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November 2009, Wellington, New Zealand | RepoRt 111 e31(111) ReVIeW oF pARt 8 oF tHe CRIMeS ACt 1961: CRIMeS AGAINSt tHe peRSoN

ReVIeW oF pARt 8 oF tHe CRIMeS ACt 1961: CRIMeS AGAINSt ... · Review of Part 8 of the Crimes Act 1961: Crimes against the person iii. In 2007 the Law Commission received a reference

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November 2009, Wellington, New Zealand | R e p o R t 1 1 1

e31(111)

ReVIeW oF pARt 8 oF tHe CRIMeS ACt 1961:

CRIMeS AGAINSt tHe peRSoN

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November2009,Wellington,NewZealand|R E P O R T 1 1 1

REVIEWOFPART8OFTHECRIMESACT1961:

CRIMESAGAINSTTHEPERSON

E31(111)

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TheLawCommissionisanindependent,publiclyfunded,centraladvisorybodyestablishedbystatutetoundertakethesystematicreview,reformanddevelopmentofthelawofNewZealand.Itspurposeistohelpachievelawthatisjust,principled,andaccessible,andthatreflectstheheritageandaspirationsofthepeoplesofNewZealand.

The Commissioners are:

RightHonourableSirGeoffreyPalmerSC–President

DrWarrenYoung–Deputy President

EmeritusProfessorJohnBurrowsQC

GeorgeTannerQC

ValSim

TheGeneralManageroftheLawCommissionisBrigidCorcoran

TheofficeoftheLawCommissionisatLevel19,HPTower,171FeatherstonStreet,Wellington

Postaladdress:POBox2590,Wellington6140,NewZealand

DocumentExchangeNumber:sp23534

Telephone:(04)473-3453,Facsimile:(04)471-0959

Email:[email protected]

Internet:www.lawcom.govt.nz

NationalLibraryofNewZealandCataloguing-in-PublicationData

ReviewofPart8oftheCrimesAct1961:crimesagainsttheperson.

(LawCommissionreport;111)

ISBN978-1-877316-81-4(pbk)

ISBN978-1-877316-78-4(internet)

1.NewZealand—CrimesAct1961.2.Offensesagainstthe

person—NewZealand.I.NewZealand.LawCommission.

II.Series:NewZealand.LawCommission.Report;111.

345.93025—dc22

Report/LawCommission,Wellington,2009

ISSN0113-2334(print)

ISSN1177-6196(online)

ThisreportmaybecitedasNZLCR111

ThisreportisavailableontheLawCommission’swebsite:www.lawcom.govt.nz

i i Law Commiss ion Report

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TheHonSimonPowerMinisterResponsiblefortheLawCommissionParliamentBuildingsWELLINGTON

30November2009

DearMinister

NZLCR111–REVIEWOFPART8OFTHECRIMESACT1961:CRIMESAGAINSTTHEPERSON

IampleasedtosubmittoyouLawCommissionReport111,Review of Part 8 of the Crimes Act 1961: Crimes Against the Person,whichwesubmitundersection16oftheLawCommissionAct1985.

Yourssincerely

Geoffrey Palmer President

Letter of transmittaL

i i iReview of Part 8 of the Cr imes Act 1961: Cr imes against the person

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In2007theLawCommissionreceivedareferencefromthegovernmenttoreviewPart8oftheCrimesAct.Part8contains“crimesagainsttheperson”,includinghomicide,assault,andinjuryoffences.Intwopreviousprojectsundertaken by the Law Commission – drafting sentencing guidelines,andthereviewofmaximumpenalties–wehadencounteredanomaliesinthePart8offencesthatmadeitdifficulttocarryoutthenecessarywork.

In2008,thenewNationalgovernmentannouncedthatoneofitsprioritiesinthecriminaljusticeareawasdevelopinganappropriateresponsetoviolenceagainstchildren.BecausesomeofthePart8provisionsrelatetooffendingagainstchildren,thegovernmentinvitedustoexpediteourworkonthisproject.

Inundertakingthiswork,wehavethereforepursuedthreeobjectives.First,wehaveaddressedtheproblemsinitiallyidentified,byensuringthattheschemeofPart8offencesfromhomicidethroughtocommonassault–includingthe“endangering”offences(whereriskof injury is incurred,althoughinjurymaynotresult)–iscomprehensiveandcoherent.Inparticular,wehaveensuredthattheoffencestructureproperlyreflectsboththerangeofculpabilityinvolvedinviolentbehaviourandtheconsequencesarisingfromit,andhaveusedthisasabasistoensurethatmaximumpenaltiesforalloftheoffencesareallocatedonaprincipledbasis.

Secondly,wehaveconcludedthatthecurrentoffencesaddressingchildilltreatmentandneglecthaveanumberofgapsanddeficienciesanddonotattachsufficientweighttotheimportanceofchildprotection.Weproposeanexpansionofthelegaldutiesinrelationtochildren,andsomesignificantchangestocurrentoffences(includingasubstantialincreaseinthemaximumpenaltyfortheoffencethatiscurrentlytermed“crueltytoachild”).Wealsoproposethecreationofanewoffenceoffailingtoprotectachildorvulnerableadultfromtheriskofdeath,seriousinjuryorsexualassault,iftheperpetratorresidesinthesamehouseholdorresidence,hasknowledgeoftherisk,andfailstotakereasonablestepstopreventit.

Thirdly,wehaveendeavouredtoeliminateanumberofoffencesthataremoreappropriatelycoveredbyothergenericPart8offences.This includestherepealofassaultonachild,andassaultofafemalebyamale.Bothoftheseoffencesresultininconsistentchargingpracticeandsometimesinappropriateunder-charging.Wethinkitbetterthatchargesrepresenttheculpabilityrelatingtotheoffenceanditsconsequenceratherthanthestatusofthevictim.

Overall,webelievethatourrecommendedpackageofreformswillsubstantiallyimprovetheaccessibilityandfunctioningofthelawinthisveryimportantarea.

TheCommissionersresponsibleforthisreferencewereWarrenYoungandValSim.TheywereassistedbyadvisersSteveMelrose,ClaireBrowning,andZoëPrebble.

Geoffrey Palmer

President

foreword

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TheLawCommissionhasbeenaskedtoreviewtheoffencesofassaultandinjurytothepersoninPart8oftheCrimesAct,particularlysections188to194,196,and202C.Indoingso,theCommissionshouldconsider:

TheoverallschemeoftheCrimesActprovisions,andwhetheramore·coherentschemecanbedevised;Theelementsandscopeofindividualoffencesandtheirrelationshipsto·eachother;Themaximumpenaltylevelsofthese,andotheroffences,andtheirrespective·relativities;andThe implications of any proposed reforms for assault provisions in·otherlegislation.

terms of reference

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Review of Part 8 of the Crimes Act 1961: Crimes against the person

ConTenTsForeword.........................................................................................................................................ivTermsofreference...........................................................................................................................vSummary.........................................................................................................................................3

ChapTer 1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................11

Background.........................................................................................................................11Scopeofthereview............................................................................................................12Structureofthispaper.......................................................................................................13

ChapTer 2Thecoreassaultandinjuryoffences:assaultandinjuringwithintent.....................................15

Introduction.......................................................................................................................15Problemswiththecurrentlaw..........................................................................................15Thenewoffences...............................................................................................................17Section9oftheSummaryOffencesAct...........................................................................20Maximumpenalties...........................................................................................................21Otheroffences....................................................................................................................24Recommendedrepeals......................................................................................................27

ChapTer 3Specificassaults..............................................................................................................................30

Introduction.......................................................................................................................30Theadvantagesanddisadvantagesofspecificassaultprovisions...................................30ReformproposalsinNewZealandandelsewhere...........................................................31Assaultonachild...............................................................................................................32Maleassaultsfemale..........................................................................................................35Assaultsonpoliceofficers.................................................................................................37Assaultsonothersinperformanceoftheirduties...........................................................38

ChapTer 4Endangering,negligentinjury,andhomicide..............................................................................42

Thecurrentlaw.................................................................................................................42Ourapproachtotheseoffences.........................................................................................43Thementalelement...........................................................................................................43Unlawfulacts.....................................................................................................................45

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Changing“lawful”to“statutory”duty.............................................................................45Actsandomissionslikelytoinjure...................................................................................47Section160(2)(c)and(e)..................................................................................................48Maximumpenalties–newsections157Aand157B.......................................................48

ChapTer 5Illtreatmentorneglectofchildrenandothervulnerablevictims..............................................49

Introduction.......................................................................................................................49Illtreatmentorneglectofachildorvulnerableperson...........................................50Newoffenceoffailuretoprotectchildorvulnerableadult............................................55Section152–dutyofparentorguardian.........................................................................57Section151–dutyofcaregivers.......................................................................................60Section153–dutyofemployerstoprovidenecessaries.................................................61

appendiCes

appendix aAlteredprovisions..........................................................................................................................64

appendix BThedraftBill..................................................................................................................................65

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Summary

Part8of theCrimesAct1961dealswith“offencesagainst theperson”.1

Itcontainsoffencesincludingmurder,manslaughter,injuryandassault.

In2007theLawCommissionreceivedareferencefromgovernmenttoreview2

Part8oftheCrimesAct.Inlate2008,theMinisterofJusticeinvitedustoexpedite thiswork,withaparticularview toensuring that childrenareadequatelyprotectedbytheoffencescontainedinthisPart.

Inthetimeframesavailabletous,wehavenotbeenabletocomprehensively3

reviewthewholeofPart8.Theprincipalfocusofthisprojectwasonthecoreinjuryandassaultoffences;thedefinitionofhomicideandrelatedoffencesofcriminalnuisanceandnegligent injury;andoffencesaddressingchild illtreatmentandneglect.Wehavesubstantiallyrevisedtheoffencesinthesethreeareas.

Manyofthechangesthatwerecommendhave,astheirprincipalobjective,4

codificationorclarificationoftheexistinglaw.However,particularlyintheareaofchildilltreatmentandneglect,weareproposingsignificantsubstantivechanges.

AdraftCrimes(OffencesAgainstthePerson)AmendmentBillisattachedas5

AppendixBtothispaper.

Chapter 2 – The core assault and injury offences

WerecommendthatthecoreassaultandinjuryprovisionsinPart8shouldbe6

replacedbysixnewoffences:

Causingseriousinjurywithintenttoinjure;·Causingseriousinjurybyassaultinganyperson,oractingwithreckless·disregardforsafety;Causinginjurywithintenttoinjure;·Causinginjurybyassaultinganyperson,oractingwithrecklessdisregard·forsafety;Assaultwithintenttoinjure;·Commonassault.·

Thenewoffenceswouldaddressthreeproblemsthatweidentifiedwiththe7

currentprovisionsinPart8.First,thecurrentprovisionshavenoclearorganisingprinciple,eitherinthewaythattheyarestructured,orintheallocationoftheirmaximumpenalties.Secondly,theyhave“passedtheirusebydate”.Alotofthelanguageemployedintheirdraftingisoldfashionedandundulylegalistic.

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Summary

Furthermore,astheresultofjudicialinterpretationovertheyears,theirmeaningandscopearenottransparent,andtherearesubstantialoverlapsinthecoverageofanumberoftheoffences.Thirdly,thereareanumberofoffencesinPart8thatarbitrarilyelevateaspecificsetofcircumstances(eg,assaultwithaweapon)intoanelementofaseparateoffence,whenitoughttoberegardedasnomorethanoneofthewholerangeofaggravatingfactorstobedealtwithonsentencing.

Ourproposednewoffencesalladdressbothculpability(thatis,theintentor8

othermentalstateoftheoffender)andconsequence(theresultsoftheoffender’sacts).However,becauseconsequencemaybefortuitous,wehavetakentheviewthattheculpabilityoftheaccusedshouldbetheprincipalconsideration.Thus,whilethereareelementsintheoffencesaddressingbothculpabilityandconsequence,culpabilityhasbeengivengreaterweightinallocatingmaximumpenaltiestoeachoffence.

Maximum penalties

Werecommendasubstantialrevisionofthemaximumpenalties,byreference9

toamethodologythatissetoutinchapter2.Noneofthemaximaweareproposinghasdecreased,relativetocurrentmaximumpenalties.Whileanumberofthepenaltieslookquitedifferent,thedifferencesareprimarilyaconsequenceofthereorganisationoftheoffences.Thereisonlyonecoreoffenceinchapter2thathasaneffectiveincreaseinthemaximumpenalty:assaultwithintenttoinjure.

Miscellaneous offences

Chapter2 concludeswithadiscussionof fouroffences thatwepropose10

shouldberetained,andhalfadozenotherswhoserepealisrecommended.Wehaveidentifiedaneedtoretainthefollowingoffences,becausetheyaddresswhatwouldotherwisebegapsonthestatutebook:

Section197–Disabling;·Section201–Transmittingdisease;·Section202–Settingtraps;·Section204–Impedingrescue.·

Werecommendtherepealofthefollowingoffencesbecausetheyareadequately11

coveredbythecoreoffencesandarethereforeunnecessary:

Section191–Aggravatedwoundingorinjury;·Section192–Aggravatedassault;·Section194–Assaultonachild,orbyamaleonafemale;·Section198–Disablingfirearmordoingdangerousactwithintent;·Section199–Acidthrowing;·Section200–Poisoningwithintent;·Section202C–Assaultwithaweapon.·

Chapter 3 – Specific assaults

Thischapterconsiderswhenprovisionshouldbemadeforspecificassault12

offences–thatis,assaultsonparticularcategoriesofvictim,thattypicallycarryaggravatedmaximumpenalties.

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Werecommend:13

Repealingtheoffencesofassaultonachildandmaleassaultsfemaleinsection·194oftheCrimesAct;Retainingthestatusquoasregardsassaultsonpoliceofficers;·FurtherworkbyeithertheMinistryofJusticeortheLawCommissionto·rationalisethenumerousotherspecificassaultprovisionsonthestatutebook–assaultsonenforcementofficers,judges,courtstaff,andsoon.

Wedonotrecommendtheestablishmentofanynewspecificassaultoffences.14

Assault on a child

Ourrecommendationtorepealthechild-specificassaultoffenceinsection194(a)15

mightbeconsideredsurprising,inthecontextofareportthatisdirectedtoensuringthatthelegalframeworkadequatelyaddressestheilltreatmentandneglectofchildren.Butinourview,theindirectdisadvantagesofsection194(a)aresuchthatthelawwillinfactbemorerobustwithoutit.

Theprincipalargumentinfavourofestablishingaseparatevictim-specific16

offenceistosignalthatthisparticularcategoryofconductissomuchmoreseriousthanthe“normal”rangeofcriminalconductthatitrequiresaseparatelabel,andanaggravatedmaximumpenalty.However,thereareanumberofreasonswhysection194(a)doesnotadequatelyachievethispurposeandistendingtoundermineit.

Firsttheoffenceisonlyavailabletoaddresslow-leveloffendingagainstchildren.17

Moreseriousoffencesaredealtwithbyothercharges.Thiscreatesaperceptionproblem:itlooksasifthiscategoryofoffendingisnottakenseriously,contrarytotherealitythatsentencingjudgesareinfactimposingmoreseveresentencesforoffendingagainstchildrenacrossthewholerangeofcases.

Secondly,theavailabilityoftheseparateoffenceinvitesinconsistentpolice18

chargingpractice.Inparticular,itmayleadtounder-charging–thatisachargeofassaultonachildundersection194whenthefactssupportthelayingofamoreseriouscharge.Thatcontributestotheperceptionproblem.

Thirdly, thereareothervictimswhoare just asvulnerableas children,19

suchastheveryelderlyorseverelymentallyimpaired.Thereisnocaseforelevatingtheundeniablyimportantinterestsofchildrenabovethoseofequallyvulnerablevictims.

Finally,itisunnecessarytocreateavictim-specificoffencetoachieveappropriate20

sentencingoutcomes.Aspartofourreviewweundertookananalysisofsentencingoutcomesforoffendingagainstchildren.Itdemonstratedthatsentencesimposedareconsistentlymoreseverewhenchildrenarevictims,whetherornotachild-specificchargeislaid.ThefactthatthereshouldbeasentencingpremiumwhereachildvictimisinvolvedhasbeenreinforcedbyrecentamendmentstotheSentencingActthatmakeitexplicitthatthefactthatoffendingagainstachildistobetreatedasanaggravatingfactor.

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Summary

We note that our proposed changes to section 195 of the Crimes Act,21

whichrelatestochild“cruelty”bywayofilltreatmentorneglect,wouldstillpermitthatsectiontobeusedincasesinvolvingassault.Wehaverecommendedasubstantialincreaseinthemaximumpenaltyattachingtoit.Itwouldthereforeremainopentotheprosecution,intheabsenceofsection194,torelyuponsection195insteadifitfeltthattheculpabilityoftheconductinanygivencaserequiredanaggravatedcharge.

Male assaults female

The“maleassaults female”offence insection194(b)of theCrimesAct,22

likeassaultonachild,onlyaddressesrelativelyminorcases–theequivalentof common assault, but for the gender of the two people involved.Wheretheconductismoreserious,resultingininjurytooreventhedeathofthefemale,moreseriousgenericchargesoughttobe,andinmostcaseswouldbe,laid.Weconsiderthat,providedthemaximumpenaltyforcommonassaultisincreasedtoaddresstheculpabilityofthiscategoryofassault,theseparateoffenceisnotfulfillingausefulfunction.

Thestrongestargumentofferedforitsretentionisthatitofferstangibleevidence23

ofacriminalhistoryofthisparticularkindofhighlyundesirableconduct.However,ultimatelyeverybodywithwhomweconsultedagreedthatacriminalrecordthatreliesupontheoffenceofmaleassaultsfemaletoindicatepropensityishighlymisleading,becausetheoffenceonlycapturescasesatthelowendofthespectrumofseriousness.Ultimately,everybodyagreedthatitwouldbepreferabletodevelopamethodofrecordingsuchpropensity,coveringthewholerangeofrelevantoffences.WeunderstandthattheMinistryofJusticeandPoliceareworkingtogethertoaddressthis.

Chapter 4 – Endangering, negligent injury, and homicide

Chapter 4 recommends changes to section 160(2) of the Crimes Act,24

which defines culpable homicide, and to two other related provisions.Thesection160(2)changescodifycaselaw.Therelatedoffences–whichappearinnewsections157Aand157BoftheBilland,broadlyspeaking,relatetoendangeringandnegligentinjury–areamendedtoalignthemwithsection160.Therehavebeensomehistoricalanomaliesandinconsistenciesofapproachthatinourviewarenotjustified.Thepolicyobjectivehereissimplytoensurethatthelawisconsistent.Thethreeprovisionsnowestablishahierarchythataddressesthewholerangeofpossibleoutcomes(death,injuryorriskofinjury)thatmayrisefromunlawfulactsoromissionstoperformstatutoryduties.

Thekeychangesrecommendedinthischapterare:25

Amendingsection150AoftheCrimesAct,tocodifytheCourtofAppeal·decision inR v Powell [2002]1NZLR666(CA) thatgrossnegligenceneedstobeprovedbytheCrownincaseswhere,butforsection150A,alessermentalelementwouldsuffice.Substitutinggrossnegligencefortherecklessnessrequirementinwhatis·currentlysection145oftheCrimesAct(newsection157AinourproposeddraftBill),sothatthereisconsistencyofapproachacrossthethreeprovisions:sections160,157A,and157B.

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Defining “unlawful act” to mean “an offence in breach of any Act,·regulation,ruleorbylaw”,inordertocodifytheCourtofAppeal’sapproachinR v Myatt[1991]1NZLR674(CA),andensurethat“unlawfulact”hasthesamemeaningacrossallthreeprovisions.Requiringthatanysuchbreachalsobeonethatis,inthecircumstances,likely·tocauseinjurytoanyperson.This,too,codifiestheCourtofAppeal’sapproachinR v Myatt[1991]1NZLR674(CA);althoughtheCourtinthatcasereferred to“harm”,rather than“injury”,wedonotconsider thedifferencesignificant.Changingreferencesto“lawfulduty”to“statutoryduty”,intheinterestsof·certaintyandtransparency.Repealingsection160(2)(c)and(e).·

Chapter 5 – Ill treatment or neglect of children and other vulnerable victims

Weproposesubstantialreformstothelawsrelatingtochildneglectandill26

treatment.Thechangesweproposecanbesummarisedasfollows:

A redrafted section 195 of the Crimes Act 1961 (formerly entitled·“crueltytoachild”),addressingilltreatmentandneglectbythosewithcareorchargeofachildorvulnerableadult,withasubstantiallyincreasedmaximumpenaltyof10years.Anewoffenceforthoselivingwithachildorvulnerableadult,offailingto·takereasonablestepstoprotectsuchavictimfromanyknownriskofdeath,seriousinjuryorsexualassault.Anextensiontothescopeofthedutiesprovisionsundersections151and·152oftheCrimesAct,byintroducinganadditionalrequirementineachprovisiontotakereasonablestepstoprotectachild(section152)orvulnerableperson(section151)frominjury.

Section 195

Therearesomeaspectsofthecurrentfunctionandpurposeofsection195that27

weexplicitlydonotwishtochange:inparticular,thenotionofilltreatmentbeingsufficientlyopen-endedtoaccommodatesomeinstancesofassault;andtheabilityofajurytoassessintheround,havingregardtothetotalityofevidence,whetheracourseofconductconstitutesilltreatmentorneglect.

Werecommendfourkeychangesthatbroadenthescopeofthiscategoryof28

offending,andsignalitsverygravenature:

extension of scope to vulnerable adults.· Atpresent,section195appliesonlytochildvictims.Weconsiderthatothervulnerablevictimsareentitledtothesamelevelofprotection.Ourproposedsection195hasthereforebeenextendedtoapplytobothcategories–vulnerableadults,aswellaschildren.age of child raised, to under 18 years.· Section195currentlyappliestochildrenundertheageof16years.Inourview,thisshouldberaisedtounder18 years. We have recommended this in all of our revised offences.ItisconsistentwithNewZealand’sobligationsundertheUnitedNationsConventionontheRightsoftheChild.

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Summary

an objective gross negligence test.· TheCourtofAppealhasheldthatthecurrentrequirementthattheconductbewilfulrequiresilltreatmenttohavebeeninflicteddeliberately,withaconsciousappreciationthatitwaslikelytocauseunnecessarysuffering.Neglect,too,willonlyberegardedas“wilful”whereitisdeliberate.Thesearesubjectivetests:theyrequirethedefendant’sstateofmind tobeproved. Inpractice, thismeans that ignoranceorthoughtlessnessisadefence.Werecommendthatanyreferenceto“wilfully”shouldberemovedfromsection195.Insteadweareproposinga“grossnegligence”test.Thiswouldrequirethejuryonlytobesatisfiedthattheconductallegedwasamajordeparturefromthestandardofcaretobeexpectedofareasonableperson;ignoranceorthoughtlessnesswouldnolongerabsolveadefendantfromliability.Maximum penalty raised from 5 to 10 years.· Thecurrentmaximumpenaltyforilltreatmentandneglectofachildundersection195is5years’imprisonment.Weconsiderthatthispenaltyneedstobeconsiderablyhighertoreflecttheproperrelativitybetweenitandotheroffences.Weproposeanewmaximumprison termof10years, since theworst classof caseundersection195willbeoneinwhichthechildhasnearlydied.Furthermore,thesectionistypicallyinvokedinresponsetowhatisoftenextremelyunpleasant and grave offending, that may well have occurred over aconsiderableperiod.Theresultingconsequencesmaywellextendbeyondphysicalinjury,tolongtermpsychologicaltrauma,and/ordevelopmentalissues.Thepenaltyneedstobesufficientlyhightoaddresstheculpabilityofsuchcases.

New offence of failing to protect a child or vulnerable adult

Weproposeanewoffenceoffailingtoprotectachildorvulnerableadultfrom29

riskofdeath,seriousinjuryorsexualassault,iftheperpetratorresidesinthesamehouseholdorresidence,hasknowledgeoftherisk,andfailstotakereasonablestepstopreventit.

The offence proposed has been closely modelled on section 5 of the30

DomesticViolence,CrimeandVictimsAct2004(UK).ThereisalsoasimilarSouthAustralianprovision.

Nodutytointerveneinsuchcasespresentlyexists.Itisasituationthatfalls31

beyondthescopeofanyoftheexistingstatutoryduties,andintheabsenceofsuchaduty,thereisnocriminalliabilityforomittingtoact.Inpractice,this means that household members who are neither perpetrators of,nor(legallyspeaking)partiesto,illtreatmentorneglectcannotbeheldliablefortheirfailuretointervene,nomatterhowoutrageousorhowobvioustheilltreatmentorneglectofthechildmaybe.Wetaketheviewthatthosewholive in close proximity to a child, and are in frequent contact with thechild,haveasufficientlyclosenexustomaketheimpositionofadutyofcareappropriate.

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Theoffenceweproposewouldhavethefollowingkeyelements:32

Thevictimmustbeeitherachildundertheageof18years,oraperson·whoisvulnerablebyreasonofdetention,age,sickness,mentalimpairment,oranyotherreason;Theoffendermustbeeitheramemberofthesamehouseholdasthevictim,·orastaffmemberofaresidentialfacility,whohasfrequentcontactwiththevictim.Heorshemustbeovertheageof18years;Theoffendermustknowthatthevictimisatriskofdeath,seriousinjuryor·sexualassault,astheresultofanunlawfulactoranomissiontoperformanystatutoryduty;Theoffendermust fail to take reasonable steps toprotect thevictim·fromharm.

Extended section 151 and 152 duties

Section152imposesadutyonparentsandthose intheplaceofparents,33

to provide their children under the age of 16 years with “necessaries”.Asnotedabove(paragraph28),werecommendraisingthisage tounder18years.

Wealsorecommendextendingthescopeoftheduty.In34 R v Lunt[2004]1NZLR498(CA),theCourtofAppealheldthataparentorpersoninlocoparentisisunderadutytotakereasonablestepstoprotecthisorherchildfromtheillegal violence of any other person where such violence is foreseen orreasonablyforeseeable.

Thenewsection152dutyweproposeis35 expressedinmoregeneralterms,asadutyonaparentorpersoninplaceofaparenttotakereasonablestepstoprotecthisorherchildfrominjury.Inotherwords,thescopeofwhatweareproposingisnot,initsexpressterms,confinedto“illegalviolence”.Therealityisthatmanythingslikelytocauseinjury(ie,actualbodilyharm)toachildwillindeedamounttoillegalviolence.However,fromtimetotime,anomissiontoperformastatutorydutymaygiverisetothesamerisk.Suchanomissionisequallyculpableinourview,inthesensethattherisktothechildisthesame.Ourproposednewdutyisthereforecastintermsthatdonotexcludesuchacase.

Wenotethattheadditionalparentaldutytoprotectfromharmthatweare36

proposinghassomesimilaritytoananalogousdutyprovisioninQueensland:section286oftheCriminalCodeAct1899.

Section151oftheCrimesActappliestoanypersonwhohaschargeofanother37

vulnerableperson.Avulnerablepersonisapersonwhois“unablebyreasonofdetention,age,sickness,insanityoranyothercoursetowithdrawhimselffromsuchchargeandunabletoprovidehimselfwiththenecessariesoflife”.Section151establishesadutyonthepersonincharge,tosupplythevulnerablepersonwiththenecessariesoflife.

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Summary

Wethinkthatvulnerablepeopleareentitledtothesameprotectionaschildren.38

Wethereforeproposeanextensionofthedutyinsection151,aswithsection152.Thiswillrequirethepersonincareorchargetotakereasonablestepstoprotectavulnerablepersonintheircarefrominjury,andtoprovidethemwith“necessaries”.

Section 153 of the Crimes Act

Wearerecommendingthatsection153oftheCrimesAct,whichimposesaduty39

onemployerstoprovidefood,clothingorlodgingtoanapprenticeorservant,shouldberepealed.Thatsectionisoutdated.Itwillnolongerbenecessary,inthelightofourotherproposedchanges.

Section 10A of the Summary Offences Act

Section10A,theoffenceofill-treatmentorwilfulneglectofachild,isextremely40

rarelycharged:inthe10yearsfrom1999to2008,only30chargeswerelaid.Wehavetakencaretoframesection195inawaythatencompassesthepresentscopeofsection10A,sothatthereisasingleoffencecapableofaddressingthewholerangeofconduct.Werecommendthatsection10Ashouldberepealed.

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Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Part8of theCrimesAct1961dealswith“offencesagainst theperson”.Itcontainsoffencesincludingmurder,manslaughter,injuryandassault.

Intheinjuryandassaultcategory,whichwasaprimaryfocusforthisreview,1.2

therearebothgenerallyapplicableprovisions (eg, commonassault)andnumerousoffencesaddressingparticulartypesofcircumstances,victimsoroutcomes,suchasmaleassaultsfemale,1poisoning,2andacidthrowing.3

In2007theLawCommissionwasinvitedtoreviewPart8oftheCrimesAct.1.3

Ourtermsofreference,whicharereproducedonpage2,directedustodeterminewhetheramoresimplified,rationalandcoherentschemeofassaultandinjuryoffencescouldbedevisedforPart8.

Theimpetusforthisreviewinitiallyarosefromproblemsencounteredinthe1.4

courseoftwootherLawCommission,orLawCommission-affiliated,projects:workundertakenbytheSentencingEstablishmentUnittodraftsentencingguidelinesforPart8;andtheLawCommission’smaximumpenaltyreview.Bothprojectsidentifiedanomaliesinthescopeandcoverageoftheoffencesandtheirrespectivemaximumpenalties.TheseissuessuggestedthattherewasarealneedtoreviewandrevisetheschemeofPart8–and,indeed,thenumerousassaultandobstructionprovisionsinotherlegislation,thatsimilarlyshowsignificantvariationofapproachandwidelydifferingmaximumpenalties.

TheCrimesAct1961wascloselymodelledontheCriminalCodesof1893and1.5

1908.Anattemptwasmadein1989tosubstantiallyreformtheentire1961Act through the introduction of the Crimes Bill 1989,4 followed by theCrimesConsultativeCommittee (“CaseyCommittee”)Reporton theBillpublishedin1991.5Thisworkdidnotprogress–oratleast,notasapackage.SubstantialchangeshavebeenmadeinapiecemealfashiontootherPartsoftheAct,implementingorupdatingtheCrimesBill1989proposals.However,todate,Part8remainslargelyunchanged.

1 CrimesAct1961,s194(b).

2 CrimesAct1961,s200.

3 CrimesAct1961,s199.

4 CrimesBill1989,no152–1.

5 CrimesConsultativeCommittee Crimes Bill 1989: Report of the Crimes Consultative Committee(CrimesConsultativeCommittee,Wellington,1991).

Background

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CHAPTER 1: Introduct ion

Inlate2008,inresponsetoanumberofhighprofilecasesinvolvingtheworst1.6

formsof childneglect andnon-accidental death, theMinisterof JusticeHonSimonPowerinvitedustoexpeditethePart8review,andtohaveparticularregardtotheoffencesaimedattheprotectionofchildrenfromilltreatmentandneglect,andtheadequacyoftheirmaximumpenalties.

ThisadvicetotheMinistercompletesourwork.1.7

1.8 Not everything in Part 8 was included within the scope of our review.Inthecircumstances,therewereverysignificanttimeandresourceconstraintsthatmadeitunrealisticforustoreviewtheentirePart.

Foreaseofreferenceascheduleoftheoffencesamended,repealed,orreplaced1.9

aspartofthereviewisincludedinAppendixA.

In Part 8 but out of scope

Althoughwehaveproposedsomeamendmentstosection160(2),wedidnot1.10

attemptafirstprinciplesreviewofthelawrelatingtohomicide.Thiswouldhavebeenamajorundertakingthatwasunachievablegiventhelevelofresourceandperiodoftimeavailabletous.Forsimilarreasons,suicideandabortionwerealsoexcludedfromscope.Provocationinsection169hasalreadybeenaddressedbytheLawCommission;aBillispresentlybeforetheHousetorepealit.6

TheprovisionssurroundingfemalegenitalmutilationwereinsertedinPart8in1.11

1996.7Wefeltthattheygaverisetoconsiderationsthatwouldbebetterdealtwithseparately(issuesofculturalimperialism,internationallegalobligations,andsoon).

Webrieflyconsideredwhetherweshouldattempttodealwiththevexedissue1.12

oftheboundariesofconsenttoassaultandinjury,orleaveittocommonlawdevelopment,alongthelinessetoutbytheCourtofAppealinR v Lee.8Thisisafraughtarea,extremelydifficultasamatterofbothpolicyanddrafting,thathasbeencontroversialoverseas (although less so inNewZealand).Again,wewerenotabletoaddressitinthetimeavailable.Weare,inanycase,unconvincedthatcodificationwouldbecapableofprovidinganygreaterclarityorcertaintythantheguidancelaiddownbytheCourtofAppeal.

Culpabilitytermssuchas“intention”and“recklessness”thatappearthroughout1.13

Part8arenotcodifiedintheCrimesAct,althoughtheyarewellunderstoodatcommonlaw.GiventhatitwasnotdefensibletodefinesuchtermssolelyforPart8purposes,tacklingthemwouldhaveswiftlyevolvedintothedraftingofaGeneralPart,whichwouldhavesubstantiallyexpandedthescopeoftheprojectinawaythatwasnotfeasibleinthecircumstances.

6 Crimes(ProvocationRepeal)AmendmentBill2009,no64–1.

7 CrimesAct1961,ss204A,204B.

8 R v Lee [2006]3NZLR42(CA).

scope of the review

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Severaloffencesthatcouldnotsensiblybereviewedinisolationfromtheir1.14

widercontextwereexcluded(inparticular,sections198A,198B,202A,202B,and202BA).Broadlyspeaking,theseaddressarmsoffending.WeunderstandthatPoliceareseparatelyreviewingtheArmsAct,whichbyextension,oughttoincorporateareviewofotherarms-relatedprovisions.9

Theabductionandkidnappingoffences,andoffencesrelatingtobigamyand1.15

feignedmarriage,werealsoexcludedfromscope.Forcompleteness,wenotethatwearenotsurewhythebigamyandfeignedmarriageoffencesappearinPart8atall;theywouldseemtobemorecloselyalignedwithPart7matters.

Outside Part 8 but within scope

WeextendedthescopeofourreviewtoincludesomeprovisionsintheSummary1.16

OffencesAct1981,thatoverlappedsubstantiallywithoffencesbeingaddressedinPart8.Theseincludedsection9–commonassault,section10–assaultonapolice,prison,ortrafficofficer,andsection10A–illtreatmentorwilfulneglectofachild.

Itwasalsonecessarytoaddresssection145inPart7oftheCrimesAct,which1.17

iscloselyconnectedwithsections160and190inPart8.

InthedraftBill,consequentialamendmentsandminorchangeshavebeenmade1.18

throughouttheCrimesActtomaintainconsistencyoflanguage.

1.19 Thestructureoftheremainderofthispaperisasfollows.

Chapter2dealswithwhatwehavedubbedthecoreassaultandinjuryprovisions:1.20

current sections188,189,193and196.The chapter alsodescribesourmethodologyforreviewingthemaximumpenaltiesattachedtotheseprovisions.Asaresultofourreformproposalsinwhatarenownewsections188,189and189AofthedraftBill,wearerecommendingtherepealofanumberofexistingPart8provisions.Thesearenotedinthechapter,alongwithabriefdiscussionofafewadditionaloffencesthatweconsidereditappropriateandnecessarytoretain:disabling,infectingwithdisease,settingtraps,andimpedingrescue.

Chapter3setsoutourpolicyon“specificassaults”–thatis,assaultprovisions1.21

directed to particular classes of victim. It proposes that section 194,whichcontainsoffencesofassaultonachild,andmaleassaultsfemale,shouldberepealedanddealtwithinsteadunderthegenerallyapplicableassaultandinjuryprovisionsdiscussedinchapter2.Ourreasonsforreachingthisviewarediscussedatsomelengthinthechapter.

Chapter4discussesourproposedchangestotheoffencesofendangeringand1.22

injuringbyunlawfulact(formerlysections145and190),andthedefinitionofculpablehomicideinsection160(2)oftheCrimesActwhichaffectsthescopeofthelawofmanslaughter.Forreasonsexplainedinthechapter,weconsiderthataconsistentapproachtothesethreeprovisionsisdesirable.Ourpolicyinthisarea,ifagreedto,wouldalsonecessitatesomechangestosection150A.

9 “Lethalairgunstobereviewed”(12September2008),http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/624488(lastaccessed4August2009).

structure of this paper

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CHAPTER 1: Introduct ion

Chapter5setsoutourpolicyrelatingtotheoffencesandmaximumpenalties1.23

forchildneglectandilltreatment.Weareproposinganumberofchangestomakethelawsubstantiallymorerobust,thatarediscussedatsomelengthinthatchapter. Italsoexplainswhysection153of theCrimesAct1961(whichestablishesadutyonemployerswhohavecontractedtoprovidecertainitems,suchasfoodandlodging,toyoungemployees)willnolongerbenecessary,inthelightofourotherproposedchanges.

AdraftCrimes(OffencesAgainstthePerson)AmendmentBillisattachedas1.24

AppendixBtothispaper.

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Chapter 2The core assault and injury offences: assault and injuring with intent

2.1 Thischapterbeginswithourdiagnosisoftheproblemswiththecoreassaultandinjuryoffencesinsections188,189,193and196oftheAct.Wethenoutlinethesixnewoffenceswhichwerecommendshouldreplacethem.Weexplaintheapproachtomaximumpenaltieswehavetakeninthisreview,whichisbestillustratedbyreferencetothesehalfdozennewoffences.Thechapterconcludeswithabriefdiscussionofotheroffences,someofwhichwebelieveneedtoberetained,andsomerepealed.

2.2 ThecoreassaultandinjuryoffencescurrentlyintheCrimesAct1961aresections188(woundingwithintent),189(injuringwithintent),193(assaultwithintenttoinjure)and196(commonassault).Thereisafurthercommonassaultoffenceinsection9oftheSummaryOffencesAct1981.Collectively,theyaddressthewholespectrumofthiscategoryofoffending,fromthethreatenedapplicationofforce,totheintentionalinflictionofgrievousbodilyharm.

Part8alsoincludesanumberofcircumstance-specificandaggravatedoffences.2.3

Bycontrastwiththecoreassaultandinjuryoffences,thesemight,forexample,refertomethodofcausation(suchaswhetherornotapersonwasassaultedwithaweapon),10orspecifythegenderorageofavictim(suchasawomanorchild),11orlistotheraggravatingfeatures(suchasthefacttheoffencewascommittedinfurtheranceofsomeothercriminalgoal).12

Broadlyspeaking,wehaveidentifiedthreeproblemswiththecontentand2.4

structureoftheseoffences.

10 CrimesAct1961,s202C.

11 CrimesAct1961,s194.

12 CrimesAct1961,s191.

introduction

proBLems with the current Law

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CHAPTER 2: The core assault and in jury offences: assault and in jur ing with intent

First, the core assault and injury offences address both culpability and2.5

consequences:thatis,theaccused’sintentionorothermentalstateatthetimeofcommittingthecriminalact(culpability),andthelevelofharmorotheroutcomethathasresulted fromtheact (consequences).But theydo thisincoherently.Thereisnoclearorganisingprincipletothestructureoftheoffencesthatwewereabletodiscern,andtheapproachtakentotheallocationofmaximumpenaltiesisinconsistent.

Bywayofanexample,sections191(1)and192(1)oftheCrimesActprovidefor2.6

theoffencesofaggravatedwoundingandinjury(section191(1))andaggravatedassault(section192(1)).Inbothoffences,thelevelofculpabilityoftheoffenderisthesame–intenttocommitacrimeoravoidarrest.However,themaximumpenaltiesfortheoffences,14yearsand3yearsrespectively,areclearlyverydifferent.The14-yearmaximumpenaltyappliesintheworstcasestosituationswheregrievousbodilyharmhasbeencaused,whereasthemaximumpenaltyof3yearsdealsonlywithaggravatedassault(wheretherewaslittleornoinjury).

Itwouldseemthat,asregardsthesetwooffencesatleast,thelegislaturehastaken2.7

aconsequence-focusedapproach.Thatis,ithasstructuredtwodifferentoffencessolelybyreferencetotheirdifferentoutcomes,andhasgiventhemsubstantiallydifferent maximum penalties, notwithstanding the identical culpability.Formaximumpenaltypurposes,aheavyweightinghasclearlybeengiventotheveryseriousoutcomeundersection191(1)(grievousbodilyharm).

Bycontrast,however,theschemeoftheoffencesinsections188(1)and188(2)2.8

appearstobequitedifferent.Section188(1)dealswithwoundingwithintenttocausegrievousbodilyharm;section188(2)withwoundingwithintenttoinjure.Theirculpabilitythereforediffers.However,bothoffenceslistidenticaloutcomesorconsequences.Themaximumpenaltiesforthetwooffencesare14yearsand7years’imprisonmentrespectively.Inthisinstance,therefore,thefocusisevidentlyonculpability,notconsequences.Iftherationalelaidoutabove,in relation to sections 191 and 192, had been consistently applied,twoseparateoffences–certainlytwoseparateoffenceswithsuchdisparatemaximum penalties – would not have been necessary or appropriate.Iftherewasanymaximumpenaltydifferenceatall,onewouldexpectittobequitesmall.(Infact,weregardthesection188approachasmorelegitimate,forreasonsthatwillbesubsequentlyexplained;thesolepointwearemakinghererelatestothemuddledschemeofthecurrentoffences.)

Thesecondproblemiswhatmaybesummedupastheoutdatednatureofthe2.9

offences–bothintheirterminology,andtheirdraftingstyle.13Thelanguageisfrequentlyarchaic(suchas“wounding”,“maiming”and“grievousbodilyharm”).Thereisalackoftransparencyastotheactualscopeoftheprovisions,arising from the fact that many of the terms are not defined or have,overtheyears,beensubstantiallyqualifiedbythecourts.Someoftheoffenceshavescopeforconsiderableoverlap.Forexample,thebreadthoftheconceptofwounding,whichhasbeenheldtomean“abreakinginthecontinuityofthe

13 ThissentimentwassharedbymembersoftheCaseyCommitteewho,inrelationtothecoreinjuryandassaultoffences,wrotethattheseare“unnecessarilydetailedandallowtoomuchscopeforargumentastotheprecisecategoryintowhichparticularconductshouldappropriatelyfall”:CrimesConsultativeCommittee,aboven5,60.

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skin”couldeasilyberegardedaseither“grievousbodilyharm”oran“injury”dependingontheseverityofthewound.14Therearearbitraryorirrelevantdistinctions(eg,theconceptsofwounding,maiming,anddisfiguringarbitrarilydistinguishbetweenthedifferentwaysinwhichtheinjurywasinflicted,ratherthanitsextent).

Thirdly,thecircumstance-specificoffencespreviouslynoted,suchasacid2.10

throwingandassaultwithaweapon,arbitrarilyidentifyaspecifictypeofconductorsetofcircumstancesandelevatethatfactorintoanelementofanoffence,totheexclusionofnumerousotheraggravatingfactorsthatareequallyworthyofrecognition,butcanonlybetakenintoaccountatsentencing.InapproachingthereformofthePart,wehavetriedtominimisetheextenttowhichthisoccurs.Allrelevantaggravatingandmitigatingfactorsshouldofcoursebeabletobetakenintoaccountbythecourts,buttodosobyestablishingseparateoffenceprovisionstorecogniseeachofthemissimplynotpracticable.CertainlytheapparentlyadhocapproachthatispresentlyevidentinPart8isnotdesirable.

2.11 Theproposednewoffencesdiscussedinthischapterappearinclause22oftheBill.Theyhavebeenreproducedbelowforeaseofreference:

188 Causing serious injury with intent

Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 14 years who, (1) with intent to injure any person, causes serious injury to any person.

Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 4 years who causes (2) serious injury to any person by assaulting any person or otherwise acting with reckless disregard for the safety of others.

189 Injuring with intent

Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 10 years who, (1) with intent to injure any person, injures any person.

Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 3 years who injures (2) another person by assaulting any person or otherwise acting with reckless disregard for the safety of others.

189A Assault with intent to injure or common assault

Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 5 years who, (1) with intent to injure any person, assaults any person.

Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 2 years who assaults (2) any person.

Weareproposingthatthis“matrix”ofsixoffencesshouldformthecoreof2.12

Part8.Itisnotamajordeparturefromthecurrentapproach,inthesensethatthenewoffenceswillcontinuetoaddressbothculpabilityandconsequences.15Thekeydifferenceisthatthenewoffencesarecomprehensive,coherent,andplainlydrafted.

14 R v Waters [1979]1NZLR375,378(CA)McMullinJfortheCourt.

15 Thisisincontrasttootherrecommendationsthathavebeenmadefromtimetotime,forexample,intheCrimesBill1989andthe1976ReportoftheCriminalLawReformCommitteeonCulpableHomicide,inwhichapureculpabilityfocuswaspreferred.

the new offences

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CHAPTER 2: The core assault and in jury offences: assault and in jur ing with intent

Oftheseelements,weconsidertheculpabilityoftheaccusedtobetheparamount2.13

consideration.Consequencemaybefortuitous,andisbeyondthecontrolandforesightofthepersonaccused.Inotherwords,itistosomeextentalottery.Thus,whilethereareelementsintheoffencesaddressingbothculpabilityandconsequence,inallocatingmaximumpenaltiestothem,culpabilityhasbeengivengreaterweight.16

However, that isnottosaythatconsequenceshouldbegivennoweight,2.14

andtheoffencesweareproposingrecognisethreedifferentdegreesofoutcome.Coveringalldegreesofinjurywithinasingleoffencewouldprovideinadequateguidancetothecourtsaboutappropriatesentencinglevels.Thequestionishowtostriketherightbalancebetweenwhatmustbeestablishedasanelementoftheoffence,andwhatcanproperlyandpreferablybelefttosentencing.We have attempted to find a middle ground between overly broad anddiscretionaryoffencesontheonehandand,ontheother,offencesthatareundulydetailedandprescriptive.

Levels of culpability

Thenewoffencesrecognisetwolevelsofculpability:2.15

intenttoinjure–includedinnewsections188(1),189(1)and189A(1);·assaultorotherwiseactingwithrecklessdisregardforthesafetyofothers–·includedinnewsections188(2)and189(2).

Inourview,thereisaconsiderablemoraldistinctiontobedrawnbetweenthose2.16

whointentionallyinjureanother,andthosewhocauseinjuryasaresultofbeingreckless.Includingthesetwoconceptsinthesameoffence,ascurrentlyoccursinPart8–forexample,insections188(2)and189(2)–blursthisline,andunjustifiablyexposesthesubstantiallylessculpabletothesamemaximumpenaltyastheoffenderwhointentionallyinjuresanother.

AtpresentinPart8,thereareoffencessuchasthoseinsections188(1)and189(1)2.17

thatrequireproofofanintenttocausegrievousbodilyharm.Inourproposednewoffences,thehighestculpabilityelementis“intenttoinjure”.Whileweconsideredtheoptionofafurther“tier”ofaggravation,namelyintenttoseriouslyinjure(whichis,essentially,what“grievousbodilyharm”means),wereceivedsomejudicialfeedbackthatoften,inpractice,itmaybedifficultontheevidencetodrawacleardividinglinebetween“intenttoseriouslyinjure”and“intenttoinjure”.Wethereforethinkthatitispreferableforthelevelofintendedinjurytobeasentencingfactor,ratherthanasubstantiveelementofthenewoffences.

Wherethereisnointenttoinjure,the“matrix”weareproposingestablishes2.18

lowerleveloffencesforassaultorotherwiseactingwithrecklessdisregardforsafety,thatresultsininjuryorseriousinjury.Bothconceptsofassaultandrecklessnessarewellunderstoodinthecurrentschemeofoffences,andnofurtherlegislativedefinitionofthemisnecessary.Bothhavebeentreatedassignallingroughlyequivalentdegreesofculpability.Clearly,manyinstancesofassaultwillconstituterecklessdisregardforsafety.However,whilesimilarinculpabilityterms,theyarenotidentical;inparticular,therewillbeoccasionsinwhichrecklessdisregardforsafetydoesnotrequireanassault.

16 Seefurtherpara2.39.

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Levels of consequence

CurrentlythereisadistinctioninthePart8offencesbetweensituationsinvolving2.19

anassault,17thoseinwhichavictimsuffersinjury,18andthoseinwhichavictimsuffers grievous bodily harm or is wounded, maimed or disfigured.19Ourproposednew“matrix”doesnotdiffer significantly in this respect,althoughit isbetterorganised,andwehavenotretainedtheconceptsofwounding,maiming,ordisfiguring.20

Thethreedegreesofconsequenceproposedare:2.20

assault;·injury;·seriousinjury.·

Assault

“Assault”isdefinedinsection2oftheCrimesAct.Itcoversboththeintentional2.21

applicationofforcetothepersonofanother,andthreatsofforcebyactorgesture.Ratherthanbeinga“consequence”perse,assaultclearlydescribesconduct;however,itaddressesthecategoryofcaseswherenoinjuryhasensued,oronlyrelativelyminorinjury,suchthatitisnotconsideredappropriatebyprosecutorstochargewiththemoreaggravatedoffence.

Injury

Asalreadydefinedinsection2oftheCrimesAct,“toinjure”meanstocause2.22

actualbodilyharm.Whilewedidnotconsiderthatthisexistingaspectofthedefinitionrequiredreform,ourdraftBillrefinesthedefinitiontomakeclearthatitexcludespsychologicalandemotionalharm.21

ThisaddressesthedictaoftheCourtofAppealinthecaseof2.23 R v Mwai,22 inwhichtheCourtindicatedthat“actualbodilyharm”mightwellincluderecognisedpsychiatricinjury,ifsupportedbyexpertevidenceof“adiscernibleintrusionuponorinterferencewiththenormalfunctioningofthephysicalormentalprocess”.TheCourtconsideredthat“mindandbodyareinseparable”andnoted“theartificialityofseparatingthemindfromthephysicalbody,andtreatingthemasdistinctentities.”23

Whilewearenotawareofanycaseinwhichpurelypsychologicaloremotional2.24

harmhasbeenrecognisedasan“injury”,itwasnotdesirabletoleavethisimportantquestionunresolved.

17 CrimesAct1961,ss193and196.

18 CrimesAct1961,ss189(1)and189(2).

19 CrimesAct1961,ss188(1)and188(2).

20 Seefurtherpara2.09.

21 Crimes(OffencesAgainstthePerson)AmendmentBill,cl4.

22 R v Mwai [1995]3NZLR149, 155(CA)HardieBoysJfortheCourt.

23 R v Mwai, aboven22,154.

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CHAPTER 2: The core assault and in jury offences: assault and in jur ing with intent

Ifpsychologicaloremotionalharmwasregardedasan“injury”,itwouldhave2.25

twoconsequences.First,psychologicaloremotionalharmalonecouldprovideafoundationforthelayingofaninjurycharge.Secondly,whereitcoincidedwithphysicalinjury,itcouldbeabasisforlayinganaggravated(eg,aseriousinjury)charge.

Inourview,inalmostallcases,thelevelofpsychologicaloremotionalharm2.26

incurredwillcoincidewiththedegreeofinjury(whichwillinturntendtocoincidewiththenatureoftheattack).Totheextentthatthisdoesnotholdtrue,itislikelytobeattributabletothegreaterpsychologicaloremotionalvulnerabilityofaparticularvictim.Thatisclearlyafactorthatmaybetakenintoaccountonsentence,butitshouldnotbeafactorthat,intheabsenceofanyotherphysicalinjury,elevateswhatwouldotherwisebeamereassaulttoasubstantiallymoreseriousoffence.Wehavethereforeexcludeditfromtheinjurydefinition“forthepurposesofthisAct”(ie,theCrimesAct).Thereisnothingtopreventitbeingtakenintoaccount,asitalwayshasbeen,forsentencingpurposesundertheSentencingAct2002.

Serious injury

Our draft Bill substitutes “serious injury” for the current concept of2.27

“grievousbodilyharm”,bothinthematrixofcoreassaultandinjuryoffences,and in a small number of consequential amendments elsewhere in theCrimesAct.Thisisnotintendedtochangetheexistingscopeofthelaw.Grievousbodilyharmalreadymeans“reallyseriousharm”.24

Weareproposingthischangesimplysothattheoffencesarecastinmore2.28

user-friendlyandgenerallyunderstoodterms.OurdraftBillstatesthat“serious”hasthesamemeaningas“grievous”currentlyhas,tosignifythatthestatusquois intended to be preserved. We hope this will ensure that “grievous”is interpreted by reference to the existing legal position, as meaning“reallyseriousharm”.Whilethismayberegardedassomewhatcircular,ifreferencesto“seriousinjury”wereleftunclarified,theintendedscopeofthenewlanguagewouldbeopentoquestion,andtheboundarybetweeninjuryandseriousinjurywouldbeunclear.Wewereconcernedtominimiseanyprospectofso-called“creep”,wherebyoffencesthathistoricallywouldproperlyhavebeenregardedasmereinjuriesareabletobechargedunderthemoreseriousoffence–givingrisetopotentialinconsistency,andunfairlyexposingsomedefendantstotheaggravated14-yearmaximumpenalty.

2.29 Section9oftheSummaryOffencesAct1981(commonassault)providesthateverypersonisliabletoimprisonmentforatermnotexceeding6monthswhoassaultsanotherperson.ItduplicatestheCrimesActcommonassaultoffence,withalowermaximumpenalty.

Wedonotconsiderthatthereisanyproperjustificationforthis;thereshould2.30

beasingleoffenceof“commonassault”,anditisamatterforthesentencingjudgeinthecircumstancesoftheindividualcasetoassesswhatpenaltyisappropriate.Wethereforerecommendtherepealofsection9.

24 R v Waters,aboven14,379.

section 9 of the summary offences act

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However,thereisadifficultyinproceedingwithimmediaterepeal.Undersection2.31

9,byvirtueofits6-monthmaximumpenalty,adefendantwouldnormallybeentitledtoelectjurytrial.25However,thisgenerallyapplicablerightisoverriddeninrelationtosection9bysection43oftheSummaryOffencesAct,whichprovidesthatchargesundersections9and10canonlybetriedsummarilybeforeajudgesittingalone.

Ifsection9wasrepealed,allcommonassaultchargeswouldnecessarilybelaid2.32

undertheCrimesAct.BecauseoftheCrimesActcommonassaultpenalty,suchchargeswouldbeeligibleforelectionforjurytrial.Weconsiderthisundesirable.Commonassaultisahighvolumeoffencethatisgenerallyrelativelyminor innature. Itdoesnot, inourview, justify the time, expenseandinconveniencetothecommunitythatajurytrialnecessarilyentails.

Webrieflyconsideredtheoptionofwhether,ifsection9wasrepealed,section2.33

43oftheSummaryOffencesActmightbeamendedtoincludeareferencetoCrimesActcommonassault;orwhetheraprovisionanalogoustosection43shouldbeenactedintheCrimesAct.However,wedonotsupportthesection43approach.Weconsideritarbitraryandunprincipled.Theremaywellbeotheroffencesthat,alongwithcommonassault,similarlydonotjustifytheinvestmentofajurytrial.Tryingtocherry-picksuchoffencesforinclusioninasection43-typeprovisionisunlikelytoberobust.

Overall,thisleadsustotheviewthattherepealofsection9shouldbedeferred.2.34

We note that, as part of the criminal procedure simplification projectbeingundertakenjointlybytheLawCommissionandtheMinistryofJustice,thereisaproposaltoraisethethresholdfortheelectionofajurytrialfrom3months’imprisonmentto3years.Ifthatproposalisadopted,itwouldaddresstheproblemsoutlinedabove.Wethereforerecommendreconsiderationoftherepealofsection9aspartofthatotherproject.

2.35 Maximumpenaltiesindicatetherelativeseriousnessofoffences.Asamatterofsentencingtheory,theyaresupposedtobesetbyreferencetotheworstclassofcaseoftheparticularcategoryofoffending–inotherwords,toreflectthetermofimprisonmentthatsocietyconsidersjustifiedintheworstclassofcase.

Asnotedearlierinthechapter,thecurrentmaximumpenaltiesincludedin2.36

Part8varywidely,withoutreferencetoanyapparentgoverningprinciple.Weare,therefore,proposinganumberofrevisions.

The approach to penalties generally

Whiletakingtheviewthataconsiderableoverhaulofmaximumpenalties2.37

wasrequired,wedidnotconsiderthatitwasopentoustostartcompletelyafresh.Clearly,while it is importantforPart8maximumpenaltiestobeinternallycoherent,andanappropriatereflectionofmodernviewsofculpability,itisjustasimportanttopreserverelativitiesbetweenPart8maximumpenaltiesandmaximumpenaltylevelselsewhereonthestatutebook.

25 NewZealandBillofRightsAct1990,s24(e);SummaryProceedingsAct1957,s66.

maximum penaLties

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CHAPTER 2: The core assault and in jury offences: assault and in jur ing with intent

TheapproximateapproachwehavetakentothePart8maximumpenaltyreview2.38

canbeillustratedasfollows:

Thisreflectsourviewthatmoreweightneedstobeattributedtoculpability2.39

insettingthemaximumpenalty,thantoconsequence.Theculpabilityofapersonwhocausesharmtoanotherisbestassessedbyreferencetohisorherstateofmindatthetimeoftheoffending.Whereasthepublicintuitivelywouldexpecttheoutcomeofthedefendant’sactstobetakenintoaccount,consequencemaywellbeamatterofchance,particularlyinthecontextofanassault.Whenculpabilityislow,thepenaltyshouldnotbeaggravatedasmuch,evenwhentheconsequences–primarilyattributabletobadluck–turnouttobeveryserious.Whenculpabilityishigh–whenanoffenderhasintenttoseriouslyinjure,forexample–thelikelihoodthattheywillachievethatobjective,orthattheconsequenceswillinanyeventbeveryserious,willtendtoincrease.Thepenaltytheyreceiveonaccountofthatconsequenceshouldthereforebeproportionatelygreater.

Application to the new core offences

Theproposedmaximumpenalties for thenewoffencesdiscussed in this2.40

chapterare:26

IntEnt to InjurE AssAult / rEcklEss dIsrEgArd for sAfEty

section 188(1) causing serious injury with intent to injure – 14 years

section 188(2) causing serious injury by assault or reckless disregard for safety – 4 years

section 189(1) causing injury with intent to injure – 10 years

section 189(2) causing injury by assault or reckless disregard for safety – 3 years

section 189A(1) assault with intent to injure – 5 years

section 189A(2) common assault – 2 years

26 ThesectionnumbersreferredtointhetablearethenewsectionnumbersthatappearinourdraftBillinclause22:seefurtherAppendixB.

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Noneoftheproposedmaximahavedecreased,relativetocurrentmaximum2.41

penalties.Whileanumberofthemlookquitedifferent,thedifferencesaremoreapparentthanreal.Theyareanecessaryconsequenceofthereorganisationoftheoffences.Onlyoneoftheproposedchangesrepresentsarealincreaseinmaximumpenalty,forreasonsthatareexplainedbelow.

Effect of the reorganisation of offences

New sections 188(1) and 189(1)

Therearecurrentlydifferentoffencesdependingonwhethertheoffender’s2.42

intentistocause“grievousbodilyharm”or“toinjure”.However, ifourrecommendationabove(paragraph2.17)wasadopted,thisdistinctionwouldberemoved.Offenceswiththehighestculpabilitywouldrequireonlyproofofanintenttoinjure.

Weproposethatthehighestoffenceinthenewhierarchy(causingseriousinjury2.43

withintenttoinjure–newsection188(1)),shouldcarryamaximumpenaltyof14years’imprisonment,witha10-yearmaximumpenaltyforthenextmostseriousoffence(injuringwithintenttoinjure–newsection189(1)).

Thesepenaltiesarehigherthantheirapparentequivalentunderthecurrent2.44

law: the maximum penalties for wounding with intent to injure andinjuringwithintenttoinjuriesareonly7yearsand5yearsrespectively.However,thisisnotthecorrectcomparison.Theworstclassofcaseforourproposednewoffencesinsection188(1)and189(1)willbethoseinwhichthereisanintenttocauseseriousinjury.Theanalogouscurrentoffencesarewoundingwithintenttocausegrievousbodilyharmandinjurywithintenttocausegrievousbodilyharm,whichhavemaximaof14yearsand10yearsrespectively.In other words, the penalties applying to the worst case of care wouldnotchange.

New section 188(2) – no current maximum penalty

Theoffenceinnewsection188(2)(causingseriousinjurybyassault,oracting2.45

withrecklessdisregardforsafety)carriesaproposedmaximumpenaltyof4years.Thereiscurrentlynoequivalentmaximumpenaltyforcasesofrecklessinjury.Althoughsection189(2),asitiscurrentlydrafted,includesreferencetoinjuringwithrecklessdisregardforsafety,the7-yearmaximummustbetakentorelatetotheworstclassofcase–thosewhointendtoinjure.

New section 189A(2) – common assault

Finally,thepenaltyforcommonassaulthasbeenraisedfrom1year(inthecurrent2.46

section196offence)to2years.However,thisistoaccommodateaggravatingfactorsthatwerepreviouslysubjecttotheirownspecificoffences–chieflytheproposedrepealofthespecificoffencesofassaultonachildandmaleassaultsfemalethatarecurrentlyinsection194.27Again,whilethepenaltythusappearstohavedoubled,inpracticeithasnotchanged.

27 Seefurtherchapter3.

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CHAPTER 2: The core assault and in jury offences: assault and in jur ing with intent

The increased maximum penalty – new section 189A(1)

Fortheoffenceofassaultwith intentto injure, innewsection189A(1),2.47

wehaveproposedamaximumpenaltyof5years’imprisonment,whichis2yearshigherthanthecurrentmaximumpenaltyintheanalogoussection193offence.Therearetworeasonsforthisrecommendation.

First,inourview,thecurrentmaximumpenaltyundersection193(theanalogous2.48

provision)isalittlelow,giventhatitpotentiallyalsoappliestocasesinwhichthereisintenttoseriouslyinjure.

Secondlyandmoreimportantly,givenourviewthattheculpabilitylevelofan2.49

offendershouldberegardedasparamount,the5-yearproposedmaximumwassetwithaneyeonrelativitywiththepenaltiesproposedforthelowerculpabilityoffences–whereinjuryisnotintended,butistheunfortunatebyproductofanassaultoractingwithrecklessdisregardforsafety.Theproposedpenaltiesfortheseoffencesrangefrom2to4years.Whereculpabilityishigher–inotherwords,whereintenttoinjurecanbeproved,eventhoughinjurydidnotresult–itneedstobereflectedinthemaximumpenalty.

Penalty relativities

New sections 188(2), 189(2) and 189A(2) – the “low culpability” category of offences

Thedifferentiationbetweentheoffencesinthe“lowculpability”assault/reckless2.50

disregardforsafetycolumnissmall,rangingfrom2to4years,reflectingourviewthatculpabilitycarriesmoreweightthanconsequences.

New section 188(1) and 188(2) relativities

Webeganthisdiscussionbysummarisingourthinkingonapossiblemethodology2.51

forcoherentlyapproachingtheallocationofmaximumpenaltieswithinthe“matrix”.Consistentwiththatlineofthinking,theproposed14-yearmaximumpenaltyundernewsection188(1)differsagreatdealfromtheproposed4-yearmaximumpenaltyundernewsection188(2).Althoughbothoffencesaddresscasesinwhichseriousinjuryhasbeencaused,theoffender’sculpabilityisverydifferent.Undersection188(1),intheworstclassofcases,therewillhavebeenintenttoseriouslyinjure.Undersection188(2),theworstclassofcaseisactingwithrecklessdisregardforthesafetyofanyperson–inotherwords,unreasonablyrunningarisk.

Asimilarpatternisevidentintheotherproposedmaximumpenaltieswhen2.52

“highculpability”and“lowculpability”equivalentsarecompared,foridenticalreasons.

2.53 Aswellasthenewcoreassaultandinjuryoffences,werecommendthatthefollowingoffencesshouldberetained.Thediscussionbelowsetsout,inrelationtoeach,firstwhywerecommendtheirretention,andsecondly,abriefexplanationofthekeychangesweareproposing.Broadlyspeaking,thechangesdotwothings: modernise the drafting language (without significantly alteringscope),andalter themaximumpenalties (in three instancesbyreducingthemsubstantially).

other offences

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Disabling – new section 197

Weconsiderthatitisnecessarytoretainthe“disabling”offence,whichapplies2.54

whenanotherpersonis“stupefied”orrenderedunconscious.Therewillbecasesofdisablingthatdonotamounttoassault,donotcauseanyinjury,fallshortofanattempttocommitsomeothercrime,anddonotconstituteendangering(becausewithoutthisoffenceprovision,stupefyingwouldnotbeanunlawfulact).Theoffencethereforeaddressesarealgapinthelaw.

Werecommendsomeminordraftingchangestotheprovision,toensurethatits2.55

languageisconsistentwithotherchangesproposedelsewhere.Howevertheprincipalchange,andtheonethatweenvisagewouldgiverisetothemostconcern,isthereductionofthemaximumpenaltyfrom5years’imprisonmentto2years.

Where stupefying facilitates more serious offending – sexual violation,2.56

forexample–themoreseriousoffendingwouldbecharged,andstupefyingwould,inalllikelihood,beaveryseriousaggravatingfactor.Whereitconstitutesanattempt,anattemptcouldsimilarlybecharged;orwhereitcausesinjury,aninjurychargemightbelaidundernewsection189.Assuch,weconsiderthat theproperscopeof thisoffence iswherestupefying,withoutmore,occurs.Intermsofculpability,weconsiderthatitisakintotheendangeringoffencediscussedinchapter4,forwhichwehavelikewiseproposeda2-yearmaximumpenalty.

Infecting with disease – new section 201

Werecommendretentionoftheinfectingwithdiseaseoffenceinsection201of2.57

theCrimesAct.Suchanoffenceisnecessarybecausediseaseisnotnecessarilysynonymouswith“injury”,eventhoughtransmittingdiseasehassimilaritiestocausinginjury,intermsofitslevelofculpability.Theredraftedoffenceinsection201(1)ofourproposedBillisthesameastheoffencealreadyinsection201,withthesamemaximumpenaltyof14years.Theminordraftingchangesthathavebeenmadetoitdonotalteritsscope.Theterm“wilful”hasbeenchangedto“intentional”,whichcodifiescase law.28Wealsorecommenddeletingthereferencesto“sickness”and“withoutlawfuljustificationorexcuse”,bothofwhicharesuperfluous.

Subsections(2)to(7)ofourproposeddraftwouldbenewadditionstothe2.58

CrimesAct.However,theyverylargelyreproducetheprovisionsinclauses126and127ofthePublicHealthBill,currentlyawaitingitssecondreadinginParliament.WerecommendthatthoseoffencesberelocatedintheCrimesAct,so that like offences are consolidated in one place in the statute book.TheMinistryofHealth(theagencyresponsibleforthePublicHealthBill)agreesthatitwouldbeappropriatetorelocatetheoffences.

Draftsection201(2)isanoffenceofrecklesslytransmittinganotifiabledisease2.59

orcondition,asdefinedinSchedule1ofthePublicHealthBill.Amaximumpenaltyof3years’imprisonmentisimposed,inlinewiththepenaltiesproposedinournewsections157B(grosslynegligentinjurybyunlawfulactoromission

28 R v Mwai,aboven22,152.

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CHAPTER 2: The core assault and in jury offences: assault and in jur ing with intent

toperformastatutoryduty)and189(2)(causinginjurywithrecklessdisregardforsafety).Draftsection201(3)isanoffenceofrecklesslyputtinganypersonatriskofcontractinganotifiablediseaseorcondition,againdefinedbyreferencetoSchedule1ofthePublicHealthBill.The2-yearpenaltyproposedisanalogoustothe2-yearpenaltysuggestedundersection157A(unlawfulactoromissiontoperformastatutorydutythatislikelytoinjureanother).

Section201AofourdraftreproducesafurtherfeatureofthePublicHealthBill2.60

provisions.Wewereadvisedthattheselectcommitteewasconcernedtoensurethattheoffencesdidnotextendtopeoplewhoconsenttotheriskoftransmissionofanotifiabledisease,suchaswhereonepartnerinalong-termrelationshipisHIV-positive.However,neitherwenortheMinistryofHealthconsiderthatadefenceofthiskindshouldapplytotheoffenceofintentionaltransmission(formerlyintheCrimesAct,notthePublicHealthBill,andthusnotconsideredbytheselectcommittee).

Setting traps – new section 202

Werecommendtheretentionofthisprovisiontoaddresswhat,initsabsence,2.61

wouldbegapsinthelaw.ThereisanoffenceofsettingtrapsonthelandofanotherundertheTrespassAct,29andwhereatrapislaidwithintenttoinjureandinjuryinfactresults,aninjurywithintentchargewouldbeavailable.However,ourproposedredraftofsection202addressestwogaps:theotherwiselawfullayingoftrapswithintenttoinjureorwithrecklessdisregardforsafetywhere,perhapsfortuitously,injuryhasnotresulted;andallowingtrapsplacedbysomebodyelsetoremainonone’sownlandwithintenttoinjureorarecklessdisregardforsafety.

We recommendomitting the current requirement for the conduct tobe2.62

“likelytoinjure”.Thisdoesaddanextraelementtotheoffencethatwouldnotfeature inourdraft, because theremaybe circumstances inwhich it isunreasonabletorunaknownrisk(asexpressedintherecklessdisregardforsafetyelement),evenwhenthechanceoftheriskislow.However,wethinkthatoverallthisextraelementunnecessarilycomplicatestheoffence,becauseitisdifficulttothinkofsituationswhereapersonwhoserisktakingwasunreasonableshouldnotbeheldcriminallyliable.

Section202currentlycontainstwooffences,withdifferentmaximumpenalties2.63

of3years(settingtrapswhileinoccupationorpossessionofanyplace)and5years(settingtrapswithintenttoinjureorwithrecklessdisregardforsafety).Ourproposeddraftlikewisehastwooffences,althoughexpressedindifferentterms.However,werecommendthesamemaximum2-yearpenaltyforboth,consistentwiththepenaltyproposedforalloftheendangering-typeoffences.Where an injury or death results from the deliberate setting of a trap,higherpenaltieswillbeavailableunderotherprovisions.

29 TrespassAct1980,s7.

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Impeding rescue – new section 204

Theoffenceofimpedingrescueisextremelyrarelycharged.However,itispossible2.64

toconceiveofasetoffactsinwhichnoothercriminaloffencewouldbeapplicabletoapersonwhohasimpededrescueandtherebyendangeredthelifeofanotherbecausetheymaybeactinglawfully(eg,obstructingaccessbutparkedlegally).

Ourproposedredraftmakestwothingsclear,thatarenotentirelyclearonthe2.65

faceofthecurrentprovision:

Theoffencecouldnotbecommittedbyomission;ourredraftrefersonly·toan“act”.Toextend liability insuchsituations toomissionswouldhave bordered upon the establishment of what is sometimes called“aSamaritanduty”,whichcurrentlydoesnotexist,inNewZealandcriminallaw.Thereisextensivephilosophicaldebateintheliteratureaboutwhethersuchadutyisworkableorappropriate.Weareinclinedtotheviewthatitisneither,andthatitisnotappropriatetoextendthelawinthisway.Wehaveexpressedthemensreaelementoftheoffenceasrecklessness.·Thecurrentoffence is silentas to theculpability level required forasuccessfulcharge.

Wearealsoproposingtoreducethemaximumpenaltyforthisoffencefrom2.66

10yearsto2years.Thisisaverysubstantialreduction.However,inourview,thecurrentmaximumpenalty,musthavebeenbaseduponamisconceptionasthescopeoftheoffence.Presumably,thethinkinginsettingsuchapenaltywasthatintheworstclassofcaseofimpedingrescue,thedefendantwouldactwithmaliciousintent,andthevictimwoulddie.However,insuchacase,ahomicidechargewouldbeappropriate.Similarly,ifinjuryresultedinsuchcircumstances,achargeof injurywith intentwouldproperly reflect theculpabilityinvolved.Theessenceoftheoffenceis,therefore,endangering,anditspenaltyneedstobealignedwiththeotheroffencesofsimilarcharacteralreadydiscussed,above.

2.67 Werecommendrepealofthefollowingoffences,whichweconsiderunnecessary:

aggravated wounding and injury (section 191).· Section191dealswithaggravatedwoundingandinjury.Itsetsoutalistofaggravatingfactors,suchasintenttocommitanycrime,oravoidarrest,orfacilitatetheflightofanyotherperson.Whileonthefaceofthesectionitmayappearthatithasadifferentfocusfromthecoreassaultandinjuryoffences,becauseitdoesnotrequireproofofintenttoinjure,theCourtofAppealinR v Tihiheldthatbeforeanaccusedcanbefoundguiltyofanoffenceunderthissection,itmustbeshowntheoffendereithermeanttocausethespecifiedharm,orforesawthattherewasalikelihoodofsuchrisk.30Morefundamentally,wetaketheviewthatthebetterapproachinprincipleistorecogniseaggravatingfactors,suchasthoselistedinsection191,asrelevanttosentencingunderthecoreassaultandinjuryoffences,ratherthanaselementsthatjustifyaseparateoffence.aggravated assault (section 192(1)).· Section192(1)isanoffenceofaggravatedassault.Theaggravatingfactorsarethesameasthesection191factors,describedabove.Werecommendrepealofthisoffenceforthesamereasonsassection191.

30 R v Tihi [1989]2NZLR29(CA).

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CHAPTER 2: The core assault and in jury offences: assault and in jur ing with intent

discharging a firearm or doing a dangerous act with intent (section 198). ·Section198providesthateveryoneisliabletoimprisonmentforatermnot exceeding14years,whowith intent todogrievousbodilyharm,dischargesanyfirearmorsimilarweaponatanyperson,sendsanypersonanexplosivesubstanceordevice,orsetsfiretoanyproperty.Thereisaparalleloffencewherethereisintenttoinjure,withamaximumpenaltyis7years.Thereferencetosettingfiretoanypropertyissuperfluous;arsonisaseparateoffence,withamaximumpenaltyof14years,thatdoesnotrequireproofofintenttocausegrievousbodilyharmorinjury.Alloftheotheroffencessetout in section198 can, inourview,be adequately, and indeedmoreappropriately,dealtwithbyutilisingotherchargesofeitherinjuryorattempt.In the circumstances addressed by section 198(1), if serious injurywascaused,ourproposednewsections188(1)or189(1)wouldapply,withamaximumpenaltyofeither14years,or10yearsifanylesserinjuryresulted.Wherenoinjuryoccurred,suchbehaviourwouldclearlyconstituteanattemptundersection188(1),withamaximumpenaltyof7years.Becauseof the lessermaximumpenalty thatwouldapply in the lattersituation,thepolicedonotsupporttherepealofsection198.However,inourview,theproperfocusisnotthereductionintheavailablemaximumpenalty,butrathertheextenttowhichitwillaffectsentencesactuallyimposedwhena firearmorsimilarweapon isdischargedbutno injuryoccurs.Ontheapproachcurrentlytakenbythecourts,thereislittleornoprospectthatsuchasentencewouldexceedorevenapproachaprisontermof7years.Relianceonanattemptchargeisthereforeunlikelytoeffectanyreductionintheseverityofpunishment.acid throwing (section 199). · Undersection199 it isanoffence tothrowacorrosivesubstanceatanyperson,orapplysuchasubstance,withintenttoinjureordisfigurethem.Themaximumprisontermis14years.Forsimilarreasonstothoseoutlinedabove,inrelationtosection198,weconsiderthatourproposednewsections188and189offeramoreprincipledmethodofaddressingsuchconduct.The14-yearterminsection199hasclearlybeensettoaddresstheworstclassofcaseinwhichseriousinjuryhasresulted;undersection188(1),ourproposedmaximumislikewise14years.Wherethereisnoinjury,theconductcanproperlybeaddressedbyachargeofattemptundersection188orsection189.poisoning with intent (section 200).· Section 200 contains twopoisoningoffences:poisoningwithintenttocausegrievousbodilyharm,andpoisoningwithintenttocauseinconvenienceorannoyance.Thefirstofthesewouldconstituteeitherattemptedmurderor,ifactualbodilyharmresulted,eitheraninjuryorseriousinjurycharge.Thesecondaddressessituationswheretheintentionofadministeringanoxioussubstanceissolelytocauseinconvenienceorannoyance,noinjuryresults,andtherehasbeennorecklessdisregardforsafetysufficienttowarrantanattemptchargeundernewsection189(2).Wedoubtthatthisisapropersubjectforcriminalliabilityatall–certainlynotonethatcouldjustifyamaximumprisontermof3years.

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assault with a weapon (section 202C).· Undersection202C,everyoneisliabletoaprisontermnotexceeding5yearswhoinassaultinganypersonusesanythingasaweapon,orisinpossessionofanythingincircumstancesthatshowanintentiontouse itasaweapon.Thisoffencesinglesoutaweaponasanaggravatingfactorthatjustifiesincreasingthemaximumpenaltyforassaultfive-fold,incaseswherethereisnointenttoinjure,and no injury is caused. In cases in which there is intent to injure,orinjuryiscaused,thereisnoneedforsection202C;aninjuryorattemptchargecould,andshould,belaid.Wecanfindnobasisinprincipleonwhichtojustifysuchaheavilyinflatedpenalty,oraseparateoffenceforcasesinvolvinganassaultwithaweapon,basedsolelyonthisoneaggravatingfactor.Wenotethatourrecommendedmaximumpenaltyforcommonassaultwillbe2years(doublethecurrentmaximum),whichwillallowaggravatingfactorsincludingtheuseofaweapontobeproperlytakenintoaccount.

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CHAPTER 3: Specif ic assaults

Chapter 3Specific assaults

3.1 This chapter considerswhether thevictim-specific assaultoffences thatcurrentlyexistinPart8andinnumerousotherpiecesoflegislationshouldberetained,andwhetherornotitisnecessaryorappropriatetoenactanynewvictim-specificassaultprovisions.

Thenubofourrecommendationsisthattheoffencesofassaultonachild3.2

andmaleassaultsfemaleinsection194oftheCrimesActshouldberepealed.Werecommendretainingthestatusquoasregardsassaultsonpoliceofficers,andfurtherworkinrelationtothenumerousotherspecificassaultprovisionsonthestatutebook–assaultsonenforcementofficers,judges,courtstaff,andsoon.Wehavenotrecommendedtheestablishmentofanynewspecificassaultoffences.

3.3 Themainargumentinfavourofthecreationorretentionofvictimspecificoffencesisoneof“fairlabelling”orsymbolism.Itisbasedonthebeliefthatoffendingagainstparticularcategoriesofvictimsissosubstantiallydifferentin character and culpability that is it appropriate todistinguish it fromgeneric conductof the samekindbywayof a specificoffence category.Withoutthatdistinction,itisarguedthattheaggravatednatureofvictim-specificconductwillnotbeadequatelysignalled,andthatpublicmessagesofdisapprovalwillnotbeproperlyexpressed.Bythesametoken,itisarguedthatthegenericconduct,bybeinggroupedtogetherwiththeaggravatedconduct,willbelabelled(byassociationandthroughthelevelofthemaximumpenalty)asmoreseriousthanitactuallyis.

Weacknowledge themeritsof thesearguments.However, theymustbe3.4

setagainstthedisadvantagesthattoagreateror lesserextentarealwaysassociatedwithvictim-specificprovisions,whatevertheirnatureandpurpose.Thedisadvantagesare:

implications for charging discretion.· Victim-specificassaultorinjuryoffences inevitably overlap with the generally applicable assault andinjuryoffencesthatwouldotherwisebeavailable.Theythereforeenlargepolicediscretionatthechargingstage.Policedonotautomaticallychargeundervictim-specificoffences inallcases inwhichtheyareavailable;sometimestheywillconsiderthatthecircumstancesoftheoffendingwarrantagenerallyapplicablecharge.Forexample,theymaynotregardeveryassaultofafemalebyamaleaswarrantingexposuretotheaggravatedsection194(b)

introduction

the advantages and disadvantages of specif ic assauLt provis ions

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penalty;andifanassaultonachildhasresultedininjury,theyarelikelytotaketheviewthataninjuringoffencewouldbeamoreappropriatecharge.Thismayproduceinconsistencyinchargingpractice.arbitrary disparity arising from singling out some aggravating factors ·as more important than others.Victim-specificassaultoffencessingleoutoneaggravatingfactor,amongthemanypossibleaggravatingfactorsthatmaybepresentinanygivencase,asthedefiningfactor.Inthecaseofmaleassaultsfemale,forinstance,theaggravatingfactorthattheoffenderisamaleand thevictim isa female is singledout. Insome instances,thatmayindeedturnouttobethemostseriousaggravatingfactorpresent.However,sometimestherewillbeotheraggravatingfactorsthatareequallyseriousorindeedmoreserious,suchasuseofaweapon,apriorhistoryofseriousconvictions,ortheadvancedageandvulnerabilityofthevictim.Wehavesuggestedinchapter2thatotheraggravatingfactorsofthiskindshouldnotbeelementsoftheoffence.Theyshouldinsteadbetakenintoaccountonsentence.Logically,itwouldseemtofollowthatthestatusofthevictimshouldbedealtwithinthesameway.The risk of ad hoc specific offences being randomly inserted on to the ·statute book, every time an issue arises that causes political or public concern. Havingidentifiedaclassofvictimsthatarguablydeservestobesingledoutbyitsownspecificoffence,itcanbehardtoarguethatanother,arguablyequallydeservingclassofvictims,shouldnotbegiventhesametreatment.Indeed,therearealreadyaplethoraofassaultsagainstspecificvictimsscatteredthroughoutthestatutebook,withwidelyvaryingmaximumpenalties.Proposalsforthecreationofothersuchoffences(eg,toprotectemergencydoctorsandtaxidrivers)continuetoemergefromtimetotime,asperceivedneedarises.Useofvictim-specificoffencesthusgivesrisetoa“slipperyslope”effect:ifwecreatevictim-specificoffencesinsomeareas,wewillprobablyfindithardtoresistdoingsoinothers.Theresultwillbeapatchworkofoffenceswithoutanylogicalorcoherentstructure.

Overall,then,thequestioniswhetherthecaseforestablishingaspecificassault3.5

provisionsissufficientlystrongtoovercometheirmanifestdisadvantages.

3.6 LawreformproposalsinNewZealandandotherjurisdictionsgenerallyreflectashiftawayfromvictimspecificprovisions.

New Zealand – Crimes Bill 1989

In1989,aBillwasdraftedtosubstantiallyreviseandrewritethe1961Act.3.7 31TheBillmovedawayfromtheuseofvictim-specificoffences. Itexcludeda number of the child-specific provisions included in the 1961 Act,leavingonlyasmallnumberthatdealtwithchildsexualoffencesandabduction.

31 CrimesBill1989,aboven4.

reform proposaLs in new ZeaLand and eLsewhere

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CHAPTER 3: Specif ic assaults

Notably,thevictim-specificassaultprovisionscoveringwomenandchildrenwereomitted.NoissuewastakenwiththisapproachintheCaseyCommitteeReportontheBill.32

Other jurisdictions’ use of specific offences

Themajorityofjurisdictionswelookedathavemovedawayfromtheuseof3.8

victim-specificoffencesandlawreformbodieshavetendedtotakethesameview.33Mostjurisdictionshaveinsteaddealtwithvictim-specificfactorsasaggravatingfactors,whichcaneitherelevatetheavailablemaximumpenaltyor be taken into account at sentencing.34 Some jurisdictions are silent,preferringtoleavethemattertotheCourts.35Thisapproachhasallowedthesejurisdictionstoavoidtheproliferationofsimilaroffencesdistinguishableonlybyoneor twoelements.Those jurisdictions thathaveretainedanyvictim-specificoffenceshavetendedtoconfinethemtooffencesofassaultingpoliceorassaultwithintenttoresistlawfularrest.

3.9 Undersection194(a)oftheCrimesAct1961,itisanoffenceforanadulttoassaultachild.Theoffencereads:

Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 2 years who—

(a) Assaults any child under the age of 14 years;

Thispartofthischapterexplainsourrecommendationtorepealthechild-specific3.10

assaultoffence insection194(a),whichmightbeconsideredsurprising,inthecontextofareportthatisdirectedtoensuringthatthelegalframeworkadequatelyaddressestheilltreatmentandneglectofchildren.Butinourview,thedisadvantagesofsection194(a)aresuchthatthelawwillinfactbemorerobustwithoutit.Ourotherproposalsrelatingtoilltreatmentandneglectoffencesarediscussedinchapter5.

Problems with the current law

It is generally acknowledged that there is a substantial difference in3.11

culpabilitybetweenassaultson childrenandother instancesof assault.Clearly,insomeindividualcases,aminorassaultonachildsuchasasmackwillbelessseverethansomeotherinstancesofcommonassaultonanadult.However,ourworktendstoindicatethatthejudiciary,atleast,regardssuchconductasmoreculpable;36sodoescurrentgovernmentpolicy,anditisprobably

32 CrimesConsultativeCommittee,aboven5.

33 SeeforexampleUnitedKingdomLawCommissionLegislating the Criminal Code Offences – Offences Against the Person and General Principles(LawComNo218,London,1993);LawReformCommissionofIrelandReport on Non-fatal Offences Against the Person(LRC45,Dublin,1994);ModelCriminalCodeOfficersCommitteeoftheStandingCommitteeofAttorneys-GeneralModel Criminal Code – Chapter 5 – Non Fatal Offences Against the Person(StandingCommitteeofAttorneys’General,Canberra,1998).

34 SeeforexampleCriminalCodeAct2007(WA),s221;CriminalCodeAct1899(Qld),s340;ModelCriminalCodeOfficersCommitteeoftheStandingCommitteeofAttorneys-General,aboven33,111;

35 Non-FatalOffencesAgainst the PersonAct 1997 (Ire);Law ReformCommissionof Ireland,aboven33,para9.129.

36 Seefurtherpara3.18below.

assauLt on a chiLd

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afairassumptionthatthepropositionwouldbegenerallyacceptedbythecommunity.CertainlythiswasindicatedbysomerecentresearchconductedbyColmarBruntonfortheLawCommission’smaximumpenaltyreview.37

Theprincipalargumentinfavourofretainingsection194(a)istosignalthat3.12

thisparticularcategoryofconduct(assaultsonchildren)issomuchmoreseriousthana“normal”assaultthatitrequiresaseparatelabel,andanaggravatedmaximumpenalty.Howeversection194(a)doesnotadequatelyachievethispurposebecauseitisonlyavailabletoaddresslow-leveloffendingagainstchildrenwhichcreatesanerroneousperceptionthatoffendingagainstchildreninnottakenseriously.Moreover,achildspecificoffenceisnotnecessarytoensurethatoffendingagainstchildrenattractsasentencingpremiumandthatsentencelevelsforthosewhooffendagainstchildrenareappropriate.Wediscusstheissuesfurtherbelow.

Offence available only at the bottom end

Section194(a)isthechild-specificequivalentoftheCrimesActcommonassault3.13

offence.Its2-yearmaximumpenaltyisdoublethatofthepenaltyforcommonassault.Ifconductisallegedtohavecausedthedeathofachild,murderormanslaughterislikelytobecharged.Similarly,inachildabusecasethathasresultedinsignificantinjury,chargesaremuchmorelikelytobelaidunderoneofthegenerallyapplicableaggravatedassaultprovisionsintheCrimesAct,suchaswoundingorinjuringwithintent.Theseprovisionshavesubstantiallyhighermaximumpenalties(upto14years’imprisonmentinsomecases).

Logically,onewouldexpectthat,ifallowanceistobemadeinthesubstantive3.14

offencestructureforthegreaterculpabilityattachingtoviolenceagainstchildren,this should be done across the whole spectrum of offending againstchildren,from“common”assaulttomanslaughter.Infact,thecurrentoffencestructuredoesnotdothis;itcreatesanaggravatedoffenceonlyforthecommonassaultcategory,atthebottomendofthespectrumofseriousness.

A perception problem

Asaresult,asonemightexpect,section194(a)chargestendtobelaidinresponse3.15

torelativelylow-leveloffendingagainstchildren.Butwhenmembersofthepublichearaboutsentencesimposedforassaultonachild,theymayinferthattheconductthatpromptedthechargewasmuchmoreseriousthanwasinfactthecase(because,ifithadbeenmoreserious,thelikelihoodisthatanaggravatedchargewouldhavebeenlaid).Thatis,wesuspect,thereasonforthecommonlyexpressedviewthatsentencesforassaultsagainstchildrenaremorelenientthancomparableassaultsonadults.Infact,ouranalysishasfoundthatthereverseistrue.38

37 Presentedwith28differentscenarios,the“crueltytoachild”scenariowasrankedonaverage3rd,betweenbulkmethamphetamineimportation(4th)andgangrape(2nd).Whiletherearecertainlysomeverysignificantcaveatsthatneedtobeapplied–thescenariowasinsomerespectsquiteextreme(includingforcingthechildtodrinkurine),andtheresponsetoitcannotnecessarilybeextendedtothecontextofchildassault–thediscussionsthatoccurredbetweenparticipantstendedtobedrivensimplybythestatusofthechild,notparticularaspectsofthescenario.

38 Seefurtherpara3.18below.

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CHAPTER 3: Specif ic assaults

Inconsistent police charging practice

Asnotedabove,policechargingpracticemaywellbeinconsistent,particularly3.16

intheabsenceofanyprosecutorialchargingguidelines(policehaveadvisedthattherearecurrentlynosuchguidelines).Ifaprosecutorputsmoreemphasisonthestatusofthevictimthanthenatureoftheconduct,itwillsometimesinviteunder-charging–thatis,relianceonsection194whenthefactssupportthelayingofamoreseriouscharge.Thatcontributestotheperceptionproblemoutlinedabove,butequallyimportantly,itraisesissuesofnaturaljustice,byfailingtotreatlikeoffendersalike.

No reason to distinguish children from other vulnerable groups

Eveniftherewasadesiretoestablishawholehierarchyofchild-specificoffences,3.17

thereisafurtherdifficulty.Thereareothervictimsjustasvulnerableaschildren,suchastheveryelderly,orseverelymentallyimpaired.Thereisnocase,inourview,forelevatingtheundeniablyimportantinterestsofchildrenabovethoseofotherequallyvulnerablevictims.Unlessseparatespecificoffencesarealsotobecreatedforeachvulnerablecategoryofvictim(whichisimpracticable),generallyapplicablemaximumpenaltieswillneed tobe thesameasanychild-specificmaximumpenalty.Thatisbecausemaximumpenaltieshavetobesetbyreferencetotheworstclassofcase,whichwouldbeanassaultonavulnerablevictim.Thatmakestheseparateoffenceredundantatbest.

Sentencing premium in the absence of a specific offence

Intermsofwhetheroffendingagainstchildrenwillbeaccordedadequategravity3.18

andweightintheabsenceofaspecificassaultoffence,ouranalysisofsentencingoutcomessuggeststhatthiswillindeedoccur,regardlessofthenatureofthecharge.Weundertookananalysisofsentencingoutcomesforoffendingagainstchildren.Itdemonstratedthatsentencesimposedareconsistentlymoreseverewhenchildrenarethevictims.Inotherwords,thereisasentencing“premium”forthiskindofconduct.Forexample,whensentencesforassaultsonchildrenwerecomparedwithsentencesformaleassaultsfemale(thetwooffencesthatcanbechargedundersection194,whichareidenticalexceptfortheidentityofthevictim),theaveragetermofimprisonmentformaleassaultsfemalewas8.1monthswhereasforassaultonachilditwas10.1months.Asimilarpatternisevidentacrossthespectrum,fromrelativelyminorassaultstomoreseriousones.

Thissentencingpremiumisnotdependentupontheexistenceofachild-specific3.19

offence.Thedifferenceinpenaltyappliedregardlessofthenatureoftheoffencecharged.Inotherwords,itwascircumstance-basedratherthanoffence-based.

Thesentencesconsideredwereimposedpriortotheenactmentofnewsection3.20

9AwhichwasinsertedintotheSentencingAct2002inDecember2008.39Itexplicitlyprovidesthatoffendingagainstchildren,definedas lessthan14yearsofage,isanaggravatingfactor.Earlydecisionsunder9Aindicatethatthecourtshaverecogniseditspurposeandsignificance.40

39 Sentencing(OffencesAgainstChildren)AmendmentAct2008,s4.

40 R v Anthony Mervyn Richards (1May2009)HCWNCRI-2008-078-001067,para17GendallJ.

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Our recommendation for repeal

Wethereforeconsiderthattheweightofargumentleansinfavourofrepealing3.21

section 194(a). In the light of this recommendation, we are making aparallel recommendation that themaximumpenalty forcommonassault(newsection189A(2))shouldbeincreasedto2years.Thiswillensurethatassaultsagainstchildrenarestillpunishablebyanappropriatemaximumpenalty–thatis,thesamepenaltythatcurrentlyexists.Ofcourse,assaultsagainstchildrenthatcauseinjury,orwherethereisanaggravatedintent,willbechargeableunderotheroffenceswithhighermaxima:seefurtherchapter2.

Weconsiderthatthecurrent2-yearpenaltyforchild-specificassaultthatdoes3.22

notcauseinjuryisappropriate,relativetootherpenalties.Pendingafirstprinciplesreviewofmaximumpenalties–whichwesupport–ithasbeennecessarygiventhelimitedscopeofthisprojecttopreservetheexistingrelativities.Whilecomparisonshavefromtimetotimebeenmadewiththemaximumpenalty,forexample,forthewilfulilltreatmentofanimalsundersection28oftheAnimalWelfareAct1999,theexampleisnotanalogous.Theanalogousoffenceinthecontextofoffendingagainstchildreniswilfulilltreatmentinsection195oftheCrimesAct,withacurrentmaximumpenaltyof5yearsimprisonment,whichwearerecommendingshouldbeincreasedto10years.

3.23 Undersection194(b)oftheCrimesAct1961,itisaspecificoffenceforamaletoassaultafemale.Likesection194(a)(assaultonachild),itissubjecttoamaximumtermof2years’imprisonment,asopposedtothe1-yearmaximumforcommonassault.Section194(b)provides:

Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 2 years who—

(b) Being a male, assaults any female.

Whileanassaultbyamaleonafemaleisgenerallyarelativelyculpableform3.24

ofassault,wehavereservationsaboutwhetheritisuniversallysufficientlymoreculpabletowarrantaseparateoffence.Whileasageneralrule,theaveragemalewillveryoftenhaveaphysical advantageover theaverage female,thecircumstanceswilldifferineachcase.

Policechargingpracticesuggeststhatsection194(b)willbeusedforcaseswhere3.25

theassaultwasmorethantrifling,but(weassume)shortofthereallyseriousassaults thatwouldtriggeramoreserious injurycharge. Inotherwords,theapplicationoftheexistingoffenceinpracticetendstoundermineanyargumentforitsretentiononthebasisofsymbolism:itisnotthesymbolismthatdrivesitsuse;ithasmoretodowithensuringthatchargesaretailoredsothatmaximumpenaltyadequatelyreflectstheculpability.

Weconsideredwhethertheoffencemighthavebeendesigned,orbeoperating,3.26

asaproxyforanoffenceofdomesticassault.However,notalldomesticassaultswillbeperpetratedbyamalepartner;awomanmightbetheperpetratorinsomecases,ortheremightbeanabusivesamesexrelationship.Ifadomesticassaultoffenceistheendthatissought,section194(b)isnotdoingagoodjob.

maLe assauLts femaLe

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CHAPTER 3: Specif ic assaults

Whilstacknowledgingthelimitedbenefitsofsection194(b)asaproxyfor3.27

domesticassault,policeandothersnotedaconcernthat,iftheoffencewasrepealed,andthosecurrentlyconvictedunderitconvictedofcommonassaultinstead,therewouldbenothingonthecriminalrecordtoestablishahistoryofthatcategoryofoffending.Thatmightberelevantinformationtoajudgeforsentencingpurposes,orChild,YouthandFamilyinconsideringtheplacementofchildren,forexample.

Weacknowledgethatthisisanimportantpoint.However,again,wenotethat3.28

section194(b) isnota goodmeans to that end.Likeassaultona child,itonlyaddressesrelativelyminorcases–theequivalentofcommonassault,butforthegenderofthetwopeopleinvolved.Wheretheconductismoreserious,resultingininjuryorevendeathofthefemale,generallyapplicablechargesoughttobe,andinmostcaseswouldbe,laid.Inotherwords,acriminalrecordthatreliesupontheoffenceofmaleassaultsfemaletoindicatepropensitytoengageindomesticassaultwillbehighlymisleading.Ultimately,everybodyagreedthatamethodofrecordingsuchpropensity,coveringthewholerangeofrelevantoffences,wouldneedtobedeveloped.WeunderstandthattheMinistryofJusticeandPoliceareworkingtogethertoaddressthis.Weareadvisedthatpolicemethodsofcodingarecapableofbeingmodifiedtodothejob.

Inlightofthiswerecommendthatsection194(b)shouldberepealed.3.29

Domestic assault

Asnotedabove,weconsideredwhethersection194(b)mighthavebeendesigned,3.30

orbeoperating,asaproxyforanoffenceofdomesticassault.Thehiddennatureofdomesticassaultisapossiblerationaleforaspecificoffence.Thereiscurrentlyagovernment-fundedcampaigntryingtopromotevisibilityandshiftsocialmores,whichsomemightthinkwouldbeunderminedbytheomissionofaspecificoffence.Byseparatelylabellingthisoffencecategory,itpotentiallyhasa“nameandshame”effect.

However,thecentralmessageofthatcampaignisthatdomesticassaultis3.31

justasbadasotherassault.Itwould,infact,beentirelyconsistentwiththatmessagetorepealparticularprovisionformaleassaultsfemale,anddeclinetointroducenewprovisionfordomesticassault,onthebasisthatallareequallyculpable.Toprovideforsuchincidentsseparatelyisinfactinconsistentwiththeprimarymessage.

However,moreimportantly,therearelikelytobeverysignificantproblems3.32

whenattemptingtodefine“domesticassault”,anditisdifficulttoconstructadefinition–whether“relationshipinthenatureofmarriage”,cohabitation,longtermrelationship,andsoon–thatwouldnotpotentiallyresultinsomeverysignificantanomalies.

Wedonotrecommendtheintroductionofanewdomesticassaultoffence.3.33

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3.34 TheCrimesAct1961andSummaryProceedingsAct1981eachcontainspecificassaultprovisionsinrespectofpoliceofficersactingintheexecutionoftheirduty.Section192(2)oftheCrimesActprovides:

192 Aggravated assault

(2) Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 3 years who assaults any constable or any person acting in aid of any constable, or any person in the lawful execution of any process, with intent to obstruct the person so assaulted in the execution of his duty.

Section10oftheSummaryOffencesAct1981(whichalsoappliestoprison3.35

officers)provides:

10 Assault on police, prison, or traffic officer

Every person is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 6 months or a fine not exceeding $4,000 who assaults any constable, or any prison officer, or any traffic officer, acting in the execution of his duty.

Theprincipalargumentforspecificallyprotectingpolicebywayofaunique3.36

assaultprovision(orprovisions)derivesfromthesymbolicnatureoftheirrole.Policearethefrontlineofstateenforcement–thesocalled“thinblueline”betweenlawlessnessandtherestofus.Implicitly,anattackonapoliceofficerisanattackontheauthorityofthestate.Thepolicearenecessarilyattheforefrontofalmosteveryemergencyresponse;aswassaidtous(bythepolice),whereasotherscanrunfromdanger,policemustruntowardsit.Becauseofthat,theyareentitledtoexpectrobuststateprotection.Furthermore,itisnotjustaboutprotectionofpolice;ifassaultsontheirpersonandauthorityareinanywaydeterredbytheexistenceofaspecificoffence,thatisofgeneralbenefittousall,notjustabenefittopoliceofficers.

Thereisthusanargumentthatassaultonapoliceofficerisqualitativelydifferent3.37

initsculpabilityfromotherassaults,andthatthisdifferenceshouldbeexplicitlysignalled.Indeed,internationally,assaultonapoliceofficeristheonespecificassaultoffencethatconsistentlyreappearsintheprecedents,andthatlawreformershaveconsistentlydecidedtoretain.41

Thepoliceputtheircasestrongly,andultimatelywearepersuadedthataspecific3.38

offenceofassaultonapoliceofficershouldforthetimebeingberetained.Nochangetosections10and192(2)isrecommended.

41 SeeforexampleUnitedKingdomLawCommission,aboven33,41;andLawReformCommissionofIreland,aboven33,paras9.111–9.115.

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CHAPTER 3: Specif ic assaults

3.39 Currentlythereareamyriadofstatutoryoffencesinvolvingassaultsandotherrelatedconduct(eg.obstruction)onarangeofenforcementofficersandofficials.Theseincludethefollowing:

sEctIon offEncE – AssAults MAxIMuM pEnAlty

Animal products Act 1999, s 133(1)

offence to assault, threaten, or intentionally obstruct or hinder an animal product officer official assessor, or recognised risk management programme verifier.

$50,000

Biosecurity Act 1993, s 154(a)

offence to threaten, assault or intentionally obstruct or hinder an inspector or authorised or accredited person.

12 months or $50,000

civil defence Emergency Management Act 2002, s 98

offence to threaten, assault, or wilfully obstructs person performing duty under Act.

3 months or $5,000

copyright Act 1994, s 221 offence to assault, threaten, intimidate or intentionally insult member of tribunal.

$1,000

courts security Act 1999, s 30

resists/ assaults/ wilfully obstructs court security officer.

3 months or $300

crimes Act 1961, s 401 Assault of judge, registrar, officer of the court, witness

3 months or $1,000

customs and Excise Act 1996, s176

threatens/ assaults/ by force resists/ intentionally obstructs or intimidates customs officer.

12 months or $15,000

disputes tribunal Act 1988, s 56(1)

Assault of referee, witness, or officer of tribunal.

$1,000

district court Act 1947, s 18 Assault on officer of the court (this does not require a charge, so is not an offence).

$300

Employment relations Act 2000, s 196(1)

Assault on member of authority/ judge/ registrar, etc.

3 months or $5,000

Evidence Act 2006, s 179 Assaults witness, solicitor or court officer during video link proceedings to Aus court.

3 months or $1,000

forests Act 1949, s 59 Assault of forestry worker, other person exercising duties under the Act.

$2,000

International War crimes Act 1995, s 40(1)

Assault of judge, prosecutor, registrar, barrister or solicitor.

3 months or $1,000

judicature Act 1908, s 56 Assault of judge, registrar, officer of court, etc of federal court of Aus sitting in nZ.

3 months or $1,000

judicature Act 1908, s 56c Assault of judge, registrar, officer of court, juror or witness.

3 months or $1,000

Health Act 1956, s 72 threatens/ assaults/ intentionally obstructs/ hinders health officer or police officer acting under the Act.

6 months or $4,000

Health practitioners competence Assurance Act 2003, schedule 1, cl (13)(1)

Assault on member of tribunal, officer, barrister or solicitor or witness.

$10,000

assauLts on others in performance of their duties

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Human rights Act 1993, s 114(1)

Assault of judge, officer, registrar, prosecutor.

10 days or $1,500

lawyers and conveyancers Act 2006, s 251(1)

Assault of member or officer of disciplinary tribunal.

$5,000

reserves Act 1977, s 98 Assault of ranger or employee of the crown.

3 months or $2,500

residential tenancies Act 1986, s 112(1)

Assault of tenancy adjudicator or officer of tribunal or witness etc.

$1,000

resource Management Act 1991, s 282

Assault of member of, special adviser to ot officer of court.

10 days or $1,500

social Workers registration Act 2003, sched 2 cl (13(1)

Assault on member/ advisor/ officer of complaints and disciplinary tribunal.

$2,000

summary offences Act, s 10 Assault on police, prison, or traffic officer.

6 months or $4,000

summary proceedings Act 1957, s 192(9)

Assault of special constable or assistant in execution of duty.

3 months or $300

supreme court Act 2003, s 35(1)

Assault of supreme court judge, registrar, witness.

5 days or $5,000

Weathertight Homes resolution Act 2006, s 115

Assaults/ threatens/ intimidates Member of tribunal.

$5,000

Wildlife Act 1953, s 40(1) Assault of ranger or assistant. 3 months or $5,000

Wildlife Act 1953, s 51 Assault of inspector or other authorised person.

$5,000

Wine Act 2003, s 101(1) Assault of wine officer, assistant or authorised person.

$50,000

sEctIon offEncE – oBstructIon MAxIMuM pEnAlty

Antarctica (Environmental protection) Act 1994, s 47

offence to obstruct inspectors. $1,500

Auckland Harbour Act 1874, s 34

penalty for obstructing receiver. $200

Biosecurity Act 1993, s 134 Enforcement of area controls. 5 years or $100,000 or both (individual), $200,000 (company)

Building Act 2004, s 367 offence to obstruct execution of powers under this Act.

$5,000

civil Aviation Act 1990, s 55 personation or obstruction of aviation security officer.

3 months or $2,000

commerce Act 1986, s 103 offences. $10,000 (individual), $30,000 (body corporate)

companies Act 1993, s 365 registrar’s powers of inspection. $10,000

driftnet prohibition Act 1991, s 25

offences. $20,000

fisheries Act 1996, s 113W persons on new Zealand ships to co-operate with foreign high seas inspectors.

5 years or $250,000 or to both

fisheries Act 1996, s 229 obstructing fisheries officers. $250,000

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CHAPTER 3: Specif ic assaults

gambling Act 2003, s 346 obstructing gambling inspector. $2,000 (individual), $5,000 (higher grade of licence)

Health and safety in Employment Act 1992, s 48

obstruction, etc. $250,000

Historic places Act 1993, s 21 rights of entry. $2,500

Immigration Advisors licensing Act 2007, s 69

offence to obstruct inspection. $10,000

Insurance companies (ratings and Inspections) Act 1994, s 26

registrar’s powers of inspection. $10,000

land transport Act 1998, s 53

obstruction of enforcement officer or dangerous goods enforcement officer.

$10,000

limited partnerships Act 2008, s 78

registrar’s powers of inspection. $10,000

Maritime security Act 2004, s 74

personation or obstruction of authorised person.

3 months or $2,000

Mental Health (compulsory Assessment and treatment) Act 1992, s 117

obstruction of inspection. $2,000

Misuse of drugs Act, s 16 obstruction of officers. 3 months or $500 or both

Misuse of drugs Amendment Act 2005, s 60

offence to obstruct enforcement officer or member of police under this part.

$1,000

Motor Vehicle sales Act 2003, s 109

offence to obstruct inspection. $2,000

Motor Vehicle sales Act 2003, s 110

offence to obstruct search. $2,000

real Estate Agents Act 2008, s 153

offence to resist, obstruct, etc. $40,000 (individual), $100,000 (company)

retirement Villages Act 2003, s 97

registrar’s powers of inspection. $30,000 (individual), $100,000 (body corporate)

serious fraud office Act 1990, s 45

offence to obstruct investigation, etc. 12 months or $15,000 (individual), $40,000 (company)

transport Act 1962, s 80 Inspection of vehicles required to have certificates of fitness or permits.

$1,000

Ajumbleofapproachesisevidentintheseoffences.Theirmaximumpenalties3.40

varywidely.Someof theoffencesrefer toassault;others toother formsof obstruction, using language such as “resist”, “impede”, “obstruct”,“useabusiveorthreateninglanguage”,or“behaveinathreateningmanner”inadditionto,orinsteadof,assault.

Itisquestionablewhattheseoffencesaddtothegeneralprovisionsinthe3.41

CrimesAct1961andSummaryOffencesAct1981.Theyappeartohavebeencreatedforsymbolicreasonstorecognisethespecialroleofenforcementofficersandtheriskstheyfaceincarryingouttheirduties.However,itisdoubtfulthat

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theyachievethisbecausethelowlevelnatureoftheoffencesrisksthesameproblemofperceptionthatwediscussedinrelationtothechildspecificoffenceearlierinthechapter.

Moreover,ifweareconcernedwithpeopleonthe“frontline”,therearepersons3.42

otherthanlawenforcementofficersonwhomwerelyinacrisis.

AconsultationdocumentcirculatedbytheScottishExecutiveillustratesthe3.43

problemthatquicklyariseswhenonegroupissingledouttotheexclusionof another. In 2003, the Executive circulated a consultation paper titledProtection of Emergency Workers.42Itconcludedthatcommonlawandstatutoryprotectionswereinadequateandthatprotectionforemergencyworkersneededtobebroughtintolinewiththatavailableforpolice.Thepaperstartedbymakingitscaseforpolice,fireserviceandambulanceofficers.Itthendrewalinkbetweentheseworkersandgeneralpractitioners,communitynursesandcommunitymidwiveswhoattendemergencies.Addedtothislistweredoctors,consultants,alliedhealthprofessionalsandnurseswhoworkinemergencydepartments.Thosethatassistedthesestaffwerealsotobeprotected.Andifthatwasnotsufficient,theproposedprotectionwasalsostatedtocover“workerswhorespondtoenvironmentalemergencies”includingthosewhofixgasleaksorworktodecontaminatewater.Thelegislationproposedwouldhavemadeitanoffencetoobstruct,assault,orhinderoneofthesecategoriesofworkersintheexecutionoftheirduty.

This“floodgates”problemleadsustotheviewthat3.44 nospecificassaultoffencesotherthanassaultonapoliceofficerarejustified.

Inaddition,singlingoutsomeoccupationalgroupsforspecialtreatmentnot3.45

onlycreatesariskofanomalies.Italsoaddsunnecessarytechnicalityandcomplexitytoprosecutionsbecauseoftheneedtoprovethestatusofthevictim.Inourview,thestatusofthevictimandthefunctionthatheorsheperformsatthetimeoftheassaultaremattersthatcanbeproperlytakenintoaccountaspartofthesentencingprocess.

Inprinciple,weconsiderthatthevariousspecificassaultprovisionsthatapply3.46

toenforcementofficersandotherofficialsshouldberepealed.

Recommendation for further work

Thescopeoftheworkinvolvedinaddressingspecificassaultand/orobstruction3.47

offencesrelatingtoallenforcementofficersisconsiderable.Itcouldnotbeachievedwithinthetimeavailabletous–particularlygiventhelikelihoodthatwewouldproposerepealofanumberoftheoffencesandperhapsindeedallofthem,whichwouldhaverequiredextensiveconsultation.Wewouldhaveneededtoconsidertheimplicationsoftheblurrylinebetweenoffencesthatrefertoassault(perhapsincludingreferencetootherformsofobstruction)andthosesolelydirectedtoobstruction:isthereanybasisonwhichtoarguethatthetwocategoriesofoffencearedifferentincharacter?

Werecommendthatfurtherworkshouldbeundertakenonthisissue,byeither3.48

theLawCommissionortheMinistryofJustice.

42 ScottishExecutiveProtection of Emergency Workers – A consultation paper(Astron,Edinburgh,2003).

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CHAPTER 4: Endanger ing, negl igent in jury, and homicide

Chapter 4Endangering, negligent injury, and homicide

4.1 Sections145,160,and190oftheCrimesAct1961provide(inrelevantpart):

145 Criminal nuisance

Every one commits criminal nuisance who does any unlawful act or omits to (1) discharge any legal duty, such act or omission being one which he knew would endanger the lives, safety, or health of the public, or the life, safety, or health of any individual.

190 Injuring by unlawful act

Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 3 years who injures any other person in such circumstances that if death had been caused he would have been guilty of manslaughter.

160 Culpable homicide

Homicide is culpable when it consists in the killing of any person—(2)

By an unlawful act; or(a)

By an omission without lawful excuse to perform or observe any legal duty; or(b)

By both combined; or(c)

By causing that person by threats or fear of violence, or by deception, to do an (d) act which causes his death; or

By wilfully frightening a child under the age of 16 years or a sick person.(e)

Undersection190,apersonisliableforinjuringanotherincircumstanceswhere4.2

heorshecouldhavebeenguiltyofmanslaughterhadthevictimdied.Accordingly,thecaselawrelatingtosection160appliestosection190cases,albeitmodifiedasnecessarytofitsituationsofinjuryratherthandeath.

the current Law

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4.3 Ourproposedredraftoftheseprovisionsmakessomechangestosection160(2)oftheCrimesAct,whichdefinesculpablehomicide.Thesection160(2)changeswouldcodifycaselaw.Werecommendthatsections145and190shouldbere-enactedinnewsections157Aand157Bofthedraft,andamendedtoalignthemwith section160.Therehavebeen somehistorical anomalies andinconsistenciesofapproachbetweenthethreeprovisionsthatinourviewarenotjustified.Thepolicyobjectivehereissimplytoensurethatthelawisconsistent.Ifourrecommendationsareagreedto,thethreeprovisionswouldestablishahierarchythataddressesthewholerangeofpossibleoutcomesarisingfromagrosslynegligentunlawfulactoromissiontoperformastatutoryduty,dependingonwhetherdeath,injury,orriskofinjuryresults.

Thenewdraftclausesread:4.4

157A Unlawful acts and omissions likely to cause injury

Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 2 years who does any unlawful act or omits to perform any statutory duty if, in the circumstances, that act or omission is likely to injure another.

157B Injuring by unlawful act or omission

Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 3 years who—

does any unlawful act or omits to perform any statutory duty if, in the circumstances, (a) that act or omission is likely to injure another and results in injury to another; or

causes a person to do an act that results in injury to that person by threats of (b) violence, or fear of violence, or by deception.

Section 150A

Whenachargeis laidundereithersection160or190oftheCrimesAct,4.5

alleginganomissiontoperformaduty,section150AoftheActapplies.43

Section150AwasinsertedintotheCrimesActin1997,togiveeffecttothe4.6

recommendationsoftheMcMullinreport.44SirDuncanMcMullinrecommendedthattheminimumlevelofculpabilityforcasesofmanslaughterbyomissionshouldbegrossnegligence–or,aseventuallyexpressedinsection150A,agrossdeparturefromthestandardofcareexpectedofareasonableperson.Section150Acurrentlyreads:

43 InR v Andersen [2005]1NZLR774(CA),theCourtofAppealpreferredtoleavethequestionofwhethersection150Ashouldalsoapplyinsection145casesforanotherday.Weareproposingthatsection145,currentlyinPart7oftheCrimesAct,willbebroughtintoPart8asnewsection157A.TheprovisionsitsmorelogicallyinPart8,becauseofitscloseconnectionwithnewsection157Bandsection160(2).Thismeansthatsection150AoftheCrimesAct(whichappliestooffences“inthisPart”–ie,Part8)willapplytoit,thusclarifyingtheunresolvedAndersenpoint.

44 SirDuncanMcMullin,Report of Sir Duncan McMullin to Hon Douglas Graham, Minister of Justice, on Sections 155 and 156 of the Crimes Act 1961(Wellington,1995).

our approach to these offences

the mentaL eLement

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CHAPTER 4: Endanger ing, negl igent in jury, and homicide

150A Standard of care required of persons under legal duties

this section applies in respect of the legal duties specified in any of sections 151, (1) 152, 153, 155, 156, and 157.

for the purposes of this part, a person is criminally responsible for—(2)

omitting to discharge or perform a legal duty to which this section applies; or(a)

neglecting a legal duty to which this section applies—(b)

only if, in the circumstances of the particular case, the omission or neglect is a major departure from the standard of care expected of a reasonable person to whom that legal duty applies in those circumstances.

Aspresentlydrafted,section150Aaddressesthemensreaelementonlyincases4.7

wheretherehasbeenanomissiontoperformalegalduty.Butinourview,grossnegligenceshouldalsobetheminimumstandardofcriminalliabilityforunlawfulactschargedunder theproposedsections157A,157Band160.ThisisconsistentwiththeviewtakenbytheCourtofAppealinR v Powell,45whentheCourtheldthatthelegislaturecannothaveintendedthatdifferentstandardswouldapplytounlawfulactsandomissionsrespectively,becauseinsomecases,itmaybeopentotheCrowntoframeitschargeintermsofeithersection160(2)(a)or(b).Itwouldbenonsensicalfortherequiredstandardofculpabilitytodependuponthedecision(perhapsmadearbitrarily)astotheframingofthecharge.

Wethereforerecommendthatsection150Ashouldbeamended,tocodifywhat4.8

weunderstandtohavebeenthedecisioninPowell.Wheretheoffenceconstitutingtheunlawfulactincludesaculpabilityelementofintentionorrecklessness,itwill remainnecessary for theCrown toestablish thiselementbeyondreasonabledoubt.Butwheretheoffencerequiresmerenegligenceorisastrictorabsoluteliabilityoffence,weproposethatundersection150A,theCrownwillhavetoprovethattheperson’sactwasagrossdeparturefromthestandardofcareexpectedofareasonableperson.

New section 157A – gross negligence, not recklessness

Atpresenttheculpabilityelementfortheendangeringoffenceinsection145is4.9

recklessness.46Thisisnotthecaseundersections160and190,wheredeathorinjuryhasresulted;byvirtueofsection150AoftheAct,grossnegligencesufficestoestablishliability.47

Recklessnessmeansthatanaccusedhasknowinglyrunarisktoanother4.10

that, inthecircumstances, itwasunreasonabletorun.Grossnegligence,ontheotherhand,isanobjectivetestthat,assetoutinsection150AoftheAct,simplymeasures theconductof theaccusedagainst thestandardofcareexpectedofareasonableperson,andasks:wasthisamajordeparturefromthatstandard?

45 R v Powell [2002]1NZLR666(CA).

46 R v Andersen,aboven43.

47 SeegenerallyAdamsonCriminalLawCA160.03.

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Inourview,thereisnojustificationforperpetuatingthisdistinction.Ifamajor4.11

departurefromthestandardofcareexpectedofareasonablepersonissufficienttoestablishliabilityincasesinvolvingdeathandinjury,itisdifficulttoseewhyahigherstandardofculpabilityshouldberequiredtoestablishliabilitywhentheconsequenceoftheconductislessseriousandtheavailablepenaltyislower.

4.12 Theterm“unlawfulact”appearsinsections145and160.Undersection145,theunlawfulactneednotbecriminaloroneprohibitedbystatute;anyactthatisinbreachofeithercriminalorcivillawwillsuffice.48Thisistobecontrastedwiththemeaningof“unlawfulact”undersections160(and190)which,asconfirmedbytheCourtofAppealinR v Myatt,islimitedtoanoffenceinbreachofanyAct,regulationorbylaw.49

ThenarrowerinterpretationpreferredbytheCourtin4.13 Myattisourpreferredoption,fortworeasons.50First,wedonotthinkthatcriminalliabilityshouldarisesolelyfromcivilwrongs.Civilliabilityallocateslossbetweentwoparties,where one party has allegedly suffered harm at the hands of the other,whereasthecriminallawinvolvesthestatebringinganindividualtojusticewhohasdoneawrongagainstthecommunity.Ifcivil lawsarebreached,civilremediesareavailableandshouldnotgiverisetocriminalliabilityunlessthereissomeindependentjustificationfordoingso.Secondly,wethinkthatforseriouschargesthatmayresultinasignificantprisonterm,thescopeofliabilityshouldbecertain,sothatapersonisabletoascertaininadvancetheextentofhisorhercriminalliability.

Wethereforerecommendtheadoptionofamodified4.14 Myattapproach,thatwouldcoveroffencesinbreachofrules,aswellasthosethatbreachActs,regulationsorbylaws.

4.15 Sections 145 and 160 each refer to omissions to perform a legal duty(andasnotedabove,althoughsection190doesnotcontainthislanguage,itimportsallofthelawrelatingtosection160).Inmostcases,thedutyonwhichachargeunderanyoneofthesesectionsisbasedwillbeoneofthosesetoutinsections151to157oftheCrimesAct.ButtherearealsouncodifiedcommonlawdutiesthathavebeenreliedonatleasttwicetoestablishalegaldutybytheNewZealandCourtofAppeal.51InR v Mwai thedefendanthadallegedlyfailedtouseprotectionduringsexualintercoursewhenheknewhewasacarrieroftheHIVvirus.TheCourtheldthatageneraldutyatcommonlawexists

48 AdamsonCriminalLawCA145.01.

49 R v Myatt [1991]1NZLR674,678(CA),BissonJfortheCourt. WhiletheCourtinR v Myatt wasnotrequiredtoconclusivelydeterminewhetherthesolescopeof“unlawfulact”formanslaughterpurposesisbreachofanAct,regulationorbylaw,thisseemstohavebeentheviewreachedbytheEnglishappellateauthoritiesandthebasisonwhichtheMyattCourtproceeded:seeforexampleR v Lamb[1967]2QB281(CA)andR v Kennedy (No 2)[2008]1AC269;[2007]3WLR612(HL).

50 WehavenotedtheapproachtakentoendangeringintheCrimesBill1989,followedbytheCaseyCommittee,whichbasedtheendangeringoffenceson“anyact”thatislikelytoinjureorendangerthesafetyofanother.Wedidnotsupportthisapproachbecauseofitsbreadth:ifthenewoffenceswereframedintermsof“anyact”,itcouldgiverisetoliabilityforanyonewhosmokedinapublicplace,skateboardeddownthestreet,orsoldunhealthyfoodtoasickperson.OurmorecautiousapproachissupportedbyCagney v Director of Public Prosecutions [2007]IESC46,inwhichtheSupremeCourtcriticisedsection13oftheNon-FatalOffencesAgainstthePersonAct1997(Ire).

51 See for example R v Mwai, above n 22; R v Andersen, above n 43, para 71; R v Lunt [2004]1NZLR498(CA).

unLawfuL acts

changing “LawfuL” to “statutory” duty

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CHAPTER 4: Endanger ing, negl igent in jury, and homicide

“nottoengageinconductwhichonecanforeseemayexposeotherstoharm”,52andthatthisdutywassufficienttosupportthechargeundersection145.InR v Lunt,theCourtofAppealheldthatwhilethedutyonaparentorpersoninplaceofaparentcontainedinsection151didnotincludeadutytoprotectachildfromharm,acommonlawdutyexistedonaparentto“protecthisorherchildfromtheillegalviolenceoftheotherparentorofanyotherpersonwherethatviolenceisforeseenorreasonablyforeseeable”.53

Ifthe“legalduty”languagewasretained,itwouldremainopentothecourtsto4.16

continuetoapplycommonlawduties.Thiswouldallowthecourtstoaddresssituationsbeyondthescopeofthecodifiedduties,asMwaiandLuntillustrate.Viewsamongstthoseweconsultedwerefairlyevenlydividedontheargumentsforandagainstthis;someconsideredtheresultingflexibilitytobeanadvantage,and thatprecisely thepurposeofacatch-allphrase suchas“legalduty”istorespondtounforeseencircumstances.

However,onbalanceweconsider that, in the interestsof certaintyand4.17

transparency,itwouldbepreferabletoreferinsteadto“statutory”ratherthan“legal”duties.Wefeeluneasywiththenotionthatuncodifieddutiescanformthebasisforcriminaloffences;asoneacademichasnoted,“itisnotamatterofwhatdutiesexist,itisonlypossibletoindicatewhichoneshavesofarbeenrecognised.”54Itisacornerstoneoftheruleoflawthatpeopleshouldonlybeheldcriminallyliableforconductthatwascriminalatthetimethatitoccurred,sothat,iftheywereinclinedtodoso,theywouldbeabletoascertainwhetheritisprohibited.Thisisnotpossibleinrelationtothecommonlawdutiesdiscernedbythecourtsfromtimetotime;bluntlyput,itinvitesthecourtsto“makeitupastheygoalong”accordingtothecircumstancesoftheindividualcase.WethereforeconsiderthatthebasisofomissionsliabilityinthecriminallawofNewZealandneedstobecomprehensivelyestablishedbystatutoryduties,andconfined to thescopeof thoseduties.Whilewecannot ruleout thepossibilitythat,infuture,theoccasionalcasemayfallonthewrongsideoftheline,thatwillbeamatterforthelegislaturetoaddressfromtimetotime,astheoccasionarises.

Otherproposedchangesarediscussedinotherpartsofthereport,4.18 55whichwillensurethatthescenariosaddressedbyMwaiandLuntwillremainwithinthescopeofthecriminallaw,notwithstandingthechangeinlanguagefrom“legal”to“statutory”duty.Neitherwe,norotherswhomweconsulted,wereabletoidentifyanyotherscenariosbeyondthescopeofoneoftheexistingorproposedstatutorydutiesthatwouldamounttoalacuna.

52 R v Mwai,aboven22,156.

53 R v Lunt, aboven51,687.

54 FranWright“Criminalnuisance:gettingbacktobasics”(2004)21NZULR665,679.

55 SeefurtherthediscussionregardingthedutyinR v Lunt,aboven51inchapter5;andthediscussionregardingR v Mwai,aboven22inchapter2.

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4.19 InR v Myatt,havingnotedthatbreachofanyAct,regulationorbylawconstitutesanunlawfulactformanslaughterpurposes,theCourtofAppealheldthattwofurthermattersneededtobeprovedtoestablishmanslaughterliability.

ThefirstwasthattheAct,regulationorbylawbreachedshouldhavepublic4.20

safetyasitsobjective,oratleastoneofitsobjectives.TherearemyriadoffencesinActs,regulationsandbylaws,andwhilemanyofthesewillhaveapublicsafetycomponent,therearealsomanythatdonot.WhileweagreewiththepropositionthatitwouldbeproblematicifthemerebreachofanyAct,regulationorbylawonitsownwassufficienttogiverisetoliabilitywithoutsomefurtherqualification,wedonotbelieveitisappropriatetorequirethattheAct,regulationorbylawshouldbedirectedtopublicsafety.Itwouldnotachieveclarityinthelaw,itwouldbedifficulttoapplyconsistently,anditwouldhavethepotentialtoundulynarrowthescopeofliabilitybyfocusingonthegeneralnatureoftheoffencethatisbreached,ratherthenatureoftheparticularbreachandwhetherornotitinvolvedadangerousact.

Secondly,accordingtotheCourt in4.21 Myatt, theactthatbreachestheAct,regulationorbylawalsoneedstobe“anactlikelytodoharmtothedeceasedortosomeclassofpersonofwhomhewasone”.56InR v LeetheCourtofAppealappliedthistest,notingthatthiswasadifferentmethodofexpressingtheconceptthattheact inquestionmustbeobjectivelydangerous,aprinciplethatis“wellestablishedinNewZealand”.57Thedegreeoflikelyharmwasunqualified,andhasbeenheldsimplytomean“someharm”.

Inourview,thepertinentquestionshouldbesimplywhetherornottheactis4.22

onethat,inthecircumstances,islikelytoinjureanother.Whilstnotingthatthisdiffersfromthelanguageof“harm”employedbythecourts,wethinkitalmostinevitablethatinreferringto“harm”,“injury”wasinfactwhatwasmeant.58 Ifharminsomebroadersense–forexample,encompassingpsychologicaloremotionalharm,asopposedtoactualbodilyharm–isinfactthecurrenttest,thequestioniswhetherwewouldbeinappropriatelynarrowingthescopeofcriminalliabilitybyreferringinsteadonlytolikelihoodofinjury.Wefindithardtoimagineanycircumstancesfromwhichdeathorinjuryhasresulted,thatcouldarisefromconductconfinedsolelytoalikelihoodofsomedifferentkindofharm;iftherewasanylikelihoodatallofsomeinjury,ourproposedtestwillcontinuetocaptureit.Furthermore,ifthereareanysuchcircumstances,wedoubtwhetherthedeathorinjuryoutcomeissufficientlyforeseeabletorendertheconductculpable.

Our draft places the same precondition on liability for omissions to4.23

performastatutoryduty–thatis,theomissionmust,inthecircumstances,havebeenlikelytoinjure.Giventhenatureofthestatutoryduties,itwouldseemalmostinevitableinmostcasesthatabreachofthemwillbelikelytoinjure.However,intheeventthatitisnot,wecanfindnojustificationforcriminalisingtheomission,whenanunlawfulactwouldnotbecriminalised.

56 R v Myatt, aboven49, followingtheapproachoftheCourtofAppealintheunreportedcaseofR v Faigan.

57 R v Lee,aboven8,para138.

58 This conforms with the statement of Humphries J in R v Larkin [1943] 1 All ER 217, 219,restatedinR v Myatt,aboven49,thattheunlawfulact“isanactlikelytoinjureanotherperson”.

acts and omiss ions L ikeLy to injure

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4.24 Section160(2)oftheCrimesActdefinesculpablehomicide.Undersection160(2)(c)apersoncanbeliableforculpablehomicideiftheycausedeathbybothanunlawfulactandanomissioncombined.Section160(2)(e)includesthefurthergroundofwilfullyfrighteningachildundertheageof16years,orasickperson.

We recommend the repeal of section 160(2)(c) because we regard it as4.25

unnecessary.Inordertoestablishcriminalliabilityonahomicidecharge,theCrownneedstoestablishthattheallegedunlawfulactoromissiontoperformastatutorydutywasasubstantialandoperatingcauseofdeath.Inalmostallcases,itwillbepossibleandindeedquitestraightforwardtoidentifywhichofthesetwoitis–eitheranactoranomission–inwhichcase,eithersection160(2)(a)or(b)respectivelywillapply.Incasesinwhichanactandanomissionhaveoccurredthatarebothweresubstantialandoperatingcausesofthedeath,itisopentotheprosecutiontolaytwocharges.

Section160(2)(e)waswidelyregardedbythoseweconsultedassomewhat4.26

arbitrary.Whileitistruethat,intheabsenceofsection160(2)(e),suchconductwouldnotbecriminal,wedonottreatitascriminalwhenanoutcomeshortofdeathresults,ifitdoesnototherwiseamounttoanunlawfulactoranomissiontoperformastatutoryduty.Ifdeathdidoccurfromsuchconduct,itwouldbeextremelyunfortunateandregrettable,butnot,wethink,sufficientlyforeseeabletogiverisetomanslaughterliability.Noristhereanyrealriskthat,forexample,thecaregiversofsickpeoplewillelecttotrytofrightenthemtodeathassomesort of informal substitute for euthanasia (this being the only exampleanyonemanagedtosupplyasapotential justification for theprovision).Furthermore,whiletheprovisionclearlyattemptstoprotecttherelativelyvulnerable,itoffersnoprotectionforsomeotherswhoareequallyvulnerable–forexample,veryoldpeoplewhoarenot“sick”,althoughtheymaywellhaveheartsthatareweakerthanthemajorityofpeoplewithanillness.

Whilewedidencounterafewdifferingviews,ourrecommendationthatboth4.27

paragraphs(c)and(e)shouldberepealedwassupportedbyvirtuallyeveryoneweconsulted.

4.28 Newsection157A(unlawfulactsandomissionslikelytocauseinjury)andsection157B(injuringbyunlawfulactoromission)ofourproposeddraftBilladdress,respectively,situationsofendangeringandgrosslynegligentinjury.

Theproposedoffenceinsection157Ainvolvesconductthatislikelytocause4.29

injurybutdoesnotdoso.Althoughtheminimumculpabilitythresholdisgrossnegligence,theworstclassofcasemayinvolveatleastrecklessnessastoinjury.Wethereforeregarditasequivalenttocommonassault,andrecommendthesamemaximumpenaltyof2yearsimprisonment.

Theproposedoffencein157Bisinourviewroughlyanalogouswiththeproposed4.30

offenceofrecklesslycausinginjuryundernewsection189(2).Althoughtheworstclassofcaseundersection157Bwouldinvolveonlygrossnegligence(sincetheothermoreseriouschargeswouldbeavailableforhigherlevelsofculpability),wedonotregardthedistinctionbetweenrecklessnessandgrossnegligenceinthiscontextassufficientlygreattowarrantdifferentmaximumpenalties.Wethereforerecommendthata3-yearmaximumpenaltyinsection189(2)shouldalsoapplytosection157B.

section 160(2)(c) and (e )

maximum penaLties – new sections 157a and 157B

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Chapter 5Ill treatment or neglect of children and other vulnerable victims

5.1 Inlate2008,inresponsetoanumberofhighprofilecasesinvolvingtheworstformsof childneglect andnon-accidental death, theMinisterof JusticeHonSimonPowerinvitedustoexpeditethePart8review,andtohaveparticularregardtotheoffencesaimedattheprotectionofchildrenfromilltreatmentandneglect,andtheadequacyoftheirmaximumpenalties.

Thereare,currently,twoprovisionsonthestatutebookthatestablishoffences5.2

ofchildneglectandilltreatment:section10AoftheSummaryOffencesActandsection195oftheCrimesAct.Therearealsotwoapplicable“duties”provisions(sections151and152oftheCrimesAct).Thedutiesprovisionscontainoffencestoo,59andinaddition,maybeinvokedwhenlayinganyotherchargesthatrefertobreachofalegalorstatutoryduty(eg,ahomicidecharge).60

Weareproposingsignificantreformstothelawsrelatingtochildneglectandill5.3

treatment–andalso,totheneglectandilltreatmentofequallyvulnerableadults(eg,theelderlyorimpaired).Thereisnodefensiblerationale,inourview,fordistinguishingbetweenthetwocategoriesofvictim.

Thechangesweareproposingcanbesummarisedasfollows:5.4

Aredraftedsection195oftheCrimesAct1961(formerlytitled“crueltytoa·child”),addressingilltreatmentandneglectbythosewithcareorchargeofachildorvulnerableadult,withasubstantiallyincreasedmaximumpenaltyof10years.Anewoffenceforthoselivingwithachildorvulnerableadult,offailingto·takereasonablestepstoprotectsuchavictimfromanyknownriskofdeath,seriousinjuryorsexualassault.

59 CrimesAct1961,ss151(2),152(2).

60 CrimesAct1961,s160(2)(b).

introduction

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CHAPTER 5: I l l t reatment or neglect of chi ldren and other vulnerable v ict ims

Extendingthescopeofthedutiesprovisionsundersections151and152of·theCrimesAct,byintroducinganadditionalrequirementineachprovisiontotakereasonablestepstoprotectachild(section152)orvulnerableperson(section151)frominjury.

Our views on the child assault provisions are discussed in chapter 3.5.5

Wearerecommendingtherepealofsection194(a),forthereasonsoutlinedinthatchapter.

Inourview,therepealofsection194willhavetheeffectofmakingthelaw5.6

more,notless,robust.Inchildassaultcases,thewholehierarchyofgenerallyapplicableassault,injury,homicideandendangeringprovisionsdiscussedintheotherchaptersofthisadvicewillbeavailabletoprosecutors.

Inaddition,thesection195illtreatmentorneglectoffenceisframedinterms5.7

of“engaginginconduct”and,assuch,doesnotexcludethepossibilityofanilltreatmentchargebeingfoundedonthebasisofanallegedassault.Thisisthecurrentpositionasregardsthelegalscopeofilltreatment,andwedonotproposetochangeit.Section195willhaveasubstantiallyincreasedmaximumpenaltyof10years.

Wearerecommendingthatsection153oftheCrimesActshouldberepealed.5.8

Thatsectionhasneverbeenfullyfitforpurpose.Itwillnolongerbenecessary,inthelightofourotherproposedchanges.

The current law

Section195oftheCrimesActandsection10AoftheSummaryOffences5.9

Actprovide:

195 Cruelty to a child

Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 5 years who, having the custody, control, or charge of any child under the age of 16 years, wilfully ill-treats or neglects the child, or wilfully causes or permits the child to be ill-treated, in a manner likely to cause him unnecessary suffering, actual bodily harm, injury to health, or any mental disorder or disability.

10A Ill treatment or wilful neglect of child

Every person is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 6 months or to a fine not exceeding $4,000 who,—

Being a paid or unpaid staff member of a residence under the children, (a) young persons, and their families Act 1989, ill-treats or wilfully neglects any child under the age of 17 years who resides in that residence; or

Being a person to whom the care or custody of a child under the age of 17 years (b) has been lawfully entrusted, ill-treats or wilfully neglects that child.

Section10Aisextremelyrarelycharged:inthe10yearsfrom1999to2008,5.10

only30chargeswerelaid.Itsscopeis,essentially,thesameassection195.

iLL treatment or negLect of a chiLd or vuLneraBLe person

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Section195coversawiderangeofconduct.Theterms“ill-treats”and“neglects”5.11

areundefinedintheAct,whichmakesitdifficulttoarticulatethepreciseboundsoftheprovision.Manycaseswheresection195isinissueinvolveviolence,andsometimesquiteseriousinjuringcharges.

Section195issimilartotheequivalentEnglishprovision.5.12 61Inparticular,theexpression“wilfullyill-treatsorneglectsthechild...inamannerlikelyto cause him unnecessary suffering” is common to both provisions.UndertheEnglishstatute,theconceptofilltreatmentexpresslyincludesassault,providedtheassaultislikelytocauseunnecessarysuffering.Illtreatmentmayextendtobullying,orfrightening,oranyothercourseofconductthatislikelytocausethechildunnecessarysuffering.

Section195isgenerallychargedinsituationswherethereisapatternofsuch5.13

behaviouroveraperiodoftime,sothatthereismorethanoneinstanceofilltreatmentorwilfulneglect.However,thisisnotalwaysthecase,anditispossibletochargeasingleinstanceofassaultundersection195.62TheCourtofAppealhasheldthattheparticularformthatilltreatmentorneglecttakesisnotaningredientoftheoffence.ParticularsoftheallegedbehaviourmustbeprovidedbytheCrown.Thejurythenassesses,intheround,whethertheallegedspecificincidentorcourseofconductissufficienttoamountto“illtreatment”or“neglect”.Itisanevaluativeprocess,undertakenbyreferencetothetotalityofevidence.63

TheNewZealandcasesindicatethatawiderangeofbehaviourfallsunder5.14

section195.Examplesofilltreatmentorwilfulneglecthaveincluded:

Scaldingachildinthebathduetoinsufficientsupervision,andwaitingan·unreasonabletimebeforeseekingurgentmedicalattention;64Physicalandmentalabuseincludingexcessiveandmenialdomesticchores,·deprivationoffood,coldbaths,verbalabuse,force-feedingofcoldrottenfoodandhitting;65Hosingchildrendownwithcoldwaterduringwinter;· 66Shakinganinfant,causingbraindamage;· 67Leavingchildrenaloneunsupervisedforseveraldayswithresultinghygiene·andhealthissues(dirtyandsmellyhouse,childrendevelopinginfectedsoresandeczema,childrenwearingthesameunlaunderedclothesformanydays)andsafetyissues(suchasovenleftonbychildren);68

Assaults on children with hands, and implements such as spoons,·belts,vacuumcleanerpipesandsticks,orincitinganotheradulttodosoandwatching;69

61 ChildrenandYoungPersonsAct1933(UK),s1.

62 R v Accused[1994]DCR883.

63 R v Mead[2002]1NZLR594(CA).

64 Morgan v R[2008]BCL712(HC).

65 R v Mead,aboven63.

66 R v T(11May2004)HC,AKCRI-2003-055-1514,para9RandersonJ.

67 Newton v Police(1990)6CRNZ630.

68 Gear v Police 27(2004)TCL12/3HC,paras5–7HeathJ.

69 R v McFarlane (17May2001)CA29/01Doogue J for theCourt;R v Rowland (2001)24TCL11/6;[2001]BCL393(CA)TippingJfortheCourt;R v Moke and Lawrence[1996]1NZLR263(CA)ThomasJfortheCourt.

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CHAPTER 5: I l l t reatment or neglect of chi ldren and other vulnerable v ict ims

Neglectingachild’sdaytodaycareandhealthneedsoveraperiodofabout·ayear;thechildwhenfoundwas“inaverycompromisedphysicalstatewithinfestationsofhead lice,unhealthyhairandskin,and living in filthyhouseholdconditions…[she]woredirtyclothing,didnotshowerorbatheregularly,wasleftathomealone,andsleptinsqualidconditions”.70

Our reform proposals – new section 195

Ournewdraftsection195reads:5.15

195 Ill-treatment or neglect of child or vulnerable adult

Every person is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 10 years who, (1) being a person described in subsection (2), intentionally engages in conduct that, or omits to perform any statutory duty the omission of which, is likely to cause unnecessary suffering, injury, adverse effects to health, or any mental disorder or disability to a child or vulnerable adult (the victim), if the conduct engaged in or the omission to perform the statutory duty is a major departure from the standard of care to be expected of a reasonable person.

the persons are—(2)

a person who has actual care or charge of the victim; or(a)

a person who is a staff member of any hospital, institution, or residence where (b) the victim resides.

for the purposes of this section and (3) section 195A,—

a vulnerable adult is a person unable, by reason of detention, age, sickness, (a) mental impairment, or any other cause, to withdraw himself or herself from the care or charge of another person:

a child is a person under the age of 18 years.(b)

Therearesomeaspectsofthecurrentfunctionandpurposeofsection195that5.16

weexplicitlydonotwishtochange:inparticular,thenotionofilltreatmentbeingsufficientlyopen-endedtoaccommodatesomeinstancesofassault;andtheabilityofajurytoassessintheround,havingregardtothetotalityofevidence,whetheracourseofconductconstitutesilltreatmentorneglect.71

Wearerecommendingfourkeychangesthatbroadenthescopeofthiscategory5.17

ofoffending,andsignalitsverygravenature:

extension of scope to vulnerable adults. · Atpresent,section195appliesonlytochildvictims.Weconsiderthatothervulnerablevictimsareentitledtothesamelevelofprotection.Ourproposedsection195hasthereforebeenextended,toapplytobothcategories–vulnerableadults,aswellaschildren.age of child raised, to under 18 years.· Section195currentlyappliestochildrenundertheageof16years.Thisage,inourview,shouldberaisedtounder18years.Wehaverecommendedthisinallofourrevisedoffences.ItisconsistentwithNewZealand’sobligationsundertheUnitedNationsConventionontheRightsoftheChild.an objective gross negligence test. · TheCourtofAppealhasheldthat“wilfully” requires ill treatment to have been inflicted deliberately,

70 R v R[2009]NZCA356.

71 SeefurtherthediscussionofR v Mead, aboven63.

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withaconsciousappreciation that itwas likely tocauseunnecessarysuffering.72Neglect, too,willonlybe regardedas“wilful”where it isdeliberate.73Thesearesubjectivetests:theyrequirethedefendant’sstateofmindtobeproved.Inpractice,thismeansthatignoranceorthoughtlessnessisadefence.Werecommendthatanyreferenceto“wilfully”shouldberemovedfromsection195.Insteadweareproposinga“grossnegligence”test.Thiswouldrequirethejuryonlytobesatisfiedthattheconductallegedwasamajordeparturefromthestandardofcaretobeexpectedofareasonableperson;ignoranceorthoughtlessnesswouldnolongerabsolveadefendantfromliability.Maximum penalty raised from 5 to 10 years. · Thecurrentmaximumpenalty for ill treatment and neglect under section 195 is 5 years’imprisonment.Weconsiderthatthispenaltyneedstobeconsiderablyhighertoreflecttheproperrelativitybetweenitandotheroffences.Weproposeanewmaximumprisontermof10years,sincetheworstclassofcaseundersection195willbeonejustshortofdeath.Furthermore,astheexamplesofilltreatmentandneglectcasesaboveillustrate,thesectionisinvokedinresponsetowhatisoftenextremelyunpleasantandgraveoffending,thatmaywellhaveoccurredoveraconsiderableperiod.Theresultingconsequencesmaywellextendbeyondphysicalinjury,tolongtermpsychologicaltrauma,and/ordevelopmentalissues.Thepenaltyneedstobesufficientlyhightoaddresstheculpabilityofsuchcases.

Wearerecommendinganumberofothermoreminorchanges.5.18

First,any“personwhoisastaffmemberofanyhospital,institution,orresidence5.19

wherethevictimresides”willalsofallwithintheproposedscopeofsection195.Thisislargelyaconsequenceofourproposaltorepealsection10AoftheSummaryOffencesAct,74whichhasasimilarprovisionthatreferstostaffmembersofanyChildYouthandFamilyresidence.Weconsiderthataspecificprovisionofthiskindisnecessary,becausearguablynotallsuchstaffmemberscanbesaidtohave“actualcareorcharge”ofthechildreninresidentialcare.Thepreciselegalstatusofsomestaffmembers(perhapskitchen,cleaningorgroundsstaff,forexample)isunclear.Weconsideritdesirabletoputthematterbeyonddoubt;giventhatthestatehasaspecialrelationshiptothechildrenunderitscare,whoareamongourmostvulnerablechildren,itisimportanttoensurethattheyarecomprehensivelyprotected.Inourview,thepolicyreasonsforensuringthatallChildYouthandFamilystaffmembersaresubjecttosection195logicallyapplyequallytostaffofanyhospital,institutionorresidentialcarefacilityinwhichavulnerablevictimresides–forinstance,elderlypeoplein residential care,peoplewith intellectualdisabilitieswhoare in care,prisoners,orpatientsinhospitals.Ournewsection195(2)(b)isthereforenotexclusivetoChildYouthandFamilyresidencesbutcastinmoregeneralterms.

72 R v Hende[1996]1NZLR153(CA).

73 R v Sheppard[1981]AC394;[1980]3AllER899(HL),appliedinNewZealandbytheCourtofAppealinR v R,aboven70.

74 Seepara5.22below.

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CHAPTER 5: I l l t reatment or neglect of chi ldren and other vulnerable v ict ims

Secondly,thelanguagecurrentlyusedinsection195is“illtreatsorneglects”,5.20

whichourproposeddraftsuggestsshouldbeamendedto“engagesinconductoromitstoperformanystatutoryduty”.Asalreadynotedabove,thechangeinlanguagefrom“illtreatment”to“engagesinconduct”isnotintendedtosignalanychangeinapproach;theexplicitintentionisrathertopreservethestatusquo.Thisiswhywehavereferredto“engaginginconduct”incontrasttothe“unlawful act” language employed in other proposed Part 8 provisions;“unlawfulact”inthiscontextmightbeinterpretedasbeingconfinedtoasingleincident.Theproposedreferenceto“omissiontoperformastatutoryduty”will bring within the scope of this offence the extended statutoryduties,75andalsoassistsinmakingitclearonthefaceofthestatutewhatconstitutesneglect.

Finally,werecommendthefollowingminorchangestothedraftinglanguage:5.21

Because“actualbodilyharm”means“injury”asdefinedinsection2ofthe·CrimesAct,werecommendchangingthecurrentreferencefrom“actualbodilyharm”to“injury”.Because of the same definition of “injury”, the current reference to·“injury tohealth”wasconfusingandpotentiallyundesirablynarrow.Werecommendthisshouldinsteadbechangedto“adverseeffectstohealth”.Section195currentlyappliestopersonsin“custody,controlorcharge”;·section10Aappliestothosein“careorcustody”.Inallofourproposednewsections,includingnewsection195,werecommend“actualcareorcharge”,removingtheoutdatedreferencetocustody,whichisnolongerusedbydraftersorthecourts(eg,theFamilyCourt)andmaygiverisetoconfusionaboutintendedscope(eg,whetherlegaloractualcustodyistheconceptthatismeant).76

Again,nochangeinscopeisintendedtofollowfromtheseproposedchanges.5.22

Theintentionistoprovideclarification,andensureconsistencyinterminologywithchangesmade inotherpartsof thedraftBill,whilstpreserving thestatusquo.

Repeal of section 10A of the Summary Offences Act 1981

As noted above, this offence is rarely charged.5.23 77 We have taken care toframesection195inawaythatencompassesthepresentscopeofsection10A,sothatthereisasingleoffencecapableofaddressingthewholerangeofconduct.Werecommendthatsection10Ashouldberepealed.

75 Seeparas5.32–5.48below.

76 We considered that extending the scope of this section to “any person” would be undulybroad–potentiallyencompassingschoolbullying,forexample.

77 Seepara5.10above.

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5.24 Weproposeanewoffenceoffailingtoprotectachildorvulnerableadultfromriskofdeath,seriousinjuryorsexualassault,iftheperpetratorresidesinthesamehouseholdorresidence,hasknowledgeoftherisk,andfailstotakereasonablestepstopreventit.

The offence proposed has been closely modelled on section 5 of the5.25

DomesticViolence,CrimeandVictimsAct2004(UK).ThereisalsoasimilarSouthAustralianprovision.78

Nodutyto intervene insuchcasespresentlyexists. It isasituationthat5.26

fallsbeyond thescopeofanyof theexistingstatutoryduties,and in theabsenceof suchaduty, there isnocriminal liability foromitting toact.Inpractice,thismeansthathouseholdmemberswhoareneitherperpetratorsof,nor(legallyspeaking)partiesto,illtreatmentorneglectcannotbeheldliablefortheirfailuretointervene,nomatterhowoutrageousorhowobvioustheilltreatmentorneglectofthechildmaybe.Wetaketheviewthatthosewholiveincloseproximitytoachild,andareinfrequentcontactwiththechild,haveasufficientlyclosenexustomaketheimpositionofadutyofcareappropriate.

However,wehavedeliberatelychosennottorecommendanewstatutoryduty5.27

forthispurpose.Implicitly,theexistenceoftheoffencedoesofcourseestablishaduty.However,wedonotthinkthatitshouldbeimplementedbywayofanew“duties”provision.79Thatapproachwouldexposethehouseholdmembertopotentialliabilityacrossthewholespectrumofcriminaloffencesthatrefertoastatutoryduty,fromourproposednewendangeringprovisionundernewsection157A,tomanslaughterundersection160(dependingonthecircumstancesoftheindividualcase).Inourview,whilethenatureofaco-habitationrelationshipissuchthatitisproperfortheretobeadegreeofliability,theextentofsuchliabilityneedstobeclearandcircumscribed.

OurproposalisbroaderthantheEnglishoffenceinatleastonekeyrespect:5.28

thatoffenceappliesonlywhenthechildinquestionhasdied.Ourproposedprovisionistriggeredwheneverthereisafailuretorespondtoaknownriskofdeath,seriousinjury,orsexualassault.We,andotherswhomweconsulted,considerthatthiswouldbeconsistentwiththegovernment’spreferredpreventiveapproachtochildabuseandneglect.

Thedraftprovision,asitappearsinclause24oftheBill,isasfollows:5.29

195A Failure to protect child or vulnerable adult from risk of serious harm

Every one is liable to a term of imprisonment for a term not exceeding 10 years (1) who, being a person described in subsection (2), has frequent contact with a child or vulnerable adult (the victim), and—

knows that the victim is at risk of death, serious injury, or sexual assault as the (a) result of an unlawful act by another person or an omission by another person to perform a statutory duty; and

fails to take reasonable steps to protect the victim from that risk.(b)

78 CriminalConsolidationAct1935(SA),s14.

79 Seefurthersections151to157oftheCrimesAct1961.

new offence of faiLure to protect chiLd or vuLneraBLe aduLt

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CHAPTER 5: I l l t reatment or neglect of chi ldren and other vulnerable v ict ims

the persons are—(2)

a member of the same household as the victim; or(a)

a person who is a staff member of any hospital, institution, or residence where (b) the victim resides.

A person may not be charged with an offence under this section if he or she was (3) under the age of 18 at the time of the act or omission.

for the purposes of this section,—(4)

a person is to be regarded as a member of a particular household, (a) even if he or she does not live in that household, if that person is so closely connected with the household that it is reasonable, in the circumstances, to regard him or her as a member of the household:

where the victim lives in different households at different times, the same (b) household refers to the household in which the victim was living at the time of the act or omission giving rise to the risk of death or serious injury.

In determining whether a person is so closely connected with a particular household (5) so as to be regarded as a member of that household, regard must be had to the frequency and duration of visits to the household and whether the person had a familial relationship with the victim and any other matters that may be relevant in the circumstances.

Theoffencehasthefollowingkeyelements:5.30

Thevictimmustbeeitherachildundertheageof18years,oraperson·whoisvulnerablebyreasonofdetention,age,sickness,mentalimpairment,oranyotherreason;80

Theoffendermustbeeitheramemberofthesamehouseholdasthevictim,·orastaffmemberofaresidentialfacility,whohasfrequentcontactwiththevictim,andisatleast18yearsold;Theoffendermustknowthatthevictimisatriskofdeath,seriousinjuryor·sexualassault,astheresultofanunlawfulactoranomissiontoperformanystatutoryduty;Theoffendermustfailtotakereasonablestepstoprotectthevictimfromharm;·Theoffendermayberegardedasa“member”ofaparticularhouseholdevenif·heorshedoesnotliveinthehousehold,ifthedefendantis“socloselyconnected”withthehouseholdthatitisreasonabletoregardhimorherasamember;Relevantconsiderationsindeterminingwhethertheoffenderis“soclosely·connected”willincludethefrequencyanddurationofvisitstothehousehold,andfamilialrelationship(ifany)withthechild;“Seriousinjury”willsharethedefinitionalreadyproposedinrelationtothecore·assaultandinjuryprovisions(“grievous”orreallyseriousactualbodilyharm);Themaximumpenaltyproposedforthisoffenceis10years.Thisreflectsthe·factthattheworstclassofcasewillbeoneinwhichthechildhasdied,andthenegligencehasbeentrulygross(eg,theoffenderdeliberatelyclosedhisorhereyestotheconductoveraprolongedperiod).

80 Seepara5.46below.

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Thereareanumberofaspectsoftheproposedprovisionthat,potentially,5.31

maysparkconcernsaboutitsscope.Somepeopleexpressedconcerntousthatitscoveragewouldbetoobroad.Othersthoughtthatinsomewaysitwasarbitrarilynarrow–capturingaflatmate,forexample,butnotaschoolteacherwhosedegreeofknowledgeofandnexuswiththechildmaybesimilarorevengreater.Ourresponsetothisistwofold.First,itisarguablynecessarytodrawalinesomewhere.Weacknowledgethemeritsoftheargumentthatanypersoninrelationtowhomtherequisitedegreeofknowledgeandproximitycanbeprovedshouldbeliable.However,wehavetakentheviewthatthosewholivewithachildhaveadifferentkindofrelationshipandresponsibilitythanotherswithwhomthechildmaycomeintocontact;thehomeshouldbeaplaceofsafety.Secondly,regardingconcernsaboutunduebreadth,wenotethatthereareanumberofways inwhich theelementsof theprovisionoperate toplacesafeguardsaroundthescopeofliability.Itonlyappliestothemostseriouscases,andonlywhentherehasbeenfrequentcontactwiththevictiminadditiontostatusasamemberofthehousehold(orsomeonesufficientlycloselyconnectedwiththehousehold).Butmostimportantly,thejurywillneedtobesatisfiedthattherewasagrosslynegligentfailuretotakereasonablestepstoprotectthevictimfromharm.Whatconstitutes“reasonablesteps”willbeamatterforthejurytodetermine,inthecircumstancesofeachcase.

5.32 Section152imposesadutyonparents,orthoseinplaceofparents,toprovidetheirchildrenundertheageof16yearswith“necessaries”:

152 Duty of parent or guardian to provide necessaries

Every one who as a parent or person in place of a parent is under a legal duty to (1) provide necessaries for any child under the age of 16 years, being a child in his actual custody, is criminally responsible for omitting without lawful excuse to do so, whether the child is helpless or not, if the death of the child is caused, or if his life is endangered or his health permanently injured, by such omission.

Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 7 years who, without (2) lawful excuse, neglects the duty specified in this section so that the life of the child is endangered or his health permanently injured by such neglect.

Whilethereisnoauthorityonwhatismeantbytheconceptof“necessaries”,5.33

thereissomebasisforconsideringthatitmaybeasomewhatbroaderconceptthanthe“necessariesoflife”referredtoinsection151.Noteverythingthatisarguably“necessary”tothereasonableraisingofachildmayfallwithinthequitenarrowconceptofthe“necessariesoflife”–thelatterbeingconfinedtothefood,water,medicalcare,andsoonnecessarytosustainlife.

section 152 – duty of parent or guardian

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CHAPTER 5: I l l t reatment or neglect of chi ldren and other vulnerable v ict ims

Reform proposals

Broadening the scope of the duty

In5.34 R v Lunt,81inconsideringtheliabilityofextendedfamilymembersonamanslaughtercharge,theCourtofAppealrelieduponacommonlawdutyuponaparentorpersoninlocoparentistotakereasonablestepstoprotecthisorherchildfromtheillegalviolenceofanyotherpersonwheresuchviolenceisforeseenorreasonablyforeseeable.82Inthelightofourrecommendationelsewherethat references to “legal duty” shouldbe changed to “statutoryduty”,83wehaveidentifiedaneedforthiscommonlawdutytobecodified.

Thenewdutywerecommendbuildsupon5.35 Lunt, butisexpressedinmoregeneralterms,asadutyonaparentorpersoninplaceofaparenttotakereasonablestepstoprotecthisorherchildfrominjury.Inotherwords,thescopeofwhatweareproposingisnot,initsexpressterms,confinedto“illegalviolence”.Therealityisthatmanythingslikelytocauseinjurytoachild(ie,actualbodilyharm)willindeedamounttoillegalviolence.However,fromtimetotime,anomission toperforma statutorydutymaygive rise to the samerisk.Suchanomissionwouldbeequallyculpableinourview,inthesensethattherisktothechildisthesame.Ourproposednewdutyisthereforecastintermsthatdonotexcludethepossibilityofcapturingsuchcases.

Wenotethattheadditionalparentaldutytoprotectfromharmthatweare5.36

proposinghassomesimilaritytoananalogousdutyprovisioninQueensland.84

Criminal responsibility and the offence provisions

Ourprincipalconcernhasbeentoensurethat,nomatterhowseriousorminor5.37

theoutcomeofthebreachofastatutoryduty,criminaloffenceprovisionswithappropriatemaximumpenaltiesareavailabletocapturethewholerangeofcases.

Undersection152,criminalresponsibilityisincurredinthecircumstancesset5.38

outin152(1).Section152(2)establishesanoffencetocapturecaseswheretherehasbeenaveryseriousbreachoftheduty,but(perhapsfortuitously)deathhasnotresulted.Incaseswheredeathresults,thedutymayformthebasisforahomicidecharge.85

81 R v Lunt, aboven51.

82 Inthatcase,threeadultswerechargedforthedeathofachild,thedaughterofoneofthethree.TheCrownallegedthatallthreeadultshadaparentalduty,andhadbreachedit,byfailingtoprotectthegirlfromillegalviolence.TheCourtofAppealheldthatwhilethistypeofdutywasnotaddressedbytheCrimesActsections,itexisted,uncodified,atcommonlaw.

83 Seeparas4.15–4.18above.

84 CriminalCodeAct1899(Qld),s286.

85 Seesection160(2)oftheCrimesAct1961.

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Weconsiderthatthecurrentstatutoryschemeisconfusing,andundulylimited5.39

initsscope.Criminalresponsibilityonlyexistsforbreachofthisdutyintheveryworsttypesofcases,becauseoftheitalicisedwordsin152(1),below.

Every one who as a parent or person in place of a parent is under a legal duty to (1) provide necessaries for any child under the age of 16 years, being a child in his actual custody, is criminally responsible for omitting without lawful excuse to do so, whether the child is helpless or not, if the death of the child is caused, or if his life is endangered or his health permanently injured, by such omission.

Theresultinggapinthelawiscapableofbeingaddressed,tosomeextent,5.40

bytheproposedneglectoffencesinthenewsection195oftheCrimesActdiscussedabove.However,thiscreatesundesirableconfusionaboutthescopeandstructureofthestatutoryscheme,andalackoftransparency.Itlooksonthefaceofthesection152dutyasthoughparentswillonlybeliableintheworstcases,wheninfact,thatisnottrue.

Inanyevent,weconsiderthatthecriminalresponsibilityaspectofthese5.41

provisionsisredundant.Thesourceofcriminalliabilityistheoffenceprovisions.Ifthereferencetocriminalresponsibilitylegallyaddsnothing,itshouldnotappearinthedraftingatall.Inourproposedredraftofsection152,thereferencesto“criminalresponsibility”havethereforebeenomitted.

In the light of our other proposed changes to the offence provisions,5.42

wehavethereforeconcludedthattheoffenceprovisionthatcurrentlyappearsinsection152(2)isnolongernecessary.Ourotherproposals, ifadopted,willensurethatoffencesareavailabletocapturethewholerangeofcasesinwhichthedutymightbebreached,fromrelativelyminorendangeringcasesundernewsection157A,tomoreseriousconsequencesforwhichsections157Borsection195mightbeinvoked,throughtocasesofdeathinwhichahomicidechargewouldbeavailable.

Section 152: definition of “child”

Section152currentlyappliestochildrenunder16.Werecommendraising5.43

thisagetounder18years.Defining“child”inthiswayisconsistentwithNewZealand’sobligationsundertheUnitedNationsConventionontheRightsoftheChild.ItistheagewehaverecommendedinalloftheproposednewandrevisedoffencesinthisPartthatrefertochildren.

Section 152: parents already “under a legal duty”

Unlikemostoftheotherdutiesprovisions,section152oftheCrimesAct,5.44

asitiscurrentlydrafted,doesnotitselfimposeaduty.Itappliestoaparentorpersoninplaceofaparentwhoisalready“underalegalduty”.Thesourceofsuchparentaldutyisunclear.Noneoftheauthoritieswereviewedwasabletoidentifyit.Thisisundesirable.Ourproposedredraftaltersthelanguageslightlysothat,consistentwiththeotherdutiesprovisions, itnotonlyrefersto,butalsoestablishes,thedutiesinquestion.

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CHAPTER 5: I l l t reatment or neglect of chi ldren and other vulnerable v ict ims

5.45 Section151imposesadutyoncaregivers inchargeofvulnerablepeople,asfollows:

151 Duty to provide the necessaries of life

Every one who has charge of any other person unable, by reason of detention, (1) age, sickness, insanity, or any other cause, to withdraw himself from such charge, and unable to provide himself with the necessaries of life, is (whether such charge is undertaken by him under any contract or is imposed upon him by law or by reason of his unlawful act or otherwise howsoever) under a legal duty to supply that person with the necessaries of life, and is criminally responsible for omitting without lawful excuse to perform such duty if the death of that person is caused, or if his life is endangered or his health permanently injured, by such omission.

Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 7 years who, (2) without lawful excuse, neglects the duty specified in this section so that the life of the person under his charge is endangered or his health permanently injured by such neglect.

Wethinkthatthevulnerablepersondefinitionisappropriateanddonot5.46

recommendanychangeinthatrespect.However,thedutyimposedonthoseinchargeofsuchpeopleistoonarrowinourview;itaddressesonlythemostseriouscaseswherelifeisendangered,thereispermanentinjurytohealth,ordeathoccurs,anditrequiresonlyprovisionofthe“necessariesoflife”.Wehavealreadysignalledinourdiscussiononsection195andtheproposednewsection195Athatvulnerableadultsinthechargeofanothershouldgenerallyreceivethesameprotectionaschildren.86Wethereforerecommendthatthedutyinsection152shouldbeextended,toincludeanobligationtotakereasonablestepstoprotectthevulnerablepersonfrominjury,thusaligningitwiththeproposedparentalduty insection151,andanobligation toprovideany“necessaries”,notjustthe“necessariesoflife”.

Someofthosewithwhomweconsulteddoubtedwhetherthisexpansionofthe5.47

dutywasappropriate.Theyarguedthattheobligationsofparentstotheirchildrenshouldbemoreextensivethantheobligationsofotherssuchaspolice,prisonofficersandhospitalorresthomestaff)whoareinchargeofpersonsbyreasonofdetention,age,sickness,mentalimpairment,orothercause.

Inresponse,wenotethatthedutywouldrequireonlyreasonablestepstobe5.48

taken.Moreover,thenatureofthedutywouldvaryaccordinglytothenatureanddegreeofthevulnerability,andliabilityforabreachofthatdutywouldariseonlywhentherehadbeengrossnegligenceasrequiredbysection150A–thatis,amajordeparturefromthestandardofcareexpectedofareasonablepersoninthosecircumstances.Wethinkitappropriatetousethecriminallawtopenaliseconductthatfailstomeetthisfairlylowthreshold.

86 Seepara5.17above.

section 151 – duty of caregivers

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5.49 Section153provides:

153 Duty of employers to provide necessaries

Every one who as employer has contracted to provide necessary food, clothing, (1) or lodging for any servant or apprentice under the age of 16 years is under a legal duty to provide the same, and is criminally responsible for omitting without lawful excuse to perform such duty if the death of that servant or apprentice is caused, or if his life is endangered or his health permanently injured, by such omission.

Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 5 years who, (2) without lawful excuse, neglects the duty specified in this section so that the life of the servant or apprentice is endangered or his health permanently injured by such neglect.

The“servantor apprentice” terminology is archaic.While themeaning5.50

of “apprentice” is probably clear, it is debatable whether a “servant”meansanyoneinaconventionalmoderndayemploymentrelationshipbyvirtueofa“contractofservices”,andwhetherthatwouldextendto“contractsforservices”(wherethecontractorisself-employed).

Liability under the section is also circumscribed in two other ways.5.51

First, the employerneeds tohave contracted toprovidenecessary food,clothingandlodgingtotheyoungperson.Thedutydoesnotitselfimposethisobligation;itarisesfromacontractualundertaking,whichpresumablyneedstobeexplicit.Secondly,liabilityonlyattachesintheworstcategoryofcases–thatis,whentherehasbeenafailuretofeed,clotheorhouseachildandthisresultsindeath,dangertolifeorpermanentinjurytohealth.Moreminorformsofharmsuchasmalnutrition,housinginsqualidconditionsorinadequateclothingwillnotestablishabreachoftheduty.

Thereareotherlegislativeprovisionsthatprovidesomeprotectionforchildren5.52

intheworkplace:

TheEducationActprohibitsemployersfromemployingchildrenunderthe·ageof16,duringschoolhoursorwhenitwouldinterferewiththeirschoolattendance;87

TheHealthandSafetyinEmploymentActimposesageneraldutyonall·employerstodowhatisnecessarytoprotectemployeesfromdangeroussituationsintheworkplace;88

TheHealthandSafetyinEmploymentRegulations1995restrictyoungpeople·undertheageof15fromhazardousworkandworkplaces.

However,noneof theseprovisionsdirectly require theprovisionof the5.53

necessariesoflifeinthecircumstancesdescribedinsection153.

Ifsection153wasretained,wewouldwantitexpandedtocoveragreater5.54

rangeofharms.However,wehaveconcludedthatitisnotnecessaryatall,forthreereasons.

87 EducationAct1989,s30.

88 HealthandSafetyinEmploymentAct1992,s6.

section 153 – duty of empLoyers to provide necessaries

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CHAPTER 5: I l l t reatment or neglect of chi ldren and other vulnerable v ict ims

First,asfarasPolice,CrownLaw,theMinistryofJustice,andtheDepartment5.55

of labour are aware, there has never been a section 153 prosecution.Arguably,thiscouldsuggestthattheprovisioniseffectiveasadeterrent.Alternatively,andmoreprobably,itmaytendtoconfirmourviewthatforawholerangeofreasons,thesection153dutyistoolimitedtoserveitspurpose,ifnotobsolete.

Secondly,ourproposedsection151,asredrafted,requiresapersonwhohas5.56

actualcareorchargeofanothervulnerableperson(asdefined)toprovidethe“necessaries”andtotakereasonablestepstoprotectthatpersonfrominjury.Whilethisdoesnotcoverallemploymentrelationships,weareconfidentthat where a contract exists for the provision of certain basic items(as currently requiredunder section153) therewouldbe found tobearelationshipof“careorcharge”;furthermore,arelationshipof“careorcharge”maywellexistevenintheabsenceofacontract,dependingonthecircumstances.Section151 is thusnonarrower than thepresent scopeof section153,and in some respects will be rather broader if our recommendationsareimplemented.89

Finally,ourproposedredraftofsection195iswideenoughtocoverallcasesin5.57

whichanemployerhasenteredintoacontractualarrangementtocareforachildandhasilltreatedorneglectedthechild.

Wethereforerecommendthatsection153berepealed.5.58

89 Thescopeofthedutyisnotlimitedtofood,clothing,orlodging,butmaybemoreextensiveandincludeaccess tomedical care and treatment, appropriate sleepingarrangements, and soon.Ascurrentlyframedsection151(likesection153)onlyattractscriminalliabilityintheworstclassesofcase;however,ourproposeddraftrepealssubsection(2),sothatthedutywouldgiverisetoliabilityinthewholerangeofneglectcases,frommanslaughtertosimplyendangering(anewendangeringoffenceisalsoproposed:seenewsection157A).Thedutytotakereasonablestepstoprotectfromharmisnew.

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Appendices

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APPENDIX B: The draft B i l l

Appendix AAltered provisions

crIMEs Act proVIsIons: ActIon:

s 145 – criminal nuisance new s 157A substituted

s 150A – standard of care required for persons under legal duties Amended

s 151 – duty to provide the necessaries of life Amended

s 152 – duty of parent or guardian to provide necessaries Amended

s 153 – duty of employers to provide necessaries repealed

s 155 – duty of persons doing dangerous acts Amended

s 156 – duty of persons in charge of dangerous things Amended

s 157 – duty to avoid omissions dangerous to life Amended

s 160 – culpable homicide Amended

s 163 – killing by influence on the mind Amended

s 188 – Wounding with intent new s 188 substituted

s 189 – Injuring with intent new s 189 substituted

s 190 – Injuring by unlawful act new s 157B substituted

s 191 – Aggravated wounding or injury repealed

s 192 – Aggravated assault subsection (1) repealed

s 193 – Assault with intent to injure new s 189A(1) substituted

s 194 – Assault on a child, or by a male on a female repealed

s 195 – cruelty to a child Amended

s 196 – common assault new s 189A(2) substituted

s 197 – disabling repealed

s 198 – discharging firearm or doing dangerous act with intent repealed

s 199 – Acid throwing repealed

s 200 – poisoning with intent repealed

s 201 – Infecting with disease Amended

s 202 – setting traps Amended

s 202c – Assault with a weapon repealed

s 204 – Impeding rescue Amended

suMMAry offEncEs Act proVIsIon: ActIon:

s 10A – Ill treatment or wilful neglect of child repealed

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Appendix BThe draft Bill

Crimes (Offences Against thePerson) Amendment Bill

1

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APPENDIX B: The draft B i l l

Crimes (Offences Against the Person)Amendment Bill

Crimes (Offences Against thePerson) Amendment Bill

ContentsPage

1 Title 32 Commencement 33 Principal Act amended 3

Part 1Crimes against the person

4 Interpretation 35 Compulsion 36 Force used in executing process or in arrest 47 Preventing escape or rescue 48 Treason 49 Section 145 repealed 410 New section 150A substituted 4

150A Standard of care applicable to persons understatutory duties or performing unlawful acts

4

11 New section 151 substituted 4151 Duty to provide necessaries and protect from

injury5

12 New section 152 substituted 5152 Duty of parent or guardian to provide necessaries

and protect from injury5

13 Section 153 repealed 514 Duty of persons doing dangerous acts 515 Duty of persons in charge of dangerous things 516 Duty to avoid omissions dangerous to life 617 New heading and sections 157A and 157B inserted 6

Unlawful acts or omissions likely to injure157A Unlawful acts and omissions likely to cause injury 6

1

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Crimes (Offences Against the Person)Amendment Bill

157B Injuring by unlawful act or omission 618 Culpable homicide 619 Death must be within a year and a day 720 New section 163 substituted 7

163 Killing by influence on the mind 721 Further definition of murder 722 New sections 188, 189, and 189A substituted 7

188 Causing serious injury 7189 Causing injury 8189A Assault 8

23 Sections 190, 191, 192(1), 193, and 194 repealed 824 New section 195 substituted 8

195 Ill-treatment or neglect of child or vulnerableadult

8

195A Failure to protect child or vulnerable adult fromrisk of serious harm

9

25 Section 196 repealed 1026 New section 197 substituted 10

197 Disabling 1027 Sections 198, 199, and 200 repealed 1028 New sections 201 and 201A substituted 10

201 Infecting with notifiable disease or other notifiablecondition

10

201A Defences to infecting with notifiable disease orother notifiable condition

11

29 New section 202 substituted 11202 Setting traps, etc 11

30 Section 202C repealed 1131 New section 204 substituted 11

204 Impeding rescue 1132 Aggravated burglary 1233 Assault with intent to rob 1234 Threatening to kill or do grievous bodily harm 12

Part 2Miscellaneous

35 Consequential amendments 1236 Transitional provision 12

Schedule 13Consequential amendments

2

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APPENDIX B: The draft B i l l

Crimes (Offences Against the Person)Amendment Bill Part 1 cl 5

The Parliament of New Zealand enacts as follows:

1 TitleThis Act is the Crimes (Offences Against the Person) Amend-ment Act 2009.

2 CommencementThis Act comes into force 6 months after the date on which itreceives the Royal assent.

3 Principal Act amendedThis Act amends the Crimes Act 1961.

Part 1Crimes against the person

4 InterpretationSection 2(1) is amended by inserting the following definitionsin their appropriate alphabetical order:“injury means actual bodily harm and does not include psy-chological or emotional harm“serious has the same meaning that grievous had immediatelybefore the commencement of this Act“statutory duty means a duty imposed by any Act, regulation,rule, or bylaw“unlawful act means a breach of any Act, regulation, rule, orbylaw”.

5 Compulsion(1) Section 24(1) is amended by omitting “grievous bodily harm”

and substituting “serious injury”.(2) Section 24(2) is amended by repealing paragraphs (g) and (h)

and substituting the following paragraphs:“(g) section 188(1) (causing serious injury):“(h) section 189(1) (causing injury):”.

3

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Part 1 cl 6Crimes (Offences Against the Person)

Amendment Bill

6 Force used in executing process or in arrestSection 39 is amended by omitting “grievous bodily harm” andsubstituting “serious injury”.

7 Preventing escape or rescueSection 40(1) is amended by omitting “grievous bodily harm”and substituting “serious injury”.

8 TreasonSection 73(a) is amended by omitting “wounds or doesgrievous bodily harm” and substituting “causes serious in-jury”.

9 Section 145 repealedSection 145 is repealed.

10 New section 150A substitutedSection 150A is repealed and the following section substi-tuted:

“150A Standard of care applicable to persons under statutoryduties or performing unlawful acts

“(1) This section applies in respect of—“(a) the statutory duties specified in any of sections 151, 152,

155, 156, 157, and 195A; and“(b) unlawful acts referred to in sections 157A, 157B, or

160 where the unlawful act relied on requires proof ofnegligence or is a strict or absolute liability offence.

“(2) For the purposes of this Part, a person is criminally respon-sible for omitting to perform a statutory duty, or performingan unlawful act, to which this section applies only if, in thecircumstances, the omission or unlawful act is a major depar-ture from the standard of care expected of a reasonable personto whom that statutory duty applies or who performs that un-lawful act.”

11 New section 151 substitutedSection 151 is repealed and the following section substituted:

4

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APPENDIX B: The draft B i l l

Crimes (Offences Against the Person)Amendment Bill Part 1 cl 15

“151 Duty to provide necessaries and protect from injuryEvery one who has actual care or charge of another personunable, by reason of detention, age, sickness, mental impair-ment, or any other cause, to withdraw himself or herself fromthat care or charge and unable to provide himself or herselfwith necessaries is under a statutory duty—“(a) to provide that person with necessaries; and“(b) to take reasonable steps to protect that person from in-

jury.”

12 New section 152 substitutedSection 152 is repealed and the following section substituted:

“152 Duty of parent or guardian to provide necessaries andprotect from injuryEvery one who is a parent or is a person in place of a parentwho has actual care or charge of a child under the age of 18years is under a statutory duty—“(a) to provide that child with necessaries; and“(b) to take reasonable steps to protect that child from in-

jury.”

13 Section 153 repealedSection 153 is repealed.

14 Duty of persons doing dangerous actsSection 155 is amended by—(a) omitting “legal duty” and substituting “statutory duty”;

and(b) omitting “, and is criminally responsible for the conse-

quences of omitting without lawful excuse to dischargethat duty”.

15 Duty of persons in charge of dangerous thingsSection 156 is amended by—(a) omitting “legal duty” and substituting “statutory duty”;

and

5

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Part 1 cl 16Crimes (Offences Against the Person)

Amendment Bill

(b) omitting “, and is criminally responsible for the conse-quences of omitting without lawful excuse to dischargethat duty”.

16 Duty to avoid omissions dangerous to lifeSection 157 is amended by—(a) omitting “legal duty” and substituting “statutory duty”;

and(b) omitting “, and is criminally responsible for the conse-

quences of omitting without lawful excuse to dischargethat duty”.

17 New heading and sections 157A and 157B insertedThe following heading and sections are inserted after section157:

“Unlawful acts or omissions likely to injure“157A Unlawful acts and omissions likely to cause injury

Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding2 years who does any unlawful act or omits to perform anystatutory duty if, in the circumstances, that act or omission islikely to injure another.

“157B Injuring by unlawful act or omissionEvery one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding3 years who—“(a) does any unlawful act or omits to perform any statutory

duty if, in the circumstances, that act or omission islikely to injure another and results in injury to another;or

“(b) causes a person to do an act that results in injury to thatperson by threats of violence, or fear of violence, or bydeception.”

18 Culpable homicideSection 160 is amended by repealing subsection (2) and sub-stituting the following subsection:

“(2) Homicide is culpable when it consists in the killing of anyperson—

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APPENDIX B: The draft B i l l

Crimes (Offences Against the Person)Amendment Bill Part 1 cl 22

“(a) by an unlawful act if, in the circumstances, that act islikely to injure another; or

“(b) by an omission to perform any statutory duty if, in thecircumstances, that omission is likely to injure another;or

“(c) by causing that person by threats of violence or fear ofviolence, or by deception, to do an act that causes his orher death.”

19 Death must be within a year and a daySection 162(3) is amended by omitting “legal duty” and sub-stituting “statutory duty”.

20 New section 163 substitutedSection 163 is repealed and the following section substituted:

“163 Killing by influence on the mindNo one is criminally responsible for the killing of another byany influence on the mind alone or for the killing of anotherby any disorder or disease arising from such influence.”

21 Further definition of murderSection 168(1)(a) is amended by omitting “grievous bodilyinjury” and substituting “serious injury”.

22 New sections 188, 189, and 189A substitutedSections 188 and 189 are repealed and the following sectionssubstituted:

“188 Causing serious injury“(1) Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding

14 years who, with intent to injure any person, causes seriousinjury to any person.

“(2) Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding4 years who causes serious injury to any person by assaultingany person or otherwise acting with reckless disregard for thesafety of others.

7

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Part 1 cl 23Crimes (Offences Against the Person)

Amendment Bill

“189 Causing injury“(1) Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding

10 years who, with intent to injure any person, injures anyperson.

“(2) Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceed-ing 3 years who injures any person by assaulting any personor otherwise acting with reckless disregard for the safety ofothers.

“189A Assault“(1) Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding

5 years who, with intent to injure any person, assaults anyperson.

“(2) Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding2 years who assaults any person.”

23 Sections 190, 191, 192(1), 193, and 194 repealedSections 190, 191, 192(1), 193, and 194 are repealed.

24 New section 195 substitutedSection 195 is repealed and the following sections are substi-tuted:

“195 Ill-treatment or neglect of child or vulnerable adult“(1) Every person is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceed-

ing 10 years who, being a person described in subsection

(2), intentionally engages in conduct that, or omits to performany statutory duty the omission of which, is likely to causeunnecessary suffering, injury, adverse effects to health, or anymental disorder or disability to a child or vulnerable adult (thevictim), if the conduct engaged in or the omission to performthe statutory duty is a major departure from the standard ofcare to be expected of a reasonable person.

“(2) The persons are—“(a) a person who has actual care or charge of the victim; or“(b) a person who is a staff member of any hospital, institu-

tion, or residence where the victim resides.“(3) For the purposes of this section and section 195A,—

“(a) a vulnerable adult is a person unable, by reason of de-tention, age, sickness, mental impairment, or any other

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APPENDIX B: The draft B i l l

Crimes (Offences Against the Person)Amendment Bill Part 1 cl 24

cause, to withdraw himself or herself from the care orcharge of another person:

“(b) a child is a person under the age of 18 years.

“195A Failure to protect child or vulnerable adult from riskof serious harm

“(1) Every one is liable to a term of imprisonment for a term notexceeding 10 years who, being a person described in subsec-

tion (2), has frequent contact with a child or vulnerable adult(the victim), and—“(a) knows that the victim is at risk of death, serious injury,

or sexual assault as the result of an unlawful act by an-other person or an omission by another person to per-form a statutory duty; and

“(b) fails to take reasonable steps to protect the victim fromthat risk.

“(2) The persons are—“(a) a member of the same household as the victim; or“(b) a person who is a staff member of any hospital, institu-

tion, or residence where the victim resides.“(3) A person may not be charged with an offence under this section

if he or she was under the age of 18 at the time of the act oromission.

“(4) For the purposes of this section,—“(a) a person is to be regarded as a member of a particu-

lar household, even if he or she does not live in thathousehold, if that person is so closely connected withthe household that it is reasonable, in the circumstances,to regard him or her as a member of the household:

“(b) where the victim lives in different households at differ-ent times, the same household refers to the householdin which the victim was living at the time of the act oromission giving rise to the risk of death, serious injury,or sexual assault.

“(5) In determining whether a person is so closely connected witha particular household so as to be regarded as a member of thathousehold, regard must be had to the frequency and durationof visits to the household and whether the person had a familial

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Part 1 cl 25Crimes (Offences Against the Person)

Amendment Bill

relationship with the victim and any other matters that may berelevant in the circumstances.”

25 Section 196 repealedSection 196 is repealed.

26 New section 197 substitutedSection 197 is repealed and the following section substituted:

“197 DisablingEvery one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding2 years who, with intent to stupefy or render unconscious anyperson, or with reckless disregard for the safety of others, stu-pefies or renders unconscious any person.”

27 Sections 198, 199, and 200 repealedSections 198, 199, and 200 are repealed.

28 New sections 201 and 201A substitutedSection 201 is repealed and the following sections substituted:

“201 Infecting with notifiable disease or other notifiablecondition

“(1) Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding14 years who intentionally transmits any disease to any person.

“(2) Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding3 years who recklessly transmits a notifiable disease or othernotifiable condition to any person.

“(3) Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding2 years who recklessly puts any person at risk of contracting anotifiable disease or other notifiable condition.

“(4) A person does not commit an offence against subsection (2)

or (3) merely by refusing, or failing, to be vaccinated againstthe condition.

“(5) If a person is convicted of an offence against subsection (2)

or (3), the court may, instead of, or in addition to, any othersentence or other order that may be imposed, make a healthrisk order under section 113 of the Public Health Act

2009, and sections 91, 92, 108, 109, 114, 115, 116, 120,

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APPENDIX B: The draft B i l l

Crimes (Offences Against the Person)Amendment Bill Part 1 cl 31

124, and 125 of the Public Health Act 2009 apply withany necessary modifications.

“(6) Before imposing a health risk order the court must obtain areport from the Medical Officer of Health on the current healthrisk of the person and the options for managing that risk.

“(7) A notifiable disease or notifiable condition means a condi-tion listed in Schedule 1 of the Public Health Act 2009.

“201A Defences to infecting with notifiable disease or othernotifiable conditionIt is a defence to a charge under section 201(2) or (3) that atthe time that the defendant transmitted or put the other personat risk of contracting the notifiable condition, the other personknew the defendant had the condition and voluntarily acceptedthe risk of contracting the condition.”

29 New section 202 substitutedSection 202 is repealed and the following section substituted:

“202 Setting traps, etcEvery one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding2 years who,—“(a) with intent to injure or with reckless disregard for the

safety of any person, sets or places or causes to be setor placed any trap or device; or

“(b) is in occupation or possession of any place where a trapor device has been set or placed and who knows that thetrap or device is set or placed there and, with intent toinjure or with reckless disregard for the safety of anyperson, permits it to remain in that place.”

30 Section 202C repealedSection 202C is repealed.

31 New section 204 substitutedSection 204 is repealed and the following section substituted:

“204 Impeding rescueEvery one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding2 years who—

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Part 1 cl 32Crimes (Offences Against the Person)

Amendment Bill

“(a) does any act that impedes or prevents any person whois saving, or attempting to save, his or her own life oranother personʼs life; and

“(b) does that act with reckless disregard for the safety of theperson whose life is in danger.”

32 Aggravated burglarySection 235(a) is amended by omitting “grievous bodily harm”and substituting “serious injury”.

33 Assault with intent to robSection 236(1)(a) is amended by omitting “grievous bodilyharm” and substituting “serious injury”.

34 Threatening to kill or do grievous bodily harm(1) The heading to section 306 is amended by omitting “grievous

bodily harm” and substituting “serious injury”.(2) Section 306(1) is amended by omitting “grievous bodily

harm” in each place where it appears and substituting in eachcase “serious injury”.

Part 2Miscellaneous

35 Consequential amendmentsThe enactments listed in the Schedule are amended in the man-ner set out in the Schedule.

36 Transitional provision(1) The amendments and repeals made by this Act do not apply to

any offence committed or alleged to have been committed (inwhole or in part) before the commencement of this Act, andthe principal Act, as in force before the commencement of thisAct, continues to apply to any such offence.

(2) Section 414 of the principal Act has effect (with any necessarymodifications) if the date on which the offence was committedcannot be established with sufficient certainty.

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APPENDIX B: The draft B i l l

Crimes (Offences Against the Person)Amendment Bill Schedule

Schedule s 35

Consequential amendmentsPart 1

Amendments to principal ActSchedule 2Paragraph (f) of form 4: omit “grievous bodily harm” in each placewhere it appears and substitute in each case “serious harm”.

Part 2Amendments to other enactments

Aviation Crimes Act 1972 (1972 No 137)Paragraphs (a) and (b) of the definition of act of violence in section2(1): repeal and substitute:

“(a) an assault as described in either of sections 189A and192 of the Crimes Act 1961; or

“(b) any of the crimes specified in sections 157B, 188, 189,197, 198A, 198B, 202, or 209 of the Crimes Act 1961”.

Bail Act 2000 (2000 No 38)Section 7(2): omit “against section 194 of the Crimes Act 1961(which relates to assault on a child, or by a male on a female) or”.Section 7(3)(b) and (c): repeal and substitute:

“(b) section 151 (duty to provide necessaries and protectfrom injury):

“(c) section 152 (duty of parent or guardian to provide nec-essaries and protect from injury):”

Section 7(3)(d): repeal.Section 7(3)(f): repeal and substitute:

“(f) section 157B (injuring by unlawful act or omission):”.Section 10(2)(f) and (g): repeal and substitute:

“(f) section 188 (causing serious injury):“(g) section 189 (causing injury):”

Section 10(2)(h): repeal.

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ScheduleCrimes (Offences Against the Person)

Amendment Bill

Part 2—continued

Courts Security Act 1999 (1999 No 115)Paragraph (a)(i) of the definition of specified offence in section 2:repeal and substitute:

“(i) sections 87, 121, 157B, 167 to 177, 188, 189,

189A, 192, 197, 198A, 198B, 202A, 305, or 306of the Crimes Act 1961; or”.

Crimes (Internationally Protected Persons, United Nations andAssociated Personnel, and Hostages) Act 1980 (1980 No 44)Items relating to sections 188 and 189 of the Crimes Act 1961 inSchedule 1: omit and substitute:188 Causing serious injury189 Causing injuryItems relating to sections 191, 198, 199, and 200 of the Crimes Act1961 in Schedule 1: omit.

Criminal Investigations (Bodily Samples) Act 1995 (1995 No 55)Items relating to sections 188(1) and (2) and 189(1) and (2) of theCrimes Act 1961 in Part 1 of the Schedule: omit and substitute:Causing serious injury 188

Causing injury 189

Items relating to sections 191(1) and (2) of the Crimes Act 1961 inPart 1 of the Schedule: omitItem relating to section 201 of the Crimes Act 1961 in Part 1 of theSchedule: omit and substitute:Intentionally transmitting anydisease

201(1)

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APPENDIX B: The draft B i l l

Crimes (Offences Against the Person)Amendment Bill Schedule

Part 2—continued

District Courts Act 1947 (1947 No 16)Item relating to section 188 of the Crimes Act 1961 in Part A of Part1 of Schedule 1A: omit and substitute:Section 188 Causing serious injurySection 189 Causing injuryItems relating to sections 191, 198, 199, 200(1) of the Crimes Act1961 in Part A of Part 1 of Schedule 1A: omit and substitute:Section 191§ Aggravated wounding or injurySection 198§ Discharging firearm or doing

dangerous act with intentSection 199§ Acid throwingSection 200(1)§ Poisoning with intentItem relating to section 201 of the Crimes Act 1961 in Part A of Part1 of Schedule 1A: omit and substitute:Section 201(1) Intentionally transmitting any

diseaseInsert in Part A of Part 1 of Schedule 1A after ‡ as it read before20 May 2005:§as it read before the commencement of the Crimes (Offences Against the

Person) Act 2009

Injury Prevention, Rehabilitation, and Compensation Act 2001(2001 No 49)Item relating to section 194 of the Crimes Act 1961 in Schedule 3:omit.

Land Transport Act 1998 (1998 No 110)Subparagraphs (c)(v) and (vi) of the definition of specified seriousoffence in section 29A(4): repeal and subsitute:

“(v) section 188 (causing serious injury):“(vi) section 189(1) (causing injury):”

Subparagraphs (c)(vii) to (x) of the definition of specified seriousoffence in section 29A(4): repeal.

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ScheduleCrimes (Offences Against the Person)

Amendment Bill

Part 2—continuedLand Transport Act 1998 (1998 No 110)—continued

Subparagraph (c)(xi) of the definition of specified serious offence insection 29A(4): repeal and substitute:

“(xi) section 201(1) (intentionally transmitting anydisease):”

Maritime Crimes Act 1999 (1999 No 56)Paragraphs (a) and (b) of the definition of act of violence in section2: repeal and substitute:

“(a) an assault as described in either of sections 189A and192 of the Crimes Act 1961; or

“(b) any of the crimes specified in sections 157B, 188, 189,197, 198A, 198B, 202, or 209 of the Crimes Act 1961”.

Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters Act 1992 (1992 No 86)Items relating to sections 188(1), (2) and 189(1) and (2) of the CrimesAct 1961 in items 1 and 2 of the Schedule: omit and substitute:188 Causing serious injury189 Causing injuryItems relating to sections 191(1), 191(2), 198, 199, and 200 of theCrimes Act 1961 in items 1 and 2 of the Schedule: omit.Item relating to section 201 of the Crimes Act 1961 in items 1 and 2of the Schedule: omit and substitute:section 201(1) Intentionally transmitting any dis-

ease

Parole Act 2002 (2002 No 10)Paragraph (c) of the definition of specified offence in section 107(9):repeal and substitute:

“(c) an offence against any of sections 171, 173 to 176, 188,189, 198A, 198B, 208 to 210, 234, 235, and 236 of theCrimes Act 1961.”

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APPENDIX B: The draft B i l l

Crimes (Offences Against the Person)Amendment Bill Schedule

Part 2—continued

Sentencing Act 2002 (2002 No 9)Section 87(5)(b): repeal and substitute:

“(b) an offence against any of sections 171, 173 to 176, 188,189, 198A, 198B, 208 to 210, 234, 235, and 236 of theCrimes Act 1961.”

Summary Offences Act 1981 (1981 No 113)Section 10A: repeal.Items relating to sections 188(1), 188(2), 189(1), 189(2), 191(1),191(2), 192, 193, 198A, 198B, 199, and 202C of the Crimes Act1961 in Part 1 of Schedule 3: omit and substitute:188 Causing serious injury189 Causing injury189A(1) Assault with intent to injure192 Aggravated assault198A Using any firearm against law en-

forcement officer, etc198B Commission of crime with firearm

Summary Proceedings Act 1957 (1957 No 87)Section 186(c)(i), (ii), and (iii): repeal and substitute:

“(i) section 188 (which relates to causing seriousinjury):

“(ii) section 189 (which relates to causing injury):“(iii) section 189A (which relates to assault):”

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ScheduleCrimes (Offences Against the Person)

Amendment Bill

Part 2—continuedSummary Proceedings Act 1957 (1957 No 87)—continued

Item relating to section 145 of the Crimes Act 1961 in Part 1 ofSchedule 1: omit.Item relating to sections 151, 152, and 153 of the Crimes Act 1961in Part 1 of Schedule 1: omit and substitute:151, 152 Neglect to provide necessaries

and protect from injuryPart 1 of Schedule 1: insert after the item relating to section 154 ofthe Crimes Act 1961:157A Unlawful acts and omissions

likely to cause injury157B Injuring by unlawful act or

omissionPart 1 of Schedule 1: insert after the item relating to section 189 ofthe Crimes Act 1961:189A AssaultItems relating to sections 190, 193, and 194 of the Crimes Act 1961in Part 1 of Schedule 1: omit.Item relating to section 195 of the Crimes Act 1961 in Part 1 ofSchedule 1: omit and substitute:195 Ill-treatment or neglect of child

or vulnerable adult195A Failure to protect child or

vulnerable adult from risk ofserious harm

Items relating to sections 196, 200(2), and 202C of the Crimes Act1961 in Part 1 of Schedule 1: omit.

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