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Religious Traditions Religious Traditions in the Roman Empire in the Roman Empire 1. 1. Esoteric Wisdom Esoteric Wisdom Literature Literature 2. 2. Egypt, Judea, Persia Egypt, Judea, Persia 3. 3. 2. Wonder healers 2. Wonder healers

Religious Traditions in the Roman Empire

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Religious Traditions in the Roman Empire. Esoteric Wisdom Literature Egypt, Judea, Persia 2. Wonder healers. Religious options in the Roman Empire. Wide variety; embracing two broad categories: - - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

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Page 1: Religious Traditions in the Roman Empire

Religious Traditions in Religious Traditions in the Roman Empirethe Roman Empire

1.1. Esoteric Wisdom LiteratureEsoteric Wisdom Literature

2.2. Egypt, Judea, PersiaEgypt, Judea, Persia

3.3. 2. Wonder healers2. Wonder healers

Page 2: Religious Traditions in the Roman Empire

Religious options in the Roman Religious options in the Roman EmpireEmpire

Wide variety; embracing two broad Wide variety; embracing two broad categories: - categories: -

1. esoteric wisdom1. esoteric wisdom (can be (can be understood by only a few initiates; understood by only a few initiates; was exotic and mysterious; included was exotic and mysterious; included magicmagic

2. 2. cultscults with claims to special with claims to special connection with divine.connection with divine.

Page 3: Religious Traditions in the Roman Empire

Esoteric wisdom literature Esoteric wisdom literature

PseudoepigraphaPseudoepigrapha (writings with false (writings with false attribution) attribution)

= form of literature published under a = form of literature published under a particular name (i.e. Pythagoras, 6particular name (i.e. Pythagoras, 6thth century century BC philosopher) but written by other authors BC philosopher) but written by other authors

widespread phenomenon in Graeco-Roman widespread phenomenon in Graeco-Roman

antiquityantiquity Played important role in spreading ‘oriental’ Played important role in spreading ‘oriental’

wisdomwisdom

Page 4: Religious Traditions in the Roman Empire

The Egyptian traditionThe Egyptian tradition

Very attractive - hieroglyphs were mysterious in Very attractive - hieroglyphs were mysterious in themselves; enormous antiquitythemselves; enormous antiquity

Exotic representation of gods (animal heads)Exotic representation of gods (animal heads) Temple ceremonies hidden from ordinary eyesTemple ceremonies hidden from ordinary eyes A secretive priestly caste trained in millennia-old A secretive priestly caste trained in millennia-old

traditions kept secret from ordinary peopletraditions kept secret from ordinary people

Egyptian priests capitalized on Graeco-Roman Egyptian priests capitalized on Graeco-Roman fascination with all things Egyptian – worked as fascination with all things Egyptian – worked as free-lance wise men and wonder workersfree-lance wise men and wonder workers

Became stock characters in literature: Zatchlas in Became stock characters in literature: Zatchlas in Apuleius calls back the soul of a dead man (2.28)Apuleius calls back the soul of a dead man (2.28)

Page 5: Religious Traditions in the Roman Empire

Zatchlas - an Egyptian Zatchlas - an Egyptian prophetprophet

“ “ We have here in Zatchlas of Egypt a We have here in Zatchlas of Egypt a prophet of the first rank. He has already prophet of the first rank. He has already agreed with me a large fee to bring back the agreed with me a large fee to bring back the soul of the deceased from the Underworld soul of the deceased from the Underworld for a short while and restore his body to for a short while and restore his body to life.” So saying he led forward a young man life.” So saying he led forward a young man dressed in a linen tunic and palm-leaf dressed in a linen tunic and palm-leaf sandals with his head shaved bare. sandals with his head shaved bare. Repeatedly he kissed the man’s hands and Repeatedly he kissed the man’s hands and touched his knees in supplication. ‘Have touched his knees in supplication. ‘Have pity, O Priest,’ he said, ‘ have piety by the pity, O Priest,’ he said, ‘ have piety by the stars of heaven, by the infernal powers, by stars of heaven, by the infernal powers, by the natural elements, …. the natural elements, …. (Apuleius, The (Apuleius, The Golden Ass 2.28) Golden Ass 2.28)

Page 6: Religious Traditions in the Roman Empire

Out of EgyptOut of Egypt Cult of Isis widely popular in part because of its Cult of Isis widely popular in part because of its

Egyptian elementsEgyptian elements Temples with ostentatious Egyptian décor, priests of Temples with ostentatious Egyptian décor, priests of

cult shaved heads, wore linen robes of traditional cult shaved heads, wore linen robes of traditional Egyptian priestsEgyptian priests

Large collection of texts in Greek claiming to transmit Large collection of texts in Greek claiming to transmit ancient Egyptian wisdomancient Egyptian wisdom

pseudepigrapha pseudepigrapha werewere associated with Hermes associated with Hermes Trismegistos (Thrice-Greatest-Hermes) = Greek Trismegistos (Thrice-Greatest-Hermes) = Greek name for Egyptian god Thothname for Egyptian god Thoth

Most famous of these ‘Hermetic’ texts deal with Most famous of these ‘Hermetic’ texts deal with nature of cosmos and role of humanity (later popular nature of cosmos and role of humanity (later popular with philosophers of the Italian Rennaissance)with philosophers of the Italian Rennaissance)

Hermetic texts deal with wide variety of topics: Hermetic texts deal with wide variety of topics: spells, rituals, astrology, alchemy, medicine, spells, rituals, astrology, alchemy, medicine,

Page 7: Religious Traditions in the Roman Empire

Temple of Isis in Philae Temple of Isis in Philae (Egypt)(Egypt)

Page 8: Religious Traditions in the Roman Empire

Temple of Isis in PompeiiTemple of Isis in Pompeii

Page 9: Religious Traditions in the Roman Empire

Judaean TraditionJudaean Tradition

Similar appeal as Egyptian tradition: exotic Similar appeal as Egyptian tradition: exotic customs, enormous antiquity, sacred scriptures customs, enormous antiquity, sacred scriptures written in strange, mysterious languagewritten in strange, mysterious language

had distinctive philosophical appeal (like early had distinctive philosophical appeal (like early Greek philosophy) criticizing Greek tradition Greek philosophy) criticizing Greek tradition about gods, especially anthropomorphism and about gods, especially anthropomorphism and gods’ immoral actions. Had developed concept of gods’ immoral actions. Had developed concept of divine as beyond human understanding: divine divine as beyond human understanding: divine was perfect and good, remote, yet deeply was perfect and good, remote, yet deeply concerned with human moralityconcerned with human morality

Note: Judaean tradition conformed to the Note: Judaean tradition conformed to the philosophical conception of the divine as philosophical conception of the divine as developed by the Greek philosophers developed by the Greek philosophers

Page 10: Religious Traditions in the Roman Empire

Judaean tradition Judaean tradition Centrality of scripture in Judaean tradition – well suited to Centrality of scripture in Judaean tradition – well suited to

the creation of the creation of pseudepigraphapseudepigrapha Popular genres in the Roman period: Popular genres in the Roman period: revelations received by a notable figure of Israelite past revelations received by a notable figure of Israelite past apocalypse (from Greek: apocalypse (from Greek: apokalypsis apokalypsis = uncovering), = uncovering),

concerned with secrets of heavenly realm, divine judgment, concerned with secrets of heavenly realm, divine judgment, end of world end of world

Early example = Book of Daniel; later works written under Early example = Book of Daniel; later works written under names of Enoch, Abraham, Baruch, Ezra.names of Enoch, Abraham, Baruch, Ezra.

Primary audience members of Judaean traditionPrimary audience members of Judaean tradition OtherOther pseudegrapha pseudegrapha represent more widespread esoteric represent more widespread esoteric

traditions: astrological treatise under name of Shem (one of traditions: astrological treatise under name of Shem (one of the sons of Noah); spells and ritual lore often ascribed to the sons of Noah); spells and ritual lore often ascribed to Moses or SolomonMoses or Solomon

Example: The Eighth Book of Moses provide directions for Example: The Eighth Book of Moses provide directions for complex ritual intended to cause the supreme god of the complex ritual intended to cause the supreme god of the cosmos to appear before the person who performs it cosmos to appear before the person who performs it

Page 11: Religious Traditions in the Roman Empire

PGM IV.850-929, PGM IV.850-929,

Charm of SolomonCharm of Solomon that produces a trance (works both on that produces a trance (works both on boys and on adults):boys and on adults):

I swear to you by the holy gods and the heavenly gods not I swear to you by the holy gods and the heavenly gods not to share the procedure of Solomon with anyone and to share the procedure of Solomon with anyone and certainly not to use it for something questionable unless a certainly not to use it for something questionable unless a matter of necessity forces you, lest perchance wrath be matter of necessity forces you, lest perchance wrath be preserved for you.preserved for you.

Formula to be spoken:[ formula ] …Hear me, that is, my Formula to be spoken:[ formula ] …Hear me, that is, my holy voice, because I call upon your holy names, and reveal holy voice, because I call upon your holy names, and reveal to me concerning the things which I want, through the NN to me concerning the things which I want, through the NN man or little boy, for otherwise I will not defend your holy man or little boy, for otherwise I will not defend your holy and undefiled name…Come to me through the NN man or and undefiled name…Come to me through the NN man or little boy and tell me accurately since I speak your names little boy and tell me accurately since I speak your names which thrice-greatest Hermes wrote in Heliopolis with which thrice-greatest Hermes wrote in Heliopolis with hieroglyphic letters ….formula…hieroglyphic letters ….formula…

Page 12: Religious Traditions in the Roman Empire

Persian TraditionPersian Tradition Persian sage Persian sage ZoroasterZoroaster the most prominent the most prominent

– wide range of texts, including astrology– wide range of texts, including astrology Ostanes,Ostanes, asociated with treatises on asociated with treatises on

alchemy and occult, the uses of plants and alchemy and occult, the uses of plants and gemsgems

Hystspes,Hystspes, the supposed author of an the supposed author of an apocalypseapocalypse

Astrampsychos,Astrampsychos, credited with popular do- credited with popular do-it-yourself book of oraclesit-yourself book of oracles

Cult of MithrasCult of Mithras, ancient Iranian deity , ancient Iranian deity Mithra, worship survived in Asia Minor into Mithra, worship survived in Asia Minor into Roman period; became popular mystery cult Roman period; became popular mystery cult especially with Roman soldiersespecially with Roman soldiers

Page 13: Religious Traditions in the Roman Empire

Cult of MithrasCult of Mithras Unusual cult: no public elements, no temples, all Unusual cult: no public elements, no temples, all

cult activities restricted to male initiatescult activities restricted to male initiates Small group of all male initiates met in Small group of all male initiates met in

underground chambers for communal meal and underground chambers for communal meal and cult ceremonies; very popular among Roman cult ceremonies; very popular among Roman soldierssoldiers

Initiates passed through a hierarchy of seven Initiates passed through a hierarchy of seven grades: one was called ‘Persian’grades: one was called ‘Persian’

Chief decoration of meeting place was depiction Chief decoration of meeting place was depiction of Mithras killing a bull and dressed in of Mithras killing a bull and dressed in stereotyped “Persian” clothing: long trousers, full stereotyped “Persian” clothing: long trousers, full tunic with long sleeves, and so-called “Phrygian” tunic with long sleeves, and so-called “Phrygian” cap. No textual sources for relief. cap. No textual sources for relief.

Page 14: Religious Traditions in the Roman Empire

MithrasMithras

Page 15: Religious Traditions in the Roman Empire

Divinely inspired religious Divinely inspired religious leaders leaders

Every person could pray and make offerings and Every person could pray and make offerings and even interact with gods through oracles, dreams, even interact with gods through oracles, dreams, visionsvisions

Some people claimed a special connection with Some people claimed a special connection with the divine which gave them special insights and the divine which gave them special insights and abilities; were considered superior to ordinary abilities; were considered superior to ordinary mortals by their followers; credited with abilities mortals by their followers; credited with abilities to perform miracles and inspired teachings to perform miracles and inspired teachings

Source difficulties: accounts grew more elaborate Source difficulties: accounts grew more elaborate over time; surviving accounts are either over time; surviving accounts are either completely positive or completely negative;completely positive or completely negative;

Many were highly controversial figures;Many were highly controversial figures; Roman elite perceived them as threat to their Roman elite perceived them as threat to their

religious authority.religious authority.

Page 16: Religious Traditions in the Roman Empire

Jesus of NazarethJesus of Nazareth By far the most famous and most controversial of religious By far the most famous and most controversial of religious

leadersleaders Our knowledge comes almost entirely from accounts of his Our knowledge comes almost entirely from accounts of his

sayings and deeds (gospels) that circulated among his sayings and deeds (gospels) that circulated among his followers.followers.

Most scholars agree, earliest accounts were composed 40 Most scholars agree, earliest accounts were composed 40 years after his death; impossible to determine which years after his death; impossible to determine which elements go back to historical Jesus, and what are later elements go back to historical Jesus, and what are later ideas of his followers. ideas of his followers.

Christian sources depict Jesus as wonder-worker, healing Christian sources depict Jesus as wonder-worker, healing the sick, casting out demons, even raising the dead;the sick, casting out demons, even raising the dead;

As moral teacher who emphasized compassion for poor and As moral teacher who emphasized compassion for poor and outcast;outcast;

As prophet of a coming ‘Kingdom of God”, and as himself as As prophet of a coming ‘Kingdom of God”, and as himself as divine.divine.

Page 17: Religious Traditions in the Roman Empire

Sources for historical Jesus:Sources for historical Jesus:Paul of Tarsus ( 5-67 CE)Paul of Tarsus ( 5-67 CE)

Few non-Christian sources survived; Jesus wrote nothing; Few non-Christian sources survived; Jesus wrote nothing; Evidence that he raised strong opposition: Tacitus, Annals 15.44.3: Evidence that he raised strong opposition: Tacitus, Annals 15.44.3:

“in the reign of Tiberius he was executed by the procurator “in the reign of Tiberius he was executed by the procurator Pontius Pilatus”.Pontius Pilatus”.

Paul of Tarsus (town in Cilicia) originally opponent of Jesus Paul of Tarsus (town in Cilicia) originally opponent of Jesus followers; had r religious experience which he interpreted as followers; had r religious experience which he interpreted as revelation of Jesus Christ, presented himself as Christ’s divinely revelation of Jesus Christ, presented himself as Christ’s divinely appointed representative to non-Judaeans (Paul, Letter to appointed representative to non-Judaeans (Paul, Letter to Galatians 1.11-17)Galatians 1.11-17)

One of few we have first-hand evidence of; wrote letters to One of few we have first-hand evidence of; wrote letters to followers in Asia Minor, Macedonia, Greece, and Rome (although followers in Asia Minor, Macedonia, Greece, and Rome (although some Pauline letters are clearly some Pauline letters are clearly pseudepigrapha).pseudepigrapha).

Central message of Paul’s letters: faith in Christ would free people Central message of Paul’s letters: faith in Christ would free people from control of certain negative forces, usually identified as sin, from control of certain negative forces, usually identified as sin, but sometimes associated with external superhuman powers.but sometimes associated with external superhuman powers.

Author of Author of Acts of Apostles Acts of Apostles depicts Paul as a wonder-worker, depicts Paul as a wonder-worker, striking a rival with blindness (13.6-12), driving out demons striking a rival with blindness (13.6-12), driving out demons (16.16-18) - (16.16-18) -

Executed by Roman authorities in early 67 CEExecuted by Roman authorities in early 67 CE

Page 18: Religious Traditions in the Roman Empire

Apollonius of TyanaApollonius of Tyana Wandering Pythagorean philosopher in 1Wandering Pythagorean philosopher in 1stst century CE century CE Have account of his life by Philostratus, early 3Have account of his life by Philostratus, early 3rdrd

century CE: depicted as ascetic who rejected animal century CE: depicted as ascetic who rejected animal sacrifice and eating of meat; as moral teacher and sacrifice and eating of meat; as moral teacher and religious reformer, as wonder-worker who could religious reformer, as wonder-worker who could prophesy future, drive away evil spirits, raise the prophesy future, drive away evil spirits, raise the dead.dead.

Was arrested and tried before the Emperor Domitian, Was arrested and tried before the Emperor Domitian, and is said to have simply ‘vanished’ from the and is said to have simply ‘vanished’ from the courtroom and reappeared to his followers in another courtroom and reappeared to his followers in another city. Note how new myths developed.city. Note how new myths developed.

His followers regarded him as His followers regarded him as theiostheios = god-like = god-like Opponents call him Opponents call him magosmagos and a quack and a quack

Page 19: Religious Traditions in the Roman Empire

Common characteristics ofCommon characteristics ofDivinely inspired religious Divinely inspired religious

leadersleaders Figures present differences but also similaritiesFigures present differences but also similarities had religious authority but did had religious authority but did notnot hold official hold official

priesthoodspriesthoods believed to have privileged access to divine believed to have privileged access to divine

power and knowledgepower and knowledge Overlap between claims to special connections to Overlap between claims to special connections to

divine and esoteric traditions (mysterious/known divine and esoteric traditions (mysterious/known by few initiates/magic)by few initiates/magic)

example: Apollonius was a follower of example: Apollonius was a follower of Phythagoras and was said to have visited Phythagoras and was said to have visited ‘oriental sages’; Jesus and Paul were exponents of ‘oriental sages’; Jesus and Paul were exponents of Judaean traditions;Judaean traditions;

All had distinct appeal and provided distinctive All had distinct appeal and provided distinctive religious optionsreligious options

Page 20: Religious Traditions in the Roman Empire

What did they have to offer?What did they have to offer? We have very little evidence to determine Roman’s We have very little evidence to determine Roman’s

spiritual needs, but evidence tells us what religious spiritual needs, but evidence tells us what religious options, the various cults, had to offer options, the various cults, had to offer

1. alternative and more effective ways of addressing 1. alternative and more effective ways of addressing concerns (including health) than traditional religion concerns (including health) than traditional religion

2. intensification of traditional religious experience; 2. intensification of traditional religious experience; a more profound encounter with divine, or unusually a more profound encounter with divine, or unusually intimate relationship with deity that provided special intimate relationship with deity that provided special blessings in life and after deathblessings in life and after death

3. new models of the cosmos and new 3. new models of the cosmos and new understanding of human role within it; provided new understanding of human role within it; provided new types of salvation previously unknown.types of salvation previously unknown.

Often they offered all three categoriesOften they offered all three categories

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Alternative and more effectiveAlternative and more effectivetraditional benefitstraditional benefits

Tacitus, Annals 12.22 Tacitus, Annals 12.22 ““Agrippina hated Lollia Paulina who was a rival for the Agrippina hated Lollia Paulina who was a rival for the

emperor’s hand, and Agrippina was a relentless enemy. In emperor’s hand, and Agrippina was a relentless enemy. In this same year she found an accuser to prosecute Lollia. this same year she found an accuser to prosecute Lollia. The charges were association with Chaldaean astrologers The charges were association with Chaldaean astrologers and magicians, and the consultation of Apollo’s statue at and magicians, and the consultation of Apollo’s statue at Clarus concerning Claudius’ marriage. The emperor did not Clarus concerning Claudius’ marriage. The emperor did not give the defendant a hearing. He himself spoke at length give the defendant a hearing. He himself spoke at length about her noble connections, ..her mother, sister of Lucius about her noble connections, ..her mother, sister of Lucius Volusius Saturninus, ……but he added that her projects Volusius Saturninus, ……but he added that her projects were a national danger and that her potentialities for were a national danger and that her potentialities for mischief must be eliminated . She must….have her mischief must be eliminated . She must….have her property confiscated and leave Italy.”property confiscated and leave Italy.”

Note: Note: both traditional and alternative methods were both traditional and alternative methods were applied in this case : Chaldaeans, applied in this case : Chaldaeans, magimagi, and highly , and highly respectable Greek oracle of Apollo all were forms of respectable Greek oracle of Apollo all were forms of divination.divination.

Page 22: Religious Traditions in the Roman Empire

concerns for healthconcerns for health

major reason for turning to the godsmajor reason for turning to the godsEqually prominent in alternative Equally prominent in alternative

religious options religious options Greek Magical Papyri (a book of Greek Magical Papyri (a book of

spells compiled 3spells compiled 3rdrd century CE) century CE) include prescriptions for treating a include prescriptions for treating a wide range of illnesses, including wide range of illnesses, including scorpion stings, headache, cough, scorpion stings, headache, cough, swollen testicles, fever , etc.swollen testicles, fever , etc.

Page 23: Religious Traditions in the Roman Empire

A prayer for the ‘wandering A prayer for the ‘wandering womb’womb’

““I conjure you, O Womb, by the one I conjure you, O Womb, by the one established over the Abyss, before heaven, established over the Abyss, before heaven, earth, sea, light, or darkness came to be; earth, sea, light, or darkness came to be; who created the angels, being foremost, who created the angels, being foremost, amichamchou and chouchao cheroei amichamchou and chouchao cheroei oueiacho odou proseiogges, and who sit oueiacho odou proseiogges, and who sit above the cherubim …that you return again above the cherubim …that you return again to your seat…Hallelujah! Amen!’ Write this to your seat…Hallelujah! Amen!’ Write this on a tin tablet and clothe it in seven on a tin tablet and clothe it in seven colours.’” (PGM VII.260-71) colours.’” (PGM VII.260-71)

Page 24: Religious Traditions in the Roman Empire

Powers of HealingPowers of Healing

Power of healing often attributed to those with Power of healing often attributed to those with special connections to the divine: Gospel of Mark special connections to the divine: Gospel of Mark recounts how Jesus healed a leper (1.40), a recounts how Jesus healed a leper (1.40), a paralytic (2.1-12), man with a withered arm (3.1-paralytic (2.1-12), man with a withered arm (3.1-5), woman with hemorrhages (5.25-34), etc., 5), woman with hemorrhages (5.25-34), etc., similar feats by Peter’similar feats by Peter’

Apollonius of Tyana said to have healed a lame Apollonius of Tyana said to have healed a lame man, a blind man, and a paralytic (Philostratus, man, a blind man, and a paralytic (Philostratus, Life of Apollonius of Tyana 3.39); also foretold a Life of Apollonius of Tyana 3.39); also foretold a plague at Ephesus and could later identify the plague at Ephesus and could later identify the demonic source (many people believed demonic source (many people believed malevolent spirits as cause for illness, especially malevolent spirits as cause for illness, especially mental illnessmental illness

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Advice and insight into futureAdvice and insight into future

Another major reason to turn to both Another major reason to turn to both traditional and alternative religions traditional and alternative religions

Greek Magical Papyri spells include Greek Magical Papyri spells include instruction for – direct visions, dream instruction for – direct visions, dream oracles, lamp divination, saucer oracles, lamp divination, saucer divination, or (Solomon example divination, or (Solomon example earlier) a boy or man is put into earlier) a boy or man is put into trance to act as mouthpiece of god to trance to act as mouthpiece of god to give advice and foretell the future)give advice and foretell the future)

Page 26: Religious Traditions in the Roman Empire

Other (not so friendly) reasons Other (not so friendly) reasons for turning to alternative for turning to alternative

religionsreligions Unacceptable aims included to constrain or Unacceptable aims included to constrain or

harm opponents/rivals, or inspire sexual harm opponents/rivals, or inspire sexual passion in someonepassion in someone

Binding spells, both present in magical Binding spells, both present in magical papyri and in curse tablets (small lead papyri and in curse tablets (small lead sheets inscribed with ritual formulae and sheets inscribed with ritual formulae and placed underground, sometimes in a grave.placed underground, sometimes in a grave.

Example, binding spells on favoured sports Example, binding spells on favoured sports teamteam

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Spell on a chariot teamSpell on a chariot team

“ “ you holy angels, ambush and you holy angels, ambush and restrain them, now attack, bind, restrain them, now attack, bind, overturn, cut up chop into pieces the overturn, cut up chop into pieces the horses and the charioteers of the horses and the charioteers of the Blue colors Blue colors (trans. Gager 1992: no. 5) (trans. Gager 1992: no. 5)

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Sexual desireSexual desire

Many examples in magical papyri and curse tablets Many examples in magical papyri and curse tablets of spells were intended to attract a desired person.of spells were intended to attract a desired person.

A curse tablet recording a prayer of a woman who A curse tablet recording a prayer of a woman who tried to win back a man who broke up with her: tried to win back a man who broke up with her:

““I invoke you, spirit (I invoke you, spirit (daimoniondaimonion) who lies here, by ) who lies here, by the holy name the god of Abraham and the god of the holy name the god of Abraham and the god of Jacob, god of Israma, hear the honored, dreadful, Jacob, god of Israma, hear the honored, dreadful, and great name, go away to Urbanus, to whom and great name, go away to Urbanus, to whom Urbana gave birth and bring him to Domitiana, to Urbana gave birth and bring him to Domitiana, to whom Candida gave birth, so that loving, frantic, whom Candida gave birth, so that loving, frantic, and sleepless with love and desire for her, he may and sleepless with love and desire for her, he may beg her to return to his house and become his beg her to return to his house and become his wife” (trans. Gager 1992: no. 36)wife” (trans. Gager 1992: no. 36)