37

Reich Remixed:MinimalismandDJCulture

David Carter

2012©DavidCarter,Context37(2012):37–53.

In1999,NonesuchRecordsreleasedaCDcontainingselectedworksofminimalistcomposerSteveReich(b.1936)remixedbyprominentelectronicaartists.Reich RemixedwasbilledasanhomagetothefatherofDJ/remixcultureandthelinernotesciteReichas‘theoriginalre-mixer,’ stating boldly that ‘mass culture has finally caught up to and embraced the fringe ideasthatReichwasexploringinthe1960s.’1ThisisanassociationwithwhichReichisnotuncomfortable.CommentingontheDJ-as-remixer,Reichhassaidthat‘here’sagenerationthatdoesn’tjustlikewhatIdo,theyappropriateit!’2ContributingartistsonReich Remixed,includingColdcut,DJSpooky,andHowieB(HowardBernstein),weresuppliedwithmulti-trackrecordingsofReich’sworks,allowingthemtoselect,isolate,sampleandmanipulateindividualinstrumentsandpartstoincludeintheirremixes.3AccordingtoReich,theremixersworkedautonomously,andhisowninvolvementintheprojectwaslimitedtoselectingfromthemorethantwentymixesthatweresubmittedfortheproject.�

Minimalism is notable for its engagement withAmerican popular music. It has beeninfluenced by ‘the harmonic simplicity, steady pulse and rhythmic drive of jazz and rock-and-roll,’5 and has been identified by several authors as antecedent to various genres of

1MichaelGordon,Reich Remixed,linernotes, CD79552,NonesuchRecords,1998,2.2ChristopherAbbot, ‘ATalkwithSteveReich,’Fanfare: The Magazine for Serious Record Collectors,25.5(Mar.–Apr.2002):68.3HowardBernstein,interviewwithauthor,22April2005.�Abbot,‘TalkwithSteveReich,’68.5 K. Robert Schwarz, Minimalists (London:PhaidonPress,1996),10.

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electronica (used here to refer to a subset of electronic music that occurs within a broadpopularculturecontextduringthelatterpartofthetwentiethcenturyandbeyond).McClarypositsminimalism’suseofrepetitionasastructuraldeviceasafundamentalunderpinningofvariousgenreswithinelectronica, includinghiphopandtechno,andpositionstheminanhistoricalsurveyoftwentiethcenturymusicthatincludesSchoenberg,Stravinsky,Cage,Boulez, Stockhausen, Young, Riley, Oliveros, Glass, sampling technology, Ravi Shankar, and the Beatles.6Acknowledgingthatthisrepresentsa‘bewilderingprofusionofmusicalpractices,’7McClaryneverthelessarticulateswhathasbecomeamorewidelyheldviewinscholarlyandcriticalliterature.

Journalist, critic, and DJ Philip Sherburne, for example, suggests that the work of theminimalistcomposers,particularlySteveReich,hasbeensomehowabsorbedintopopularmusic‘likesomemicrobioticvirus…especiallyprominentinthevariousformofelectronicdancemusic—Techno,houseandthe“post-Techno”offshoots.’8CoxandWarnerarguethatReich’s work prefigures the ‘layered, modular repetition’ found in Techno and other forms of electronicathroughwhichminimalismhas‘providednewresourcesforsoundartistswhoareaslikelytopresenttheirworkingalleriesasinclubs.’9EvenGrove Music Online,fewofwhoseauthorshaveyettoincorporateelectronicaintotheirdiscussions,includesanassertionfromKeithPotterthattheminimalistcomposers‘havehadanimportanteffectonawiderangeofconcertmusics,rockandthepanoplyofpost-modernist,hybridformswhichbecameamajorfeatureoflatetwentieth-centurymusic.’10

Whatisbeingdescribedasthispanoplyofpost-modernist,hybridformsisneverclearlyarticulated.Toeventhemostcasualobserver,however,minimalisttendencies,intheformofrepetition,staticharmonyandadditiveprocesses,canbedivinedinarangeofcontemporarypopular musics, from new wave and krautrock to hip hop and techno. Philip Sherburnesuggeststhat:

The origins of most contemporary electronic dance music—found in Kraftwerk’s197�opus‘Autobahn’andupdatedinthelate80sandearly90swiththestreamlinedelectronic funk of Detroit Techno pioneers like Derrick May and JuanAtkins—emphasized a pared-down palette that cut away all the excesses of a bloating rock andpoptradition…foreground[ing]thestrategiespioneeredintheworkofso-calledMinimalistcomposerslikeSteveReichandPhillipGlass.11

Problematically,intermediariessuchasDerrickMayandJuanAtkinsdonotacknowledgea link to the experimental music tradition, often citing influences only one step up the chain. This poses the question whether these ideas are passed on via the multiple intermediaryinfluences, who may have reinterpreted them in their own way, or are the result of a similar

6SusanMcClary,‘Rap,Minimalism,andStructuresofTimeinLateTwentieth-centuryCulture,’Audio Culture: Readings in Modern Music, ed. Christopher Cox and Daniel Warner (New York: Continuum, 2004), 289–98.7McClary,‘Rap,Minimalism,andStructuresofTime,’296.8PhilipSherburne,‘DigitalDiscipline:MinimalisminHouseandTechno,’Audio Culture,ed.CoxandWarner,319.9CoxandWarner,eds,Audio Culture,288.10KeithPotter,‘Minimalism,’Grove Music Online,accessed1Aug.2005, <www.grovemusic.com>.11Sherburne,‘DigitalDiscipline,’320.

Reich Remixed 39

cultural/musicalenvironmenttothatofminimalistcomposers.Arewetoaccepttheassertionthat Reich’s music ‘has filtered into the consciousness of our society, so much so that it has beencopiedanddistilledintomusicnowheardeverywhere,muchthesamewaythepatternsonyourbathroomwallhavebeenliftedfromaVanGogh,’12orisitpossibletoidentifyamoredirect line of influence from the ‘father of DJ culture’ to his children?

ThisarticleaddressesthisquestionbyexaminingtheremixofReich’sEight Lines(1983)by Howie B, from the Reich Remixed album, as one example of the similarities, contrasts,confluences and lines of influence between the musical and aesthetic concerns of minimalism andelectronica.Eight Lines was chosen due to Howie B’s high profile as an artist (ensuring that a basic literature survey was possible), and Reich’s own identification of the work as one ofhisfavouriteremixesfromthealbum.13ReichsinglesoutEight Linesasbeingofparticularinterest, stating that ‘I think Howie B’s Eight Lines is a very sophisticated job.’1� Reich’sperceptionisthatHowieBhasengagedatamusicallevelwiththesourcematerialinawaynotpresentintheotherremixesonthealbum.ThatHowieBhasinsomeway‘understood’Reich’soriginalpiecesuggeststhat,ifthereisacasetobemadeforclearanddirectmusicalinfluence, it is to be found here.

Responding to the specifics of the work under discussion, this article utilises elements of traditionalmusicalanalysis,adiscussionoftheuseofsamplesandtheapplicationofsoniceffectstotheremix,originalinterviewdata,andinformationgleanedfromaliteraturesurveyofarticles,reviews,andinterviewswithandaboutHowieB.Iarguethat,whileHowieBand Reich’s work may possess superficial similarities, in practice Howie B’s compositional processandaestheticandmusicalconcernsdonotbearoutademonstrableminimalistor‘Reichian’ influence.

HowieBhasworkedasanaudioengineer,producer,andcomposer,mostnotablywithintheUKelectronicdancemusicsceneofthelate1990s.Hebeganhiscareerasatea-boyinastudioandhasgoneontobecomeaworld-touringDJ,remixerandproducer,workingwithU2,SlyandRobbie,MassiveAttackandBjörk.HowieB’searlyoutput,someofwhichiscollectedonthecompilationBest Foot Forward (1995),15 includes elements of dub, jazz, trip-hop and ambienthouse,allofwhichheavilyinformtheartist’sdebutalbum,Music for Babies(1996),and,toalesserdegree,hisfollow-upalbum,Turn the Dark Off(1997).16

WhilenotatypicalofHowieB’soutput,hisEight Lines remixisbestunderstoodasanexceptionalencounterwiththeworkofSteveReichprecipitatedbyHowieB’sengagementwiththeReich Remixedalbum.Priortothisalbum,thereappearstobenoimpliedmusicalrelationshipbetweenHowieBandSteveReich.Post-project,however,thereareseveralallusionsto a ‘Reichian’/minimalist influence on Howie B’s work, in particular on his third, somewhat moreabstract,studioalbum,Snatch(1999),releasedinthesameyear.17Ina1999interview,Howie B suggests that Reich ‘might have had some influence on my music but I wouldn’t

12Gordon,Reich Remixed,2.13Abbot,‘TalkwithSteveReich,’68.1�MarcWeidenbaum,‘ThePublicRecord[InterviewwithSteveReich],’Disquiet: Ambient/Electronica,1999,accessed13July2012,<www.disquiet.com/stevereich-script.html>.15Best Foot Forward,PussyfootRecords,LP001,1995.16HowieB,Music for Babies,Polydor,CD529�6�-2,1996;Turn the Dark Off,Polydor,CD53793�-2,1997.17HowieB,Snatch,PussyfootRecords,CDLP011,1999.

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saydirectly…Ilistenedtoitandsaid“WowIcouldhavedonethat”…thatmusthavehadsome influence.’18When interviewed for this research, Howie B was more enthusiastic inembracing Reich’s influence:

I think he’s a big influence, Steve in terms of … I couldn’t put a finger on what it is. Definitely the guy has, I don’t know has had some influence on me and a lot of people I work with as well … In terms of what he’s actually done and how it’s influenced me Idon’tknowbutyesIlistentohismusicquitealotandit’saddedcolourtomylifewhichisgreat.19

Taken at face value, Howie B does seem to have been influenced by Reich’s use of repetition andthecomposer’snotionof‘acompositionalprocessandasoundingmusicthatareoneandthesamething.’20HowieBarticulatesapositionstrikinglysimilartothatofbothReichandCage,statingthat:

It’sthecontent,nottheendproduct,nottheendthingthat’sthemostimportantthing.Imean;Iguessit’sabsoluteprocess.Andthat’swhatgreatabout[this]musicandputsitapartfromanythingelse.21

Whenpressed,however,itbecomesapparentthatHowieBisactuallyreferringtoanintuitivecompositionprocess,aidedbyensuringa‘goodenvironmentinthestudio[createdby]goodfood,greattea[probablyareferencetomarijuana]…humour[and]goodfriends.’HowieB acknowledges that his creative process involves experimentation, ‘but it’s the result oftheexperimentspeoplehearbuttheydon’theartheexperimentation.’Furthermore,andinstarkcontrasttoReich’sowninterestinaudibleprocesses,HowieBfeelsthattheprocessofcreationissomethingthatshouldnotnecessarilybeheardbythelistener.Ratherthansettinginplaceaprocessthatislaidbareinthemusic,HowieBworksthroughaninformalprocessof experimentation in the studio that is developed, refined, and may ultimately be obscured bytheoutcome.

When askedwhether hehadattempted to emulate elementsofReich’soriginal piece,Howie B stated, ‘Yes, I wouldn’t say emulate, I would say, yes, because emulate is an interesting word.Iwouldsayhandshake.’Evenwhenpressed,HowieBwouldnotclearlyarticulateanytangiblesimilaritiesordifferencesbetweenReich’sworkandhisown:

No, I don’t, not very much; I don’t see any similarity. I think maybe there’s anattitudetospacebut…nothingelse…I’dsaythemaindifferencewouldbe[our]attitudetorecording.ButthenagainIdon’tknow,Ireallydon’tknowwhatthemaindifferencesare.22

It may be that Howie B is hesitant or genuinely unable to spell out the specifics of how and by whom he has been influenced. Perhaps he is simply not aware of Reich’s music or ideas

18AnilPrasad,‘HowieBontheProwl[InterviewwithHowieB],’Innerviews: Music Without Borders,1999,accessed3August2005,<www.innerviews.org/inner/howieb.html>.19Bernstein,interview.20SteveReich,‘MusicasaGradualProcess,’ Writings About Music (New York: New York University Press, 1968),9–10.21Bernstein,interview.22Bernstein,interview.

Reich Remixed �1

to a degree that he can cogently reflect on them. Alternatively, as an untrained musician who speaksfrequentlyaboutmusicasa‘vibe,’HowieBmaysimplybedisinclinedtoexpoundonacompositionalprocessthatis,forhim,highlyintuitive.Mostlikely,however,isthatHowieBresistsverbalisinghisexactmotivationsandwaysofworking.Consequently,whilethereissomeusefulinformationtobegleanedfromthecomposer’sresponses,IwillrelyheavilyonmyanalysisofHowieB’sEight LinesremixtofurtherelucidateitsrelationshiptoReich’swork.

Reich’sEight Lines(1983)isanupdatedversionofthecomposer’searlierworkOctet(1979),towhichReichaddedfurtherinstrumentationtomakethepieceeasiertoperform.Reichnotesthatastringquartetwasadded

becauseofproblemsinperformingthepiecewithonlyoneplayertoapart.Forthetwo violins this problem was the difficultly of playing rather awkward double stops in tune. This was solved by having two first violins and two seconds so that each player couldplayonenoteatatime.Fortheviolaandcello,asecondplayerwasaddedtoeachtoallowtherapideighth-notepatternstobebrokenupbetweenthetwoplayersthuspreventingfatigue.23

Bycontrast,HowieB’sremixofEight Linesisrealisedasavirtualconstructofsamples,loopsandbeats,thejuxtapositionofwhichisnotintendedforlivereproduction.ThisanalysisofHowieB’sremixwillinvolvediscussionofthe‘traditional’elementsofstructure,rhythm,melodyandharmony,alongsidetheroleoftimbre,theuseofsamples,andtheapplicationofsoniceffectstotheremix.Ratherthanageneralexegesisoftheremix,thepurposeofthisanalysis is specifically to identify and highlight areas of similarity and difference between Reich andHowieB’swork.Consequently,thisanalysiswillfocusonfeaturesoftheremixwheresuchdiscussionisrelevant.Transcriptionsanddiagrammaticrepresentationshavebeenusedwhereappropriatetoillustrateandhighlightvariousaspectsoftheremix.Itisimportanttobearinmindthat,asHowieBisnotatrainedmusician,itisunlikelyhewouldhavebeenthinkingaboutbars,beats,keysignaturesorscores;hewouldnothavenecessarilybeenthinkingorworkingwithinthetypographyofwesternartmusic.Wherepossible,thediagramsattempttodemonstratefeaturesofthepieceinthemannerinwhichHowieBislikelytohaveengagedwiththem,asloopsandsequences,ratherthanbarsandbeats.Somediagrams,suchastheformchart,havebeenmodelledafterthe‘arrange’stylewindowsfoundinmostcontemporaryDAW(DigitalAudioWorkstation)andsequencersoftwareprograms.

HowieB’sremixisorganisedintosixsections,differentiatedbytheuseofparticulargroupsofsamplesandsonictreatments.Figure1demonstratestheoverallstructureofthepieceanddetailstheinstrumentationpresentineachsection.Theformofthepieceisbestdescribedas A, B, C, A1, B1, A2, with significant similarities existing between sections A, A1, and A2, as well as between sections B and B1. By contrast, Reich structured his piece in five sections, describingthemasfollows:

The first and third resemble each other in their fast moving piano, cello, viola and bass clarinet figures, while the second and fourth sections resemble each other in their longer held tones in the cello. The fifth and final section combines these materials.2�

23SteveReich,Writings on Music, 1965–2000 (Oxford: OUP, 2002), 119.2�SteveReich,Eight Lines(London:BooseyandHawkes,1989),i.

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Figure 1. PlotofinstrumentationagainsttimeofEight Lines remix

Revealingly,HowieBclaimstohavenotreferencedhisremixtoReich’spiece, insteadrelyingonhisownintuitivegraspofformandmusicaldevelopment.AccordingtoHowieB,thestructureoftheremix‘wasreferencedtothelordabove,nottoReich.Itwasmainlywhatsoundedgoodtomyears.’25

Despitethisassertion,itisnotablethatHowieBdrawsonsourcematerialprimarilyfromSections 1, 3, and 4 of Reich’s score. Table 1 below identifies the samples from Eight LinesHowieBusedwiththesectionsofReich’sscoretheyweretakenfromandthesectionsoftheremixtheywereusedin.

Samplestakenfromwithinasinglesectiongenerallyoccurconcurrently.Inthecaseofrepeatingmotifsthatmayhavebeensampledandloopedfromanywherewithinasection(such as Piano Loop 1 and 2), I have referenced their first occurrence in Reich’s score for convenience’s sake. It would be reasonable to assert that Howie B has in fact taken significant cuesfromReich’scompositionwhenconstructinghisremix.ThejuxtapositionofthesampledpianoandstringpartsinSectionAoftheremix,forexample,isimmediatelyrecognisablefromthe opening bars of Reich’s piece. Though the structure of the remix does not directly reflect Reich’sscore,thecontentandcontextofthesamplesusedadherequitecloselytotheiroriginalconstruction. Obviously this is not entirely unexpected, however, as Howie B did undertake toremixReich’spieceandaresidualsimilaritytotheoriginalwouldbeunavoidable.

Thesectionsoftheremixbearnocleardurationalrelationshiptooneanother.ThisisincontrasttoReich’sowncareful,evenmeticulous,structuringofhisownpiecebasedonthe

25Bernstein,interview.

Reich Remixed �3

carefuljuxtapositionofrepeatingmelodicandrhythmicmotivesandgradualharmonicandrhythmicmodulation.Instead,HowieBappearstorelyonintuitivestructuresresultinginapiecethatisevenlyweightedeithersideofSectionC.Thissectionis,onthesurface,themostdramaticallyunlikeReich’soriginal.ItcontainstheleastamountofReich’ssourcematerial,drawsontwosectionsofReich’sscoreforitssamples(thoughonlytwonotesaresampledfromSection5oftheoriginal),anddoesnotmakeuseofstrictrepetitioninthesamewayastheothersectionsoftheremix.Althoughfeaturingrecurringmelodicmaterial,theclarinetsolo,discussedbelow,doesnotrepeatinthestrictmannerfoundintheremix’sothersections.Similarly, neither the flute nor tambourine feature the repetition of small motifs found elsewhere intheremix.Additionally,sectionCdownplaystheroleofthepiano,the‘rhythmicbackbone’ofReich’spiece,26whichisusedprominentlyintheremix’sothersections.Givenitsprivilegedpositioninthecentreofthepiece,itisplausibletosuggestthatSectionCisthefocalpointoftheremixandwhereHowieBmostclearlyassertshiscreativevoiceoverReich’s.

It could be argued the remix follows a modified rondo form (ABCABA rather than ABACABA),butthiswouldbeamistake,asitdoesnotfollowtraditionalnotionsofexposition,developmentandrecapitulation.HowieBrevealedthat,whencomposingthepiece,heworkedoneachsectionindependentlyoftheothers,buildinguplayersofsounds:‘WhatIdidwas,Ichosedifferentsections,andIgaveeachsectionadifferentname,andthenIjustwentaboutfilling up; making each section, for me, listenable to in a new way.’27

WhereReichutilisesoverlappingvoicesandmelodiclinestoobscuresomesectionchangeswithinhiscomposition, thetransitionbetweensectionsof theremixaresonicallydistinct.

26 K. R. Schwarz, ‘Steve Reich: Music as a Gradual Process—Part II,’ Perspectives of New Music20.1/2(1981):252.27Bernstein,interview.

Table 1. Samplesandtheirlocationintheremix

Section Remix A Remix B Remix C Remix A1 Remix B1 Remix A2

1 Piano Loop 1Piano Loop 2String Loop 1Clarinet Loop

Piano Loop 1Piano Loop 2String Loop 1Clarinet Loop

Piano Loop 1Piano Loop 2String Loop 1Clarinet Loop

2

3 Piano Loop 3Piano Loop 4String Loop 2 String Loop 3Piccolo Loop

Piano Loop 3Piano Loop 4String Loop 2String Loop 3Piccolo Loop

4 Piano Loop 5String Loop 4FluteClarinet Solo Fragment 1

5 Clarinet Solo Fragment 2

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HowieBachievesthisthroughtheuseofdifferentgroupsofsamples,differenttonalcentres,anddifferenttimbresproducedbyelectronictreatmentsofthesoundsources.Thatsaid,theindividualsectionsoftheremixarelargelystaticduetoHowieB’slimiteduseofharmonicandmelodicmaterialaswellashisuseofloopedsectionsofaudio.Thisdoesnotmeanthatthepiecedoesnot‘develop’overtime,butthatthedevelopmentsthatdooccurprimarilyconstituteadditionsandsubtractionsofparts,changesintimbreandrhythm,andtheinterplayofthedifferentaudioloopsusedinthepiece.

Thisisdirectlyinkeepingwiththeminimalisttradition’sapproachestoformandmusicaldevelopmentand,infact,withReich’sowncompositionalapproach.Theuseofrepetition,staticharmony,andverticalmovementthroughtheadditionandsubtractionofinstrumentsinducingoveralltimbralshiftsareallcompositionaltechniquesfoundinReich’sEight Lines.Further,theconstructionofthepiecethroughtheadditionandsubtractionofloopedmaterialsservestoengenderasenseofthesounding-processesreferredtobyReichinMusic as a Gradual Process.28ThoughnotequivalenttothegradualaudiblechangespresentinReich’soriginal,thesimpleadditiveandsubtractiveprocessesbywhichHowieB’sremixofEight Linesprogressesshould be clearly audible to all but the most casual listener. These similarities, however,couldalsobeattributedtostylistictraitswithinelectronicdancemusicandtheapplicationofmusictechnologyatlarge.Theuseofsamplingandsequencingtechnologiesencouragesacompositionalprocesswhereaudioloopsarelayeredontopofoneanotherandchangesarebroughtaboutbytheadditionandsubtractionofmaterial.GivenHowieBrejectsthenotionthatthestructureofhisremixreferencedReich’soriginal,andthat,asdiscussedabove,hiscompositionalprocessishighlyintuitive,thelatterseemsmorelikelyinthisinstance.

Reich’soriginalworkwasscoredfortwopianos,astringquartet,clarinets,bassclarinets,flutes, and piccolo orchestrated in such a way that no more than eight instruments where performingconcurrently(hencethetitleEight Lines). Of these instruments, Howie B retains only the pianos, clarinets, a single flute, piccolo and violins. The piano is an obvious inclusion, as it functionsas the leadingvoice inReich’sscore,but thereseemstobenosystematicapproachtoHowieB’schoiceofinstrumentation.‘IjustchosewhatIliked,’HowieBstates,‘itwasjustpuretaste...therewasnoobjectivityatall.’29Thesmallrepertoireofsamplesalsorelates to technical difficulties in obtaining the sort of metronomic pulse present in much minimalist and electronic music: ‘As what happens with classical music—there was nostricttiming…thetempowasIwouldsaywasnotrocksolid,sothat…made[theremix]more difficult.’30

In addition to the instrumentation taken from Reich’s piece, Howie B adds severalpercussionpartsandaseriesofsamplestakenfromanunnamedBroadwaymusical,chosenfortheir ‘kitsch’ value. Disembodied snatches of conversation—‘Hi’; ‘Are you nuts?’; ‘I’ll never be jealousagain’;‘Well’;‘1,2,3,�’;‘That’seasiersaidthandone’—areheavilyprocessed,sometimesobscured,withechowashesandservetocreateasoundscapeortexturalbackdroptotheremixproper. When asked about the role of these sounds, specifically the use of vocal samples in the remix,HowieBnotedthattheywereintendedtoevokeaparticularsenseofplace:

28 K.R. Schwarz, “Steve Reich: Music as a Gradual Process – part II,” Perspectives of New Music20.1/2(1981):252.29Bernstein,interview.30Bernstein,interview.

Reich Remixed �5

They came from a New York musical which I thought was quite appropriate considering thatit[Eight Lines] came from New York … Reich, his whole thing is coming from New York. It sounds to me like the musicians he uses [and] the studios [and] all of that, so I just wanted to get my New York in there.31

TheuseofheavilytreatedsamplesisafeatureofHowieB’screativeoutputand,morebroadly,alignshisworkwithElectronicListeningMusic,(socalled)IntelligentDanceMusic,andambientgenres.SimonReynoldsnotes, forexample, that theuseof samplingwithinthesestylesofelectronicmusic‘wasgovernedbyanethosofmaskingandwarpingsources,in explicit opposition to the recognizable quotes and lifts that characterized ardkore’s [an earlierversionofelectronicdancemusic] cut-upapproach.’32Alongwith theuseof thesesamples,HowieB’suseofprogrammedpercussionprovidesasenseofcohesionbetweenthedifferentsectionsoftheremix.AccordingtoHowieB,thepercussioninstrumentsarederivedfromelectronicsources,eitherdrummachinesorsynthesisers,andtheremixwassequencedutilisinga(somewhatantiquated)Atari10�0,mostlikelyusingthenowdefunctIntuitiveMidiSystemsoftwaresequencer.33

It is notable that, while sampling quite creatively, Howie B does not contribute anysignificant melodic or harmonic material to the remix. Similar treatment of Reich’s works is fairlyconsistentacrosstheReich Remixedalbum,whereadditionsofsonicmaterialnotfoundinReich’soriginalsaregenerallypercussiveornon-instrumentalsamples.ThisrunsagainstthegrainofmanyDJremixes,whereavocalorotherrecognisableelementistakenandplacedagainstare-orchestratedbackingtrack.ItisunclearwhetherthisattitudeisaresultofsomeundisclosedreverenceforReich,orhasmoretodowithmethodsofcompositioncommontothealbum’scontributingartistsbeingcongruentwithReich’sown.Ibelievethelattertobemorelikely—Reich’suseofrepetitionasastructuraldeviceparallelstherelianceonloopedmaterials inelectronicdancemusicandprovides readymade ‘loops’ for the remixers.Aswithmuchelectronicdancemusic,andunlikemanypopularsongsusedforremixes,thereisoften no leading melodic voice in Reich’s compositions, and this appears to have influenced anapproachtothematerialinlinewiththenormsofelectronica.

HowieB’sremixofEight Lines presents a significant reduction of Reich’s use of harmony andmelody.For theEight Lines remix,HowieBsampled twenty-sevenbarsofReich’seighty-sevenpagescore.Fromthissourcematerial,HowieBcreatedanumberofshortloopsofaudiothatformthebasisforhisremix.Reich’sscoreisconstructeduponshortrepeatingmotifsandconsequentlysomeofthesearesampled‘aswritten.’PianoLoop1(see Figure 2) is clearly identifiable from the opening bars of Reich’s score. Though the loopactuallybeginsonbeat fourof thebar, thedown-beat isassertedstronglyand isreinforcedbytheentryofthehi-hatonbeatoneat0:13andagainat0:16.Thisgivesthestrongimpressionofatwo-beatanacrusisfollowedbytheloopedpianomotifasitappearsintheoriginalscore.3�

31Bernstein,interview.32 Simon Reynolds, Energy Flash: A Journey through Rave Music and Dance Culture (London: Picador,1998),157.33Bernstein,interview.3�Reich,Eight Lines, b.1.

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Figure 2. PianoLoop1asscoredforPiano1inEight Lines,b.1,beginningat0:06

Similarly, the Piccolo Loop used in Sections B and B1 (see Figure 3) can be identified in bars 373–7�ofReich’sscore(seeFigure�),though,inthisinstance,theloopisoffsetforwardsbyonebeatsothatitstartsonthesecondbeatofthebar.ThisdisplacementofloopsiscommonthroughouttheremixandthemajorityofsampledloopsareoffsetbackwardsorforwardsbyanumberofbeatsinrelationtotheirpositioninReich’sscore.

Figure 3. PiccoloLoopaspresentinEight Lines remix,beginningat1:50

Figure 4. PiccoloLoopasscoredforpiccoloinEight Lines,bb.373–7�

InadditiontoborrowingdirectlyfromReich’sscore,HowieBalsosamplesfragmentsfromlargerrepeatingphrases.WorkingwithsamplersandasequencerallowsHowieBtosampleandarrangethesefragmentsquiteeasily,asanyincompletemeasuresaresimplyperceivedascontainingextrarests.Forexample,theClarinetLooputilisedinSectionsA,A1,andA2isderivedfromalargerscoredelement(seeFigures5and6)andtimestretchedinordertocreateacontinuousloopin5/�time.

Figure 5. ClarinetLoopaspresentinEight Lines Remix,beginningat0:30

Figure 6. ClarinetLoopasscoredforclarinet1inEight Lines,bb.�1–�5

CentraltoHowieB’ssamplingaestheticisthephysicaldeconstructionandrecontextualisationofsounds.Usingthesampler,HowieBwilloftenalterhissourcematerialbeyondrecognitionbeforeplacingitinan‘environment,whichitdidn’tcomefrom.’HowieBnotesthat‘ItreateverythingveryheavilyandIdothatsimplytomakeitmyown...it’slikebuildingamusicalinstrument,youdismantlesomethingandthenconstructitagain.’35

35Bernstein,interview.

Reich Remixed �7

TheclarinetsoloinSectionCdisplaysamorecreativeapplicationofthissameapproach,wherebyHowieBrearrangessampledfragmentstocreateanewpart.Theclarinet‘solo’(Figure7)comprisesvariouspermutationsofthreeshortsamplestakenfromReich’soriginal.Eachoccurrenceofthesesamplesishighlighted,withred,blueandyellowbeingusedtodenotesample1,2and3respectively.Ascanbeseen,thesoloisconstructedfromatwo-barrepeatingpatternthatisvariedbyaddingorremovingoneortwoofthesampledphrases(andcuttingshortsample2atthelastbar).Interestingly,thesamplesdonotappearnotefornoteinReich’sscoreandseemtobederivedfromphrasesoccurringinFigure8(highlightedinred)andFigure9(highlightedinblueandyellow)withslightmanipulationofpitchandrhythmicplacement.TheclarinetsoloisthemostdramaticexampleofHowieBremakinganelementofReich’spiecefortheremix.HowieBstripsthesesamplesoftheiroriginalcontextandmanipulatestherelationshipsbetweenindividualnoteswithinamelodicphrase.

Furthermore,whileeachsamplerecursinroughlythesameorderthroughoutthesection,thereisnotthesameuseofregimentedrepetitionfoundelsewhereintheremix.Theprocessof joining together small fragments tobuild longermelodies isalsoobservable inReich’sown work and this suggests at least a significant congruence between Reich and Howie B’s compositionaltechniquesatthepointatwhichHowieBismostassertivelyoriginal.

Figure 7. ClarinetsoloaspresentinEight Lines remix,beginningat3:3�,withsampledphraseshighlighted

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Figure 8. ElementofclarinetsoloasscoredforClarinet1inEight Lines,bb.609–11

Figure 9. ElementofclarinetsoloasscoredforClarinet2inEight Lines,bb.�61–62

At a structural level, Reich’s piece moves through a circle of fifths from B-major in section 1 to F-sharp major in Section 2 and D-flat major in Sections 3, 4 and 5 (see Figure 1). In contrast, Howie B’s remix alternates between B-major in sections A, A1, and A2 and D-flat major in SectionsB,B1,andC(seeTable1,above),furtherdelineatingsectionsoftheremix.HowieBhasalso simplified Reich’s use of melody and harmony within sections of the score. In particular, theexpanding‘cadential’progressionsinthestrings,canonicinterlockingpianoparts,andtheresultingmelodiclinesfoundinthewindinstrumentsareeithernotpresentoraredramaticallysimplified in Howie B’s remix. In each case this can be attributed to Howie B’s comparatively small repertoire of samples that reflect the sections of Reich’s score they were taken from. As HowieBsamplesnomaterialfromSection2ofReich’sscore,itisunderstandablethattheremixdoesnotmakeuseofF-sharpmajorasatonalcentre.Similarly,thesampledmelodiclinesandstringpartsdonotevolveinthesamemannerasinEight LinessimplybecauseHowieBsamplesnomorethantwobarsforeachloop.

TheonlyadditionofharmonicmaterialHowieBmakestotheremixisinthebongopart,which is tuned to a C-sharp/D-flat. Though serving a primarily rhythmic function, the bongo helps to anticipate the shift from B-major to D-flat major by highlighting the C-sharp/D-flat inamannersimilartoapedalpointordrone.Theuseofdronesisaminimalisttrait,althoughitwouldbeastretch toargue thatHowieB’suseof thebongo in thiswayresults fromafamiliarity with the work of Terry Riley or La Monte Young. Rather, it is likely that the drone resultsfromHowieB’schoiceofsampleandisevidenceofhistasteandskillasaremixer,ratherthan any external influence. Howie B’s remix evidences a reduction in harmonic and melodic complexitymoreinlinewiththenormsofelectronicdancemusic.HowieBhasnotengagedsignificantly with the harmonic complexity of Reich’s original work, sampling selectively in termsofinstrumentation,length,andlocationwithinthescore.

Reich has praised Howie B for maintaining the metre of the original composition,suggesting, rightly or wrongly, that it is ‘rare to find DJs or anyone else in the pop world who works in a metre like 5.’36As noted above, Howie B demonstrates a rudimentaryunderstandingofthecanonicrhythmicrelationshipspresentinReich’sscore.Heindicatedthat,thoughfamiliarwiththetimesignature,hehadnotworkedin5/�priortotheremix.37Infact,theretentionofthemetreofReich’spiecemaybeduetoHowieB’schoiceofsamplesas,forthemostpart,PianoLoops1,2,3and�determinethemetricpulseofthepiece.Akeyrhythmicdeviceusedthroughouttheremixisthejuxtapositionofrepeatingloopsofvaryinglengthswithautonomousdownbeats(Figure10).Inthisinstance,theinteractionbetweentheloopedrhythmshastheeffectofinducingtheperceptionofmetricdissonance

36Weidenbaum,‘ThePublicRecord.’37Bernstein,interview.

Reich Remixed �9

and insomecasesofmetricshift.Forexample, thepositioningofStringLoop1 (Figure11)againstPianoLoops1and2inSectionAcausestheparttobeheardassyncopatedindeviationfromReich’sScore(seeFigure12).

Figure 11. StringLoop1aspresentinEight Lines remix,beginningat0:59

Figure 12. StringLoop1asscoredforViolins1and2inEight Lines,bb.1–2

Rhythmicdissonanceisalsointroducedtotheremixthroughtheadditionofseveralprogrammedpercussionparts.Mostobviously,thehi-hatpattern(Figure13)inducesaperceptionofpolymeterbysettinga3/�rhythmicgroupingagainsttheprevailing5/�structure.

Figure 13. Hi-hatpattern,beginningat0:13andrepeatedthroughout

Similarly the Drum Loop in Section C (Figure 1�) deviates from the conventions ofasymmetricalmetreasHowieBarrangesthesnareintounusualbeatgroupingsof2+1+2.Thiscreatesafeelingoftensionwhensetagainstthemoreconventional2+3and3+2beat

Figure 10. JuxtapositionofloopsinSectionA1ofEight Lines remix

PianoLoop1 PianoLoop1 PianoLoop1 PianoLoop1

PianoLoop2 PianoLoop2

StringLoop1 StringLoop1

ClarinetLoop ClarinetLoop

PhoneLoop

PhoneLoop

BongoLoop BongoLoop Etc.

HiHats HiHats HiHats HiHats HiHats HiHats Etc.

Drums Drums

1 2 3 � 5 1 2 3 � 5 1 2 3 � 5 1 2 3 � 5

!!"54#####$ %%&&%%&& %%%% """"

! " "" "" ""Hi-hat

50 Context37(2012):Carter

groupingofStringLoop�(Figure15),particularlyastheDrumLoopfunctionsastheprimarymetricpulseinSectionC.

Figure 14. KickandSnareDrumLoopaspresentinEight Lines remix,beginningat3:3�

Figure 15. StringLoop�takenfromEight Linesscore,bb.��3–��

ThejuxtapositionofloopedfragmentsappearstoillustrateHowieB’sunderstandingofthecanonicstructureofEight Lines,inasmuchastheremixiscomprisedofseveralelements‘goingroundandroundincycles.’38ThisinterplayofincommensurableloopsisnotdissimilartothepolyrhythmicstructureemployedbyReichinpiecessuchasDrumming(1970–71).Itshouldbenoted,however,thatthismethodofcompositionisalsoprominentinelectronicdancemusicwhereworksareoftenstructuredupon layersof repeating loopsandcycles.UnlikeReich,HowieBdoesnotusethesetechniquestoachievephasemodulationandhisplacement of rhythmically dissonant loops is static. Once a loop is introduced it does not varyinregardtoeitherplacementorphraseandanysenseofmetricshift(discussedabove)isabrupt,unlikeReich’sowngradualprocesses.Aswiththestructureofhisremix,HowieB’suseofincommensurateloopsappearsrelatedtoanintuitiveapproachtocompositionandwhatsounds‘right’ratherthanthedeliberateuseofpolyrhythmsfoundinReich’spieces.

Throughout the remix, Howie B employs a number of techniques to bring about themodification of timbre via electronic treatments, as shown in Table 2.

Table 2.TimbralchangespresentinEight Lines remixbysection

38Bernstein,interview.

Remix A Remix B Remix C Remix A1 Remix B1 Remix A2

Kick Drum Distorted FilteredDistorted

Distorted Filtered

Snare Drum Delay added Envelope modified

Delay added

FilteredEnvelope modified

FilteredEnvelope modified

Envelope modified

DistortedDelay added

Envelope modified

Delay added

Bongo Loop Resonant Filter applied

Resonant Filter applied

Piano FilteredCompressed

Flute Reverb added

Vocal Samples Delay added Delay added

Tambourine Ring Modulated

Hi Hat FilteredFilter SweptEnvelope modified

Filter Swept Filter swept

!"

! ! !! ! !!"

!! ! !! ! ! # # ##$% # && &# # # & '#' # &&$% &# &54( ) )) ) ))) )) ) )) )) ) )) )) ) ) %%%%Drumset

Reich Remixed 51

Timbral changes are effected through the application of filtering, distortion, compression, andthemanipulationoftheattack,decay,sustain,andreleaseofsoundsviaenvelope(ADSR)filtering. One example of these techniques is clearly audible in Piano Loop 3 (Figures 16 and 17)andPianoLoop�(Figures18and19),whichareheavilycompressedinordertorestrictdynamic range, filtered to remove low frequencies, and distorted to create a grainy texture. Bytreatingthesamplesinthismanner,certainnotesbecomemoreprominentresultingintheperceptionofaparticularrhythmicemphasis.

Figure 16. PianoLoop3aspresentinEight Lines remix, beginningat1:�9

Figure 17.PianoLoop3asscoredforPiano1inEight Lines,bb.286–87

Figure 18.PianoLoop�aspresentinEight Lines remix, beginningat1:�9

Figure 19.PianoLoop�takenfromPiano2Eight Lines score,bb.335–36

Because the sonic treatments obscure the precise pitches being sounded, the resultingrhythmicpattern(seeFigure20)isforegroundedwhilstthemelodicandharmoniccontentofthepianorecedesintothebackgroundofthemix.Asageneralprinciple,wheretimbralchangesareappliedtootherwisestaticelementsoftheremix,theeffectistomoveelementsfromtheforegroundtothebackgroundofthemixorvice-versa.Thus,timbralchangesareusedtocreateasenseofmovementintheremixinamannercongruentwithReich’sownuseoftimbralshiftsforsimilarpurposes.Thepresenceoftheresultantpatternisreinforcedby

52 Context37(2012):Carter

Howie B’s use of a cow bell (Figure 21) to further accentuate beats two and three of the first barofPianoLoops3and�.Thisisdirectlyinkeepingwiththeminimalist’suseofdeliberatepsycho-acousticphenomena,inparticulartheemergenceofresultingpatterns.

Figure 20.ResultingrhythmpatternfromPianoLoops3and�

Figure 21.CowBellLoopaspresentinEight Lines remix, beginningat1:50

HowieB’sremixalsoeffectstimbralchangesthroughmechanicalmeans.Thevocalsamplesusedintheremixaresubjecttochangesinfrequency,amplitudeandduration,broughtaboutthroughthemanipulationofarecordturntable.ThreetechniquesareusedbyHowieB:spinningdowntherecordbyturningoffthedriveshaftoftheturntablewhiletheneedleisstillengaged;changingtheplaybackspeedoftherecordandconsequentlythepitchanddurationoftherecording;andmanuallyspinningtherecordtoachieveunusualvariationsinplaybackspeed.WhilethesetechniquesarecongruentwiththeuseofturntablesasinstrumentsbyCage,moreadvancedtechniquesarealsopresentingenresofelectronica,particularlyhiphop.GivenHowieB’spositionwithinelectronica,hisworkasaDJandremixer,andanabsenceofreferencestoCage in his interviews and writings, I believe any influence by Cage on Howie B’s work to be unlikely.Inadditiontothesetechniques,HowieBtreatselementsoftheremixusingreverb,delays and ring modulation. Of these, the most prominent are the grainy echoes and delays appliedtothesnaredrumandvocalsamples.

TheuseofdelayinHowieB’sremixisreminiscentoftheworkofJamaicanDubproducersinthe1970s,suchasKingTubbyandLee‘Scratch’Perry.TubbyandPerrycreated‘remixes’frommulti-trackrecordingsbyfadinginstrumentsinandoutofthemix,introducingmusique concrèteelementssuchasbreakingglass,cryingbabiesandgunshots,andutilisingeffectssuchasdelayandreverbtocreateshimmeryechoesandunusualrhythmicaccents.39InEight Lines remixastereodelayisusedandtheinputlevelisvariedcreating‘washes’acrossthestereofield. Howie B notes that a dub aesthetic was present in the final construction of the remix, aselementssuchasthedelayswere‘performed’ontopofthesequencedtracksinordertoachieve‘moremovement’intheremix.�0

While acknowledging Reich as an influence, Howie B does not clearly articulate how this influence may have impacted his music. While he does identify the use of repetition and processbasedcompositionasbeingcongruentwithhisownpractice,hedoesnotclarifyexactlyhowthisisborneoutinhiscomposition.TheanalysisofHowieB’sremixprovidesamoreusefulbasisforcomparison,bearingoutstrongcongruenciesbetweenReichandHowieB’scompositionalaestheticsandtechniques.

39ForacomprehensivediscussiononthehistoryandtechniquesofDubReggaeseeMichaelVeale,Dub: Soundscapes and Shattered Songs in Jamaican Reggae (Connecticut:WesleyanUniversityPress,2007).�0Bernstein,interview.

Reich Remixed 53

Howie B’s remix of Eight Lines makes use of limited material from Reich’s originalcomposition and, in line with this reduction in material, displays a related reduction ofharmonicandmelodiccomplexity.HowieB’schoiceofsamplesengendersastrongassociationbetweensectionsofReich’scompositionandHowieB’sremix.Despitethis,HowieBrejectsthenotionthatthestructureofhisremixreferencedReich’soriginal,andanysimilaritiesmustbe understood as a function of Howie B’s choice of samples rather than Reich’s influence.

SimilartomanyofReich’sworks,HowieB’sremixmakesuseofrepetitionasastructuraldevice. Howie B retains the meter of Reich’s piece and appears to emulate the canonicstructure of Eight Lines through the juxtaposition of layered repeating motifs. Rhythmicdissonances,includingthepresenceofmetricshiftandpolymetreintheremix,arecausedbythejuxtapositionofloopedmaterialsandHowieB’sunusualtreatmentofasymmetricalmetre.TheserhythmicdissonancescontributetoaperceptionofapolyrhythmicstructurenotdissimilartothatusedbyReichinpiecessuchasDrumming.Inaddition,HowieB’suseoftimbralchangesandresultingrhythmicpatternsarestronglyreminiscentofsimilartechniquesemployedbyReich,andthesimpleaudibleadditiveandsubtractiveprocessesbywhichtheremixisstructuredareevocativeofReich’snotionofsounding-processes.HowieB’snotionof ‘process,’however,doesnotdescribeeithermusicaloraestheticprocesses inamannerrecognisably similar to those used by Reich. Consequently, it would be difficult to ascribe the largely intuitive process of music creation described by Howie B to the influence of Reich’s ownconceptionofaudibleprocesses.

TheuseofrepetitionisafundamentalfeatureofmuchofHowieB’swork,asaretheuseof electronic sound sources and treatments, minimal harmonic content, and compositionutilisingaminimumofmeans.HowieB’sremixofEight Linesalsoutilisesdub-styleproductiontechniques, including the use of additive and subtractive processes; the use of electronictreatments; the juxtaposition of looped material; the use recontextualised sounds; and anemphasis on timbre and texture in the remix. Furthermore, the remix bears clear stylisticsimilarities todubin theuseofdelaywashes,vari-speeded(time-stretched)samples,andthejuxtapositionofincommensurableloopscreatingrhythmicdissonance.GivenHowieB’sacknowledgment of the influence of dub on his work it is reasonable to attribute these traits to the influence of Jamaican dub music rather than Reich’s work.

WhileHowieB’suseofReich’sEight Lines as source material has had an obvious influence onthecontent,formandrhythmicconstructionoftheremix,HowieBhasnotengagedwithReich’smaterialinamannerthatisoutsidethescopeofhisusualpractice.Consequently,thisarticlechallengesthenotionmadeinthelinernotesoftheReich Remixed CDthatminimalismhas somehow ‘filtered into the consciousness’�1ofelectronicaandsuggeststheneedforamoreclearandreliablescholarlydocumentationofthehistoryofelectronicmusicinthecontextofpopular culture in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries.

�1Gordon,Reich Remixed,2.