o A s t o r g a

a n d S e r g i o B e n a v e n t e r e c e i v e d A i l / o ' s o l d l a n d s . O n l y w i t h t h e p r e s i d e n c y o f

E d u a r d o F r e i M o n t a l v a a n d t h e d e c la r a t io n o f th e A g r a r i a n R e f o r m i n 1 9 65 d i d

t he n e w o p e n i n g t o w a r d c a m p e s i n o i ss u e s e n c o u ra g e t h e c o m m u n i t y o n c e a g a i n

t o b e g i n r e s t i t u t i o n p r o c e e d i n g s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , b e c a u s e t h e p r o c e s s o f s u b d i -

v i s i o n a n d s a l e h a d b e e n s o c o m p l i c a t e d , t h e t r i a l d r a g g e d o n a n d p e o p l e b e g a n

to lose ho pe (A. A i l /o 1997 ; H . Ai l fo 1997a) . 36

L o s i n g h o p e , i n t h e f a c e o f e x t r e m e a n d g r i n d i n g p o v e r t y , w a s a t r u l y d e v a s -

t a t i n g p r o s p e c t . A s t h e n e w g e n e r a t i o n h a d m a t u r e d i n t h e c o m m u n i t y , t h e

a m o u n t o f la n d p e r f a m i l y h a d f u r t h e r d i m i n i s h e d , s o t h a t b y t h e e a r l y 1 9 60 s

m a n y f a m i l ie s h e l d a n a v e r a g e o f 0 .5 h e c t a r e s , o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e a c r e , o f

l a n d p e r p e r s o n . O f t h i s , a c c o r d i n g t o a l o c a l c e n s u s d o n e i n t h e m i d - 1 9 6 0 s ,

m o s t f a m i l i e s m a n a g e d t o c u l t i v a t e a t b e s t h a l f b e c a u s e o f t h e o v e r w o r k e d

q u a l i ty o f t h e la n d a n d a l a c k o f c a p i t a l a n d t o o ls . E v e n a m o n g t h e M a p u c h e

c o m m u n i t i e s , w h e r e b y t h is p o i n t t h e r e w a s a g r e a t d e al o f p o v e r t y , in 1 96 3

N i c o h i s A i lf o i m p r e s s e d o n e t e a m o f a g r o n o m y s t ud e n t s a s o n e o f t h e p o o r e s t

a m o n g a l l w e h a v e v i s i t e d , s i n c e s o m e f a m i l i e s d o n o t o b t a i n f r o m t h e l a n d

e v e n e n o u g h t o c o v e r t h e ir f o o d a n d c l o t h in g , b a s i c n e e d s t h a t t h e n h a v e t o b e

c o v e r e d b y r em i s si o ns o f m o n e y f r o m f a m i ly m e m b e r s w h o h a v e m i g r a t ed t o

t h e c i t ie s i n s ea rch o f i n co m e . 37


20/54

Land M oral i t y and Exploi ta t ion in Southern C hi le 161

S o w h a t to d o ? I n 1 9 6 9 a l o c a l c o m m i t t e e , c o m p o s e d o f m e m b e r s o f A i l f o

a n d s u r r o u n d i n g c o m m u n i t i e s , w a s o r g a n i z e d to d is c u s s t h e is s u e. A m o n g t h e

a l te r n a t iv e s c o n s i d e r e d w a s t h e o c c u p a t i o n o f a n e a r b y l a n d e d e s t at e a n d , a s

d i s c u s s i o n s p r o c e e d e d , t h e y b e g a n t o f o c u s o n R u c a lf in . S o m e p e o p l e i n th e

c o m m u n i t y o f A i l / o - a c c o r d i n g t o d o n A n t o n i o A i l io , a b o u t f i ve f a m i l i e s -

w e r e n o t i n a g r e e m e n t ( A . A i lf o , 1 9 97 ) . T h e y w a n t e d t h e i r o r i g i n a l l a n d s

r e t u rn e d , a n d t h e y w a n t e d t o d o it l e g a l l y , o r a s d o n A n t o n i o e m p h a s i z e d , p o r

l a s b u e n a s - i n a g o o d w a y . T h e p e o p l e m o s t a c t i v e o n t h e l o c a l c o m m i t t e e ,

w h i c h i n c r e a s in g l y h a d a p r es e n c e o f M I R a c t i v is ts th r o u g h t h e M o v i m i e n t o

C a m p e s i n o R e v o l u c i o n a r i o ( M C R , in e s s e n ce t h e p e a s a n t m a s s o r g a n i z a t i o n

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h th e M I R ) , s a w i t d i f fe r e n t ly . T h e y s a y th a t e v e r y t h i n g w e d i d

w a s i l le g a l , d o n H e r i b e r t o A i l fo , a f o u n d i n g m e m b e r o f th e l o c a l c o m m i t t e e

a n d m e m b e r o f t he M C R , r e m e m b e r e d ,

and at that t ime, w ha t we did, occupying the fundo really was illegal. But we said that it

w asn' t i l legal. Why? Because, whe n the landowners came and took aw ay our land s, did

they ask for perm ission from anyone? They asked no o ne. They just arrived and said to us,

look, move ov er that way, because all of this is o urs now . That w as w hy later, we also said

to the landowners, said to them very clearly: this is our land n ow , and you need to leave.

Com e back tomorrow to p ick up you r things, because the fundo is o urs now . That was the

conclusion we got to, clear as day (H. A ilfo 1997b).

T h i s d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n l e g a l i ty a n d j u s t i c e w a s c e n t r a l t o th e o r g a

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