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Relative age effects on physicaleducation attainment and school sportrepresentationStephen Cobley a , Colin Abraham a & Joseph Baker ba Leeds Metropolitan University, UKb York University, CanadaPublished online: 15 Jul 2008.

To cite this article: Stephen Cobley , Colin Abraham & Joseph Baker (2008) Relative age effectson physical education attainment and school sport representation, Physical Education and SportPedagogy, 13:3, 267-276, DOI: 10.1080/17408980701711983

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Relative age effects on physical

education attainment

and school sport representation

Stephen Cobleya�, Colin Abrahama and Joseph Bakerb

aLeeds Metropolitan University, UK; bYork University, Canada

Background: The ‘Relative Age Effect’ (RAE) has consistently been demonstrated to influence

attainment in various contexts. In education, RAE appears to provide an advantage to those born

during initial months of an academic year, compared with those born in later months. A similar

effect has been noted in many sports, with those born shortly after a ‘cut-off’ date being over-

represented compared to those born later in the year.

Purpose: To determine if ‘relative age’ influenced attainment in physical education (PE) as well as

school sport representation in a Key Stage 3 secondary school setting.

Participants and setting: For the year 2003–2004, PE attainment data and sport participation records

of 621 pupils (317 male, 304 female) aged 11–14 years old, at a large secondary school in the North

of England were collated and analyzed. The school contained over 1300 pupils enrolled across Key

Stages 3 and 4. During 2004, the school was rated as ‘very good’ in its educational provision by The

Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED). Pupil attainment across the core subjects of English,

Maths and Science was reported as similar to national averages, while the school’s Physical

Education (PE) provision was rated as ‘above the national average’.

Research design: The research design was cross-sectional in nature, with its goal of assessing present

patterns of PE attainment and sport participation in a case-study school.

Data collection: Following institutional ethical approval and school consent, annual school records

relating to pupils in Key Stage 3 were collected and examined. These records documented social-

demographic details including gender, date of birth as well as attainment records of the pupil. PE

attainment in Key Stage 3 was based upon observational assessments by PE teachers, where

mark allocations reflected the degree of pupil progress and attainment in the academic year. The

school PE department was also asked to provide sport participation information. Specifically,

which pupils had represented the school at least twice in the sports of soccer, rugby, netball and

rounders.

Data analysis: Date of birth was coded into quartiles (i.e. three-month categories) to represent

relative age. A two-way between group analyses of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to examine

the influence of birth date and year group on PE attainment, while Chi-square analyses examined

the relationship between date of birth and school sport representation.

Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy

Vol. 13, No. 3, July 2008, pp. 267–276

�Corresponding author. Carnegie Research Institute, Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds,

W. Yorkshire, UK. Email: S.Cobley@leedsmet.ac.uk

ISSN 1740-8989 (print); ISSN 1742-5786 (online)/08/030267–10# 2008 Association for Physical EducationDOI: 10.1080/17408980701711983

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Findings: Main effects for birth-date (i.e. quartile) and year group on attainment in PE were found as

were interactions between gender and year group. Observations of school sport representation data

found higher frequencies of pupils born in the first quartile were representing the school across

gender and sports.

Conclusions: Current age-grouping, assessment and selection strategies in school may be

compounding RAEs inside and outside the classroom. School PE and sport environments may

be facilitating attainment and representation for the relatively few older individuals in each year

group, whilst simultaneously disaffecting a high proportion of relatively younger pupils.

Keywords: Relative Age Effect; Physical education attainment; School sport representation

Baker and Horton (2004) suggested that the quantity and quality of practice are

primary mechanisms explaining skill or performance attainment. In addition, they

highlighted that the ability to engage in practice is influenced by a number of secondary

mechanisms. Such mechanisms can be found in an individual’s developmental back-

drop, which can promote or limit opportunities for skill improvement and attainment

(Baker et al., 2003; Cote et al., 2003). These secondary mechanisms may determine

which particular activities are accessible and as a result, mediate the amount of time

and opportunity available for participation, practice and attainment. One phenomenon

identified as influencing the opportunity to practise and indirectly influencing attain-

ment is the Relative Age Effect (RAE; Grondin et al., 1984; Barnsley et al., 1985).

Within sport and educational institutions it is common practice to group individ-

uals into chronological age cohorts with distinct dates that differentiate entry into par-

ticular age categories. The purpose of this procedure is to consider developmental

differences in the provision of appropriate instruction, activity, and assessment, as

well as to try to ensure fair competition and equal opportunity for members of a par-

ticular cohort. The RAE refers to the potential cognitive and biological variability

apparent between individuals within an age-grouped cohort (Baxter-Jones et al.,

1994; Musch & Grondin, 2001). For instance, those born shortly after a ‘cut-off’

date may exhibit greater cognitive and physical maturity than those born later in

the year. The presence of RAEs within cohorts has previously been identified to

impact upon the ability of an individual to demonstrate relative proficiency, skills

and required attributes at a given point in time when compared to others in an age

group.

The RAE was first noted in education, with research findings indicating that pupils

born within the initial months of an academic year exhibiting higher attainment than

their younger counterparts (Bell & Daniels, 1990; Davis et al., 1980; Jinks, 1964;

Maddux et al., 1981; Sharp, 1995; Thompson, 1971). Consistently, the relationship

between RAE and attainment is apparent across subject areas as well as the primary

(Sharp et al., 1994) and secondary years (Massey et al., 1996) suggesting that the

RAEs have early and persistent effects throughout the education process. The longevity

and consistency of RAE has stimulated researchers to examine its consequences.

While early-born pupils appear consistently to be advantaged, detrimental conse-

quences are reported in later-born members of a cohort. For instance, younger

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cohort members report lower attendance rates in school (Carroll, 1992), are associ-

ated with lower levels of self-esteem (Fenzel, 1992), are more frequently classified

as learning disabled (Diamond, 1983), are more frequently referred for psychological

assessment (DiPasquale et al., 1980) and have been linked to higher rates of youth

suicide (Thompson et al., 1999). Taken together, the identification of RAE and exam-

ination of potential psychological, emotional and behavioural consequences is

important for schools and social policy. Facilitating attainment and reducing the det-

rimental impact of RAEs appears critical to the success and well-being of all pupils.

In sport, RAEs were first identified by Grondin et al. (1984). They discovered a

skewed of birth-dates among professional ice-hockey players, with those born early

in age-groups exhibiting the highest frequency. Barnsley et al. (1985) also reported

a skewed trend in ice-hockey player birth-dates with an over-representation of

players born in January, February and March (i.e. the first quartile of the year)

being selected for representative teams in the provincial and national leagues of

Canada. Similar asymmetries in birth-date and sport representation have been ident-

ified in senior baseball (Thompson et al., 1991), cricket (Edwards, 1994), soccer

(Dudink, 1994; Verhulst, 1992) and in the youth sport contexts of hockey (Barnsley

& Thompson, 1988), soccer (Glamser & Vincent, 2004; Helsen et al., 1998), swim-

ming (Baxter-Jones, 1995) and tennis (Dudink, 1994).

Explanations for the widespread presence of RAE across sports contexts have been

presented (see Musch & Grondin (2001) for a review) and the benefit of early matu-

ration in adolescent sport appears to provide one explanation for RAE in sport.

More specifically, those born shortly after a ‘cut-off’ date often display advanced phys-

ical maturity than those born later in the year (Grondin & Trudeau, 1991; Musch &

Grondin, 2001).With speed, power, strength and height being physical attributes

that benefit performance in sport, early-born, more mature individuals are more

likely to dominate youth sport. As a result, they are more likely to be identified as ‘out-

standing’ or ‘gifted’, resulting in selection by scouts and coaches for representative

sport. In an intriguing example that runs contrary to the RAE outlined above, the

sport of gymnastics shows a RAE where late-born (i.e. younger and less mature) ath-

letes are often over-represented, with gymnastic performance benefiting from a

delayed onset of physical maturity (Malina, 1994; Baxter-Jones et al., 1995). In addition

to early maturational factors, Musch and Grondin (2001) suggest that the amount of

practice experience and psychological maturity may also contribute to RAE presence.

For instance, they highlight that relatively older individuals may have accumulated

greater amounts of practice experience in their life-span, culminating in higher levels

of skill and proficiency. Psychologically, relative age differences may be prominent in

establishing competency beliefs and self-fulfilling prophecies as a result of continuous

interaction with others.

To date, minimal research has examined the presence and implications of RAE

within the context of school physical education (PE) and sport representation. In

one of the first studies to assess RAEs in PE, Bell et al. (1997) analysed the

General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) results of 16 year old pupils.

They identified a RAE in both written exams and observed physical performances.

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Specifically, a decreasing linear trend in attainment was found for both boys and girls,

with earlier born pupils reporting the highest levels of attainment and younger pupils

reporting progressively lower levels of attainment across their sample. In evaluating

their results Bell et al. (1997) provided two possible explanations for the progressive

reduction in attainment by younger pupils. First, their relative age position may have

reduced the likelihood for selection in school competition and coaching across the

school years; and second, relative differences in physical development and maturity

at the time of assessment may have negatively affected their scores relative to older

peers. Bell et al. (1997) also stated that the timing of assessments may create an

‘unfair playing field’ where relatively younger pupils in PE may fail to attain their

potential due to their relative immaturity. Older more mature pupils may have a cog-

nitive and intellectual readiness advantage for the ability to learn and attain (Sharp,

1995). The psychological consequences of this advantage may also confer greater

confidence and esteem derived from a comparison of ability to younger less physically

and cognitively mature members of a peer group.

In a related study, Wilson (1999) examined school sport representation at a single

comprehensive school, identifying significant over-representation across sports.

Autumn-born players (i.e. the oldest in the cohort) were three times more likely

than winter or summer born players to play on the school’s hockey and netball

teams and they were twice as likely to play on the rugby and soccer teams. Wilson’s

(1999) study suggests that RAE may exist within school sports systems providing

fertile ground for early-born pupils to flourish, whilst disadvantaging younger born

pupils. The manifestation of the RAE within schools may be linked to age-related

inequalities observed in adult and representative sport.

Despite the consistency of the RAE in education and sport, our understanding is far

from complete. For example, how do RAEs in the classroom affect involvement in

activities outside the classroom? The purpose of this study was to determine the

relationships between RAEs in the PE classroom and involvement in school-based

sports.

Methods

Participants

Participants were 621 (317 male, 304 female) secondary school pupils of a mixed

ethnic background with a mean age of 12.13 years (SD ¼ 1.41), who attended a

large comprehensive school situated in the North of England. Participants at the

time of data collection had all completed an academic year within Key Stage 3

(Years 7, 8, and 9) of the National Curriculum UK.

The case-study school contained over 1300 pupils enrolled across Key Stages 3 and

4. During 2004, the school was rated as ‘very good’ in its educational provision by The

Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED). Pupil attainment across the core sub-

jects of English, Maths and Science was reported as similar to national averages.

Moreover, the school’s Physical Education (PE) provision was rated as ‘above the

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national average’ with a balance of provision in games and non-competitive activities.

The school did promote participation with an emphasis on the sports of soccer and

netball across the school years.

Procedure

Following institutional ethical approval and school consent, the annual school records

relating to pupils in Key Stage 3 (i.e. pupil ages, 11–14) were collected and examined.

These records documented social-demographic details including gender, date of birth

as well as attainment records of the pupil by subject. Information relating to pupils’

social demographic background and PE attainment was recorded.

PE attainment in Key Stage 3 was based upon observational assessments by PE tea-

chers. Using the Key Stage 3 PE attainment criteria (Department for Education &

Employment, 1999) and observations across a year of PE provision, the teacher allo-

cated an overall assessment level that reflected the degree of pupil progress and attain-

ment. These attainment levels were utilised for data analysis.

The teachers within the PE department of the school were also asked to provide

sport participation information. Specifically, staff members leading extra-curricular

teams for Years 7, 8, and 9 in soccer, rugby, netball and rounders were asked to

record the pupils who had represented the school at least twice. The submitted lists

identified pupils representing the school by year and sport as well as indicating the

total number of pupils participating at the representative level.

Data analysis

Data collected from the school were subjected to analysis using SPSS (Statistical

Package for the Social Sciences, version 12.0). Date of birth information was coded

into four categories representing the respective quartile of the school academic calen-

dar (i.e. first quartile represented those born from 1st September to 30th November).

Information pertaining to PE attainment in the key stages was coded into a relative

scale indicating the level of attainment from low (1) to high (4). School representation

and sport type were also coded. A two-way between group analyses of covariance

(ANCOVA) was used to examine the impact of birth date and year group on PE

attainment, while Chi-square analyses examined the relationship between date of

birth and school sport representation.

Results

Attainment in physical education

A two way between groups ANCOVA examined the impact of birth date and year upon

PE attainment. Analyses identified main effects for both birth date (F (3, 608) 4.71,

p , 0.01) and year (F (2, 608) 158.44, p , 0.001). With the exceptions of Quartile

2 (December–February birth-dates) in Years 7 and 8, results tend to exhibit a relatively

Relative age effect in physical education and sport 271

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constant RAE upon attainment with higher scores in PE attainment gained by those

born in the first quartile of an academic year cohort and by those pupils who have

spent a greater amount of time (years) within the secondary school curriculum.

Figure 1 highlights mean attainment scores in PE according to birth date and year.

Interaction effects between birth date and year were not evident. However, inter-

actions were identified for year and gender (F (2, 614) 7.48, p , 0.001). Both girls

and boys displayed similar progressive improvement in PE attainment from Year 7

to 8. However, girls in Year 9 – the final year of Key Stage 3 – attained higher PE

scores (M ¼ 3.08, SD ¼ 0.45) than boys (M ¼ 2.80, SD ¼ 0.69).

Participation in sport

In the four sports examined, 19.6% of pupils in the sample represented the school in

sport participation, with 1% of pupils representing the school in more than one sport.

Figure 2 illustrates birth-date frequencies of pupils participating in school sport.

While observable differences in school sport participation according to birth date

are apparent, this distinction was not significant (x2 ¼ 5.90, p , 0.116) across all

sport. However, the combined analysis of soccer and rugby (i.e. the male sports)

identified significant over-representation of males born in the first quartile

Figure 1. Graph illustrating PE attainment across years of school as a function of birth date

Figure 2. Graph illustrating birth date (quartile) frequency according to school sport participation

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(x2 ¼ 10.5, p , 0.01). Separate analyses of the female sports (i.e. netball and round-

ers) did not identify a significant over-representation (p , 0.405).

Discussion

RAE prevalence within school PE attainment and school sport representation is high-

lighted by these new findings. Across Key Stage 3, PE attainment was influenced by

birth-date and length of time in school, illustrating an attainment advantage to only

relatively older (i.e. first quartile) pupils within year groups. However, regardless of

relative age, relatively older pupils within a year group (e.g. September–November

born in Year 7) did not attain higher than the youngest pupils of a more elder year

group (e.g. June–August born in Year 8), demonstrating the importance of additional

time in school and suggesting ‘year group specificity’ to the relative age advantage.

This trend may reflect the benefit of extended time for pupil maturation and affor-

dance of greater opportunities for experience and practice in PE.

In relating present findings with the RAE influence on PE attainment identified by

Bell et al. (1997) during the later stages of secondary education, the assertion that

RAEs are prevalent across secondary school PE is supported. RAEs may not only

first develop in primary education, but may develop and persist across compulsory edu-

cation; especially within disciplinary areas such as physical education, where assessment

is related to physical competencies. However, contrary to Bell et al. (1997) and despite

relatively younger pupils (i.e. Quartile 4) attaining consistently lower than older pupils

(i.e. Quartile 1), present findings do not exhibit a stable, progressively declining linear

trend across quartiles for PE attainment. This may be evident for several reasons. For

instance, the present study contained a significantly lower sample size and examined a

population on the cusp of entering the chronological years (i.e. 12–14) associated with

puberty—a period of high biological maturity variation. Alternatively, inconsistencies

may indicate that biological maturity was not the only variable influencing attainment.

For instance, some pupils outside school contexts may have accumulated greater pre-

vious experience and practice in physical activities, gaining a skill competency

advantage.

Unlike Wilson’s (1999) study, significant RAEs were not found for school sport

representation across sports. Significant over-representations of birth-date were

only identified in the boys’ sports of soccer and rugby. The inconsistency of RAEs

in sport representation may be explained by the number of participants competing

for representation and the physical demands of the sports analysed. Across year

groups soccer and rugby reported a fixed number of places available for team rep-

resentation. It is possible that these teams attracted greater interest from pupils,

thereby increasing the likelihood of competition for places. Also, these sports may

rely more on maturity dependent physical attributes such as strength, power and

endurance for performance success. Based on their review of literature, Musch and

Grondin (2001) stated that the presence of RAEs is dependent upon competition

for places in sports contexts. If competition is present, individuals with the most desir-

able attributes and skills for performance can be selected, whereas selection of

Relative age effect in physical education and sport 273

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individuals with particular attributes cannot occur if minimal pupils participate. RAE

presence in school sport is therefore conditional, reliant upon pupil interest and selec-

tion systems for the limited number of places on a team.

Notwithstanding these findings, caution should be raised regarding the nature of

data collated, as PE attainment data may be subject to assessment bias. From analysis

of attainment across year groups, unexpected leaps in mean attainment from year to

year are apparent, instead of progressive inclines in attainment across relative age and

time. Whilst possibly the result of sudden biological development associated with

puberty, these may also be the result—intentionally or unintentionally—of external

pressures and/or internal biasing in assessment where year groups are expected to

achieve particular PE attainment levels. Possible inflation or deflation of attainment

according to relative maturity cannot be discounted as school sport representation

data suggest that teachers may select pupils based on notions that advanced physical

attributes correlate with sport performance. Of course, these explanations require ver-

ification; however, if research is to establish whether biological maturity is the most

prominent factor in attainment and selection bias leading to RAEs, future method-

ologies are advised to consider the incorporation of more objective performance

and biological maturity measures. More generally, existing RAE related research

can be criticised for its atheoretical approach and descriptive concentration upon

identifying the effect, as opposed to determining the specific causes and consequences

of RAEs using interpretative and inferential forms of analyses. For instance, consist-

ent feedback and reinforcement via assessment, attainment and selection may be

affirming pupil’s perceptions of their skill and ability. Although there is some evidence

to suggest RAEs have a detrimental effect on psychosocial development and sub-

sequent behaviour in relatively younger members of year group cohorts (Thompson

et al., 1999) further investigation is required. Collectively, the wealth of descriptive

research on RAEs indicates that the long-term consequences of RAE could be con-

siderable, reinforcing the need for examinations of the growing child and their inter-

actions within the contexts of education and youth sport.

In sum, the present findings suggest current age-grouping strategies may be com-

pounding RAEs inside and outside the classroom. School physical education and

sport environments may be facilitating attainment and representation for the rela-

tively few older individuals in each year group, whilst simultaneously disaffecting a

high proportion of relatively younger pupils. Whether such a high prevalence is appar-

ent within and across disciplinary areas remains to be clarified. Schools can benefit

from an increased awareness of RAEs, as strategies that facilitate additional time

and practice to reduce potential differences in attainment for relatively younger

members of a year group can be considered, acknowledging potential variability in

attainment due to relative age differences. With regards to sport representation,

schools can consider their selection and provision strategies, determining whether

present practice provides a relative age advantage, reinforcing the proficiencies of

older more mature pupils. Strategies that reduce the likelihood of selection and identi-

fication based solely on physical maturity should be encouraged. Where competition

for places is evident, schools should aim to maximise sport participation and consider

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revised grouping strategies that negate relative age differences. More extensively,

interventions that seek to reduce RAEs and associative consequences within schools

and across contexts should be applied and evaluated.

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