Revolutions Revolutions andand

Nationalism Nationalism

Revolutions of 1848Revolutions of 1848 Considered the watershed political event of the 19th Considered the watershed political event of the 19th

century.century. 1848 revolutions influenced by romanticism, nationalism, 1848 revolutions influenced by romanticism, nationalism,

and liberalism, as well as economic dislocation and and liberalism, as well as economic dislocation and instability.instability.

Only Britain and Russia avoided Only Britain and Russia avoided significantsignificant upheaval. upheaval. Neither liberals or conservatives could gain permanent Neither liberals or conservatives could gain permanent

upper hand.upper hand. Resulted in end of serfdom in Austria and Germany, Resulted in end of serfdom in Austria and Germany,

universal male suffrage in France, parliaments universal male suffrage in France, parliaments established in German states (although controlled by established in German states (although controlled by princes & aristocrats), stimulated unification impulse in princes & aristocrats), stimulated unification impulse in Prussia and Sardinia-Piedmont.Prussia and Sardinia-Piedmont.

Last of liberal revolutions dating back to the French Last of liberal revolutions dating back to the French RevolutionRevolution

ConsequencesConsequences

The revolutions failed to pull popular support The revolutions failed to pull popular support from working classes.from working classes.

Middle classes led the revolution, but as it Middle classes led the revolution, but as it turned more radical, they held back.turned more radical, they held back.

Were they were successful, old guard was left Were they were successful, old guard was left in place and they turned against them.in place and they turned against them.

Nationalism divided more that united.Nationalism divided more that united. Some gains lasted (abolition of serfdom, etc.)Some gains lasted (abolition of serfdom, etc.)

France 1848:France 1848:The February RevolutionThe February Revolution

Working class and Working class and liberals unhappy with liberals unhappy with King Louis PhilippeKing Louis Philippe, , esp. his minister esp. his minister Francois Guizot Francois Guizot (who (who opposed electoral opposed electoral reform).reform).

King dismisses King dismisses Giuzot, but riots break Giuzot, but riots break out.out.

King forced to King forced to abdicate on Feb. 24.abdicate on Feb. 24.

Francois GuizotFrancois Guizot

The Provisional GovernmentThe Provisional Government Second French Republic declared by Second French Republic declared by

Chamber of deputies.Chamber of deputies. Modernate republicans led by liberal Modernate republicans led by liberal Alphonse Alphonse

LamartineLamartine (allied w/ bourgeoisie) (allied w/ bourgeoisie) SocialistsSocialists led by Louis Blanc led by Louis Blanc national workshops national workshops created by Blanc to created by Blanc to

provide work for the unemployedprovide work for the unemployed Reforms: abolished slavery in the empire, 10 hr Reforms: abolished slavery in the empire, 10 hr

workday in Paris, abolished death penalty.workday in Paris, abolished death penalty. April elections for new Constituent Assembly April elections for new Constituent Assembly

resulted in conflict between moderate resulted in conflict between moderate republicans (who won) and socialistsrepublicans (who won) and socialists

The June Days RevoltThe June Days Revolt Workers attempted to create a revolutionary Workers attempted to create a revolutionary

republic after Blanc was dropped from republic after Blanc was dropped from assembly.assembly.

Results inResults in “June Days” Revolution “June Days” Revolution Cause: gov’t closed national workshopsCause: gov’t closed national workshops Marked beginning of class warfare in FranceMarked beginning of class warfare in France Workers sought war against poverty and Workers sought war against poverty and

redistribution of income.redistribution of income. Barricades put up in streets to oppose gov’t Barricades put up in streets to oppose gov’t

forces (Hugo’s forces (Hugo’s Les MiserablesLes Miserables based on this) based on this)

France 1848France 1848The Second RepublicThe Second Republic

General Louis CavaignacGeneral Louis Cavaignac: : assumed dictatorial powers & assumed dictatorial powers & crushed revolt (10,000 dead)crushed revolt (10,000 dead)

Victory for conservativesVictory for conservatives Nov 1848 – constitution provided for Nov 1848 – constitution provided for

elected president and one-house elected president and one-house parliamentparliament

Election of 1848: Louis Napoleon Election of 1848: Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (1803-1873)Bonaparte (1803-1873) defeated defeated CavignacCavignac

1852: Louis Napoleon consolidates 1852: Louis Napoleon consolidates power and becomes power and becomes Emperor Emperor Napoleon IIINapoleon III Louis Napoleon Louis Napoleon

BonaparteBonaparte

Second French RepublicSecond French Republic Constitution: Unicameral legislature (National Constitution: Unicameral legislature (National

Assembly); strong executive power; popularly-Assembly); strong executive power; popularly-elected president of the Republicelected president of the Republic

President Louis Napoleon BonapartePresident Louis Napoleon Bonaparte: seen : seen by voters as a symbol of stability and by voters as a symbol of stability and greatnessgreatness

Dedicated to law and order, opposed to Dedicated to law and order, opposed to socialism and radicalism, and favored the socialism and radicalism, and favored the conservative classes—the Church, army, conservative classes—the Church, army, property-owners, and business.property-owners, and business.

Granted universal male suffrageGranted universal male suffrage Falloux LawFalloux Law: Napoleon returned control of : Napoleon returned control of

education to the Church (in return for support)education to the Church (in return for support)

The Coup D’etat The Coup D’etat The Assembly did not grant The Assembly did not grant

Louis Napoleon the allowance Louis Napoleon the allowance for a 2nd presidential term for a 2nd presidential term resulting in his plotting a coup.resulting in his plotting a coup.

On Dec 2, 1852, he had On Dec 2, 1852, he had opponents arrested.opponents arrested.

Through a series of plebiscites, Through a series of plebiscites, he consolidated power with the he consolidated power with the help of the help of the BonapartistsBonapartists, , becoming Emperor Napoleon becoming Emperor Napoleon III.III.

Emperor Napoleon III.Emperor Napoleon III.

The Second Empire The Second Empire 1851-1860: Napoleon III’s control was direct 1851-1860: Napoleon III’s control was direct

and authoritarian.and authoritarian. Economic reforms resulted in a healthy Economic reforms resulted in a healthy

economyeconomy Infrastructure: canals, roads; Baron Haussmann Infrastructure: canals, roads; Baron Haussmann

redevelops Parisredevelops Paris Movement towards free trade, hurt economyMovement towards free trade, hurt economy Banking: Banking: Credit MobilierCredit Mobilier funded industrial and funded industrial and

infrastructure growthinfrastructure growth Foreign policy struggles resulted in strong Foreign policy struggles resulted in strong

criticism of Napoleon IIIcriticism of Napoleon III Algeria, Crimean War, Italian unification struggles, Algeria, Crimean War, Italian unification struggles,

colonial possessions in Africacolonial possessions in Africa

The Second EmpireThe Second Empire 1860-1870: Regime liberalized by a series of 1860-1870: Regime liberalized by a series of

reforms.reforms. Liberal reforms (done in part to divert attention Liberal reforms (done in part to divert attention

from unsuccessful foreign policy)from unsuccessful foreign policy) Extended power of the Legislative AssemblyExtended power of the Legislative Assembly Returned control of secondary education to the Returned control of secondary education to the

government (instead of Catholic Church)government (instead of Catholic Church) In response, Pope Pius IX issued In response, Pope Pius IX issued Syllabus of Syllabus of

ErrorsErrors, condemning liberalism., condemning liberalism. Permitted trade unions and right to strikePermitted trade unions and right to strike Eased censorship and granted amnesty to political Eased censorship and granted amnesty to political

prisonersprisoners

Revolution in Austria, Revolution in Austria, 18481848

Habsburg empire was vulnerable to revolutionary Habsburg empire was vulnerable to revolutionary challengechallenge

Ethnic minorities sought nationalistic goals: Ethnic minorities sought nationalistic goals: Hungarians, Slavs, Czechs, Italians, Serbs, Croats, Hungarians, Slavs, Czechs, Italians, Serbs, Croats, and others. (More non-Germans than Germans lived in and others. (More non-Germans than Germans lived in the empire)the empire)

Austrian gov’t was reactionary; liberal institutions were Austrian gov’t was reactionary; liberal institutions were non-existent.non-existent.

Social reliance on serfdom doomed masses of people Social reliance on serfdom doomed masses of people to a life w/o hope.to a life w/o hope.

““February Revolution” in France sparked rebellion for February Revolution” in France sparked rebellion for liberal reforms.liberal reforms.

Vienna, 1848Vienna, 1848 March 13 – rioting breaks out in March 13 – rioting breaks out in

ViennaVienna Austrian empire collapsed; Austrian empire collapsed;

Metternich fledMetternich fled Constituent assembly meets.Constituent assembly meets. Serfdom (robot) abolished, Serfdom (robot) abolished,

revolution withers.revolution withers. Revolutionary gov’t failed to Revolutionary gov’t failed to

govern effectivelygovern effectively Ferdinand I abdicates, Ferdinand I abdicates,

Habsburgs restored royal Habsburgs restored royal absolutism under Franz Joseph absolutism under Franz Joseph (r. 1848-1916).(r. 1848-1916).

Franz JosephFranz Joseph

Hungary, 1848Hungary, 1848 Louis KossuthLouis Kossuth (1802-1894) (1802-1894)

Hungarian (Magyar nationalist) Hungarian (Magyar nationalist) leader demanded independence.leader demanded independence.

March laws provided for March laws provided for Hungarian independence.Hungarian independence.

Austrians invade, Hungarian Austrians invade, Hungarian armies drove within sight of armies drove within sight of Vienna.Vienna.

Slavic minorities resisted Magyar Slavic minorities resisted Magyar invasion and Hungarian army invasion and Hungarian army withdrewwithdrew

Austrian and Russian armies Austrian and Russian armies defeated Hungarian army.defeated Hungarian army.

Hungary would have to wait until Hungary would have to wait until 1866 for autonomy 1866 for autonomy Louis KossuthLouis Kossuth

Bohemia, 1848Bohemia, 1848

Prague ConferencePrague Conference developed notion of developed notion of Austroslavism: Austroslavism: constitution and constitution and autonomy within Habsburg empire.autonomy within Habsburg empire.

Pan-Slav Congress failed to unite Slavic Pan-Slav Congress failed to unite Slavic peoples in the empire.peoples in the empire.

Austrian military ultimately attacked Austrian military ultimately attacked Prague and occupied Bohemia and Prague and occupied Bohemia and crushed rebellion.crushed rebellion.

Preserving the Austrian Preserving the Austrian EmpireEmpire

Internal national divisions and military Internal national divisions and military defeats at the hands of the Italians, defeats at the hands of the Italians, Prussians and French caused continued Prussians and French caused continued disunity in the Austrian Empire.disunity in the Austrian Empire.

Under nationalist Under nationalist Ferencz DeakFerencz Deak, , Hungary gained autonomy.Hungary gained autonomy.

Franz Joseph became king of Hungary in Franz Joseph became king of Hungary in the now the now Austro-Hungarian EmpireAustro-Hungarian Empire..

BritainBritain The ChartistsThe Chartists

Movement reached its Movement reached its height with the Kennington height with the Kennington Common demonstration on Common demonstration on April 10, 1848.April 10, 1848.

Could have been the Could have been the prelude to revolution in prelude to revolution in Britain, but meeting was Britain, but meeting was peaceful.peaceful.

Leaders did not follow-up Leaders did not follow-up on the meeting and on the meeting and Chartist movement died.Chartist movement died.

Kennington Common Kennington Common demonstration on April 10, 1848demonstration on April 10, 1848

Effects of NationalismEffects of Nationalism Many aspects of European political and Many aspects of European political and

cultural life in the middle to late 18cultural life in the middle to late 18thth century took on nationalist overtones.century took on nationalist overtones.

The French Revolution had promoted The French Revolution had promoted and spread these ideas at the beginning and spread these ideas at the beginning of the century.of the century.

The desire for national self-determination The desire for national self-determination combined with aspects of conservatism, combined with aspects of conservatism, liberalism and romanticism made liberalism and romanticism made nationalism a driving force in European nationalism a driving force in European affairs.affairs.

The Impact of The Impact of Nationalism Nationalism

In Central and Eastern Europe, nationalism In Central and Eastern Europe, nationalism was the most powerful ideology of the middle was the most powerful ideology of the middle 1919thth century. century.

It would have a strong impact in Western It would have a strong impact in Western Europe as well (balanced by liberalism).Europe as well (balanced by liberalism).

Nationalism had cultural roots (language, Nationalism had cultural roots (language, history, symbolism) that gave a sense of history, symbolism) that gave a sense of identity.identity.

It soon took on political aspects, being used by It soon took on political aspects, being used by liberals and conservatives to promote their liberals and conservatives to promote their agendas.agendas.

Crimean War Crimean War CausesCauses

Dispute between two groups of Dispute between two groups of Christians over privileges in the Holy Christians over privileges in the Holy LandLand

1852, Turks (who controlled the region) 1852, Turks (who controlled the region) negotiated an agreement with France to negotiated an agreement with France to provide enclaves in the Holy Land to provide enclaves in the Holy Land to Roman Catholic religious orders.Roman Catholic religious orders.

This arrangement seemed to jeopardize This arrangement seemed to jeopardize existing agreements which provided existing agreements which provided access to Greek Orthodox religious access to Greek Orthodox religious orders (that Russia favored)orders (that Russia favored)

Crimean War Crimean War Czar Nicholas I ordered Czar Nicholas I ordered

Russian troops to occupy Russian troops to occupy several provinces on the several provinces on the Danube (excuse for Russian Danube (excuse for Russian expansion)expansion)

Russia would withdraw once Russia would withdraw once Turks had guaranteed rights Turks had guaranteed rights for Orthodox Christiansfor Orthodox Christians

Turks declared war on Russia Turks declared war on Russia in 1853, when Nicholas in 1853, when Nicholas refused to withdraw.refused to withdraw.

1854, Britain & France 1854, Britain & France declared war against Russia, declared war against Russia, protecting their interests.protecting their interests.

1855, Piedmont joined in the 1855, Piedmont joined in the war against Russia.war against Russia.

Crimean WarCrimean War

Most of the war fought on the Most of the war fought on the Crimean peninsula in the Black Crimean peninsula in the Black Sea.Sea.

War was reported on widely in War was reported on widely in newspapers.newspapers.

Gained “nationalist” stature at Gained “nationalist” stature at home due to reporting and home due to reporting and poems like poems like “Charge of the “Charge of the Light Brigade” Light Brigade” by Alfred Lord by Alfred Lord TennysonTennyson

Florence NightingaleFlorence Nightingale: famous : famous for superb nursing and improved for superb nursing and improved medical treatment (more men medical treatment (more men died of disease than combat)died of disease than combat)

Battle of Balaklava

Peace SettlementPeace Settlement Deadlock in war broken with the taking of Deadlock in war broken with the taking of

Sevastopol.Sevastopol. Peace of ParisPeace of Paris: Russia emerged as the big : Russia emerged as the big

loser in the conflictloser in the conflict Russia no longer had control of maritime trade Russia no longer had control of maritime trade

on the Danube, had to recognize Turkish on the Danube, had to recognize Turkish control of the mouth of the Danube, and control of the mouth of the Danube, and renounced claims to Moldavia and Walachia renounced claims to Moldavia and Walachia

Russia renounced role of protector of the Russia renounced role of protector of the Greek Orthodox residents of the Ottoman Greek Orthodox residents of the Ottoman Empire.Empire.

Agreed to return all occupied territories to the Agreed to return all occupied territories to the Ottoman Empire.Ottoman Empire.

Italy, 1848Italy, 1848

Italian nationalists and liberals seek to end Italian nationalists and liberals seek to end foreign domination of Italyforeign domination of Italy

Milan, Lombardy and Venetia seek expel Milan, Lombardy and Venetia seek expel Austrian rulersAustrian rulers

Bourbon rulers in Kingdom of Two Sicilies and Bourbon rulers in Kingdom of Two Sicilies and House of Savoy in Sardinia-Piedmont grant House of Savoy in Sardinia-Piedmont grant liberal constitutions.liberal constitutions.

Sardinia-Piedmont declared war on Austria. Sardinia-Piedmont declared war on Austria. Beginning in May, revolutions suppressed. Beginning in May, revolutions suppressed.

Italy, 1848Italy, 1848

Giuseppe MazziniGiuseppe Mazzini established established Roman Republic in 1849 Roman Republic in 1849 protected by protected by Giuseppe Giuseppe GaribaldiGaribaldi

Pope Pius IX forced to fleePope Pius IX forced to flee Austrian Austrian General Radetsky General Radetsky

crushes Sardinia-Piedmont; crushes Sardinia-Piedmont; regains Lombardy and Venetia.regains Lombardy and Venetia.

French troops take back Papal French troops take back Papal States.States.

Victor Emmanuel II takes Victor Emmanuel II takes throne in Sardinia-Piedmont.throne in Sardinia-Piedmont.

Giuseppe MazziniGiuseppe Mazzini

Italy, 1848Italy, 1848 Causes for failure:Causes for failure:

Rural people did not Rural people did not support revolutions, support revolutions, focused mainly on focused mainly on urban middle classes.urban middle classes.

Revolutionaries not Revolutionaries not united, fear of radicals united, fear of radicals among moderates among moderates leads to collapse.leads to collapse.

Lack of leadership Lack of leadership and administrative and administrative experience among experience among revolutionaries.revolutionaries. Giuseppe GaribaldiGiuseppe Garibaldi

Divided ItalyDivided Italy Following the Revolution of 1848, the Following the Revolution of 1848, the

RisorgimentoRisorgimento seemed a distant dream. seemed a distant dream. Italy remained divided into three main Italy remained divided into three main

parts:parts: Kingdom of the Two Sicilies – ruled by Kingdom of the Two Sicilies – ruled by

Bourbon monarch.Bourbon monarch. Pope ruled the Papal States.Pope ruled the Papal States. In the North, Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled In the North, Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled

by the House of Savoy; Tuscany, Modena by the House of Savoy; Tuscany, Modena and Parma were dominated by Austria while and Parma were dominated by Austria while Venice and Lombardy were part of the Venice and Lombardy were part of the Austria Empire. Austria Empire.

Count Camillo Cavour (1810-1861)Count Camillo Cavour (1810-1861)

Born of nobility, he Born of nobility, he became a liberal early in became a liberal early in his career.his career.

In 1848, he was elected to In 1848, he was elected to the new Piedmontese the new Piedmontese Parliament and rose Parliament and rose through the ranks.through the ranks.

King Victor Emmanuel IIKing Victor Emmanuel II (r. 1849-1878) appointed (r. 1849-1878) appointed him premier in 1852. him premier in 1852.

Count Camillo CavourCount Camillo Cavour

Cavour quickly instituted a program of Cavour quickly instituted a program of liberal reforms, hoping to discredit liberal reforms, hoping to discredit Austrian tyranny and creating a united Austrian tyranny and creating a united North Italian state.North Italian state. He reformed the currency and finance He reformed the currency and finance

systems.systems. Balanced the state budget.Balanced the state budget. He modernized railroads and factories.He modernized railroads and factories. He established banks.He established banks.

Piedmont – Austrian WarPiedmont – Austrian War

Cavour sought alliance with France to help Cavour sought alliance with France to help deal with Austria.deal with Austria. Piedmont sends troops to the Crimea.Piedmont sends troops to the Crimea. Napoleon III agrees to deal with Cavour.Napoleon III agrees to deal with Cavour.

Provides French troops to fight against Austria.Provides French troops to fight against Austria. Piedmont would gain Lombardy and Venetia.Piedmont would gain Lombardy and Venetia. France would gain Savoy and Nice. France would gain Savoy and Nice.

Cavour provokes Austria into war in April Cavour provokes Austria into war in April 1859.1859.

Piedmont – Austrian WarPiedmont – Austrian War Austria attacked, but were turned back by Austria attacked, but were turned back by

the Piedmontese and the French at the the Piedmontese and the French at the Battles of Magenta and SolferinoBattles of Magenta and Solferino..

Napoleon III made a separate peace with Napoleon III made a separate peace with Austria (Peace of Villafranca), giving Austria (Peace of Villafranca), giving Lombardy to Piedmont but retaining Lombardy to Piedmont but retaining Venice.Venice.

Cavour resigned in disgust, but returned Cavour resigned in disgust, but returned in 1860 when revolutionary assemblies in 1860 when revolutionary assemblies across northern Italy moved to join with across northern Italy moved to join with Piedmont.Piedmont.

Revolution in Southern Revolution in Southern ItalyItaly

Revolution broke out in Southern Italy in Revolution broke out in Southern Italy in 1860 against Bourbon 1860 against Bourbon Francis IIFrancis II..

Guiseppe Garibaldi sailed south with Guiseppe Garibaldi sailed south with 1000 Red Shirts to Sicily to support the 1000 Red Shirts to Sicily to support the revolt, taking Palermo.revolt, taking Palermo.

In August, they crossed to the Italian In August, they crossed to the Italian mainland, Francis II fled.mainland, Francis II fled.

On Sept. 7, Garibaldi took Naples.On Sept. 7, Garibaldi took Naples.

The Kingdom of ItalyThe Kingdom of Italy

Cavour then sent troops to take control of the Cavour then sent troops to take control of the Papal States before Garibaldi moved against Papal States before Garibaldi moved against Rome.Rome.

Garibaldi allowed the annexation of the Kingdom Garibaldi allowed the annexation of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.of the Two Sicilies.

On March 17, 1861 an Italian parliament On March 17, 1861 an Italian parliament proclaimed the Kingdom of Italy with Victor proclaimed the Kingdom of Italy with Victor Emmanuel II as king.Emmanuel II as king.

Wars between Prussia and Austria and France Wars between Prussia and Austria and France allowed Venetia and Rome to be incorporated into allowed Venetia and Rome to be incorporated into Italy by 1870.Italy by 1870.

The German States, 1848The German States, 1848

Revolutions inspired by 1848 Revolutions inspired by 1848 revolutions in Francerevolutions in France

Liberals demanded Liberals demanded constitutional government and constitutional government and a union or federation of a union or federation of German states.German states.

Frederick William IV rejected Frederick William IV rejected liberal constitution; imposed liberal constitution; imposed conservative one that conservative one that guaranteed royal control of guaranteed royal control of gov’t (lasted until 1918).gov’t (lasted until 1918). Frederick William IVFrederick William IV

Frankfurt ParliamentFrankfurt Parliament Liberal, romantic, & nationalist Liberal, romantic, & nationalist

leaders called for elections to a leaders called for elections to a constituent assembly, from all constituent assembly, from all states in the German Bund, for states in the German Bund, for the purpose of unifying the the purpose of unifying the German states.German states.

Sought war with Denmark to Sought war with Denmark to annex Schleswig & Holstein; annex Schleswig & Holstein; Prussia declared war on Prussia declared war on DenmarkDenmark

Presented constitution for a Presented constitution for a united German federation.united German federation.

Selected Prussian King Selected Prussian King Frederick William IV as Frederick William IV as emperor; he declined claiming emperor; he declined claiming “divine right of kings”“divine right of kings”

Collapse of the Collapse of the RevolutionRevolution

Failure of Prussia and Austria to support Failure of Prussia and Austria to support unification movement resulted in its collapsedunification movement resulted in its collapsed

Frederick William’s attempt to unify Germany Frederick William’s attempt to unify Germany ended in failureended in failure

Austria demanded Prussian allegiance to the Austria demanded Prussian allegiance to the Bund (that Austria dominated)Bund (that Austria dominated)

““Humiliation of Olmutz”Humiliation of Olmutz”: Prussia dropped : Prussia dropped plan to unify Germany, leaving Austria as plan to unify Germany, leaving Austria as dominant German state in the Bund.dominant German state in the Bund.

Prussia would seek revenge in 1866 (Austro-Prussia would seek revenge in 1866 (Austro-Prussian War)Prussian War)

Divided GermanyDivided Germany

After 1848, liberal nationalists were in a After 1848, liberal nationalists were in a weak position politically.weak position politically.

The German Confederation was The German Confederation was reestablished as a loose union of 39 reestablished as a loose union of 39 states (including the powerful Prussia states (including the powerful Prussia and Austria).and Austria).

The union was dominated by Austria, The union was dominated by Austria, which held the presidency.which held the presidency.

Otto von Bismarck (1815-Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)1898)

Bismarck was born on Bismarck was born on Prussian Junker Prussian Junker aristocracy.aristocracy.

Worked unhappily in civil Worked unhappily in civil service and became a service and became a farmer.farmer.

Elected to the Elected to the LandtagLandtag (Prussian Parliament) in (Prussian Parliament) in 1847.1847.

Here he would begin his Here he would begin his practice of practice of “realpolitik”“realpolitik”

Otto von BismarckOtto von Bismarck

In 1852, he became Prussia’s In 1852, he became Prussia’s rep. at the Confederation (later rep. at the Confederation (later he became ambassador to he became ambassador to Russia and France).Russia and France).

Wilhelm IWilhelm I (r. 1861-1888) named (r. 1861-1888) named him minister-president to push him minister-president to push forward expansion of the military.forward expansion of the military.

Despite liberal opposition, he Despite liberal opposition, he raised taxes to do so, claiming raised taxes to do so, claiming change would come through change would come through “blood and iron.”“blood and iron.”

Wilhelm I

The Schleswig-Holstein The Schleswig-Holstein AffairAffair 1863 annexation by Denmark infuriated 1863 annexation by Denmark infuriated

German nationalists.German nationalists. Prussia and Austria allied to defeat Prussia and Austria allied to defeat

Demark in 1864.Demark in 1864. The The Convention of GasteinConvention of Gastein provided for provided for

joint Austrian-Prussian rule of the duchies.joint Austrian-Prussian rule of the duchies. Bismarck began making deals with Bismarck began making deals with

France, Italy and Russia for neutrality in France, Italy and Russia for neutrality in dealing with Austria.dealing with Austria.

The Seven Weeks WarThe Seven Weeks War

In 1866, Prussia accused Austria of In 1866, Prussia accused Austria of violating the Convention of Gastein.violating the Convention of Gastein.

In June, they went to war.In June, they went to war. Austrians were soundly defeated at the Austrians were soundly defeated at the

Battle of Königgrätz Battle of Königgrätz (Sadowa) on July 3.(Sadowa) on July 3. In the Treaty of Prague, Prussia gained In the Treaty of Prague, Prussia gained

several states in northern Germany, the several states in northern Germany, the German Conf. dissolved and Italy received German Conf. dissolved and Italy received Venetia.Venetia.

The North German The North German ConfederationConfederation

Prussia established the Prussia established the North German North German ConfederationConfederation in 1867. in 1867.

South German states of Bavaria, South German states of Bavaria, Wurttemburg, Baden, and Hesse Wurttemburg, Baden, and Hesse remained independent.remained independent.

Bismarck wanted to absorb them, but Bismarck wanted to absorb them, but differences (south was Catholic and differences (south was Catholic and liberal) and French opposition made this liberal) and French opposition made this difficult.difficult.

The Hohenzollern The Hohenzollern CandidacyCandidacy

An 1868 Spanish revolution resulted in the An 1868 Spanish revolution resulted in the nomination of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern as nomination of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern as king.king.

The French protested and the Prussians acquiesced.The French protested and the Prussians acquiesced. At Elms, French Count Benedetti demanded further At Elms, French Count Benedetti demanded further

Prussian concessions, Wilhelm I refused.Prussian concessions, Wilhelm I refused. Bismarck had notes of the meeting (known as the Bismarck had notes of the meeting (known as the

Elms DispatchElms Dispatch) released. Napoleon III was ) released. Napoleon III was enraged and declared war on July 19, 1870.enraged and declared war on July 19, 1870.

The South German states allied with Prussia.The South German states allied with Prussia.

The Franco-Prussian WarThe Franco-Prussian War The German armies quickly mobilized and The German armies quickly mobilized and

invaded France.invaded France. On Sept. 2, the Napoleon III was captured and a On Sept. 2, the Napoleon III was captured and a

large part of the French Army surrendered at large part of the French Army surrendered at Sedan.Sedan.

In Paris, rebels proclaimed the In Paris, rebels proclaimed the Third French Third French RepublicRepublic and continued the war. and continued the war.

On May 10, the Treaty of Frankfurt ended the On May 10, the Treaty of Frankfurt ended the war.war. Germany got the provinces of Germany got the provinces of Alsace and LorraineAlsace and Lorraine

and 5 billion francs.and 5 billion francs. The French greatly resented their defeat.The French greatly resented their defeat.

TheTheGerman Reich German Reich

During the war negotiations continued in During the war negotiations continued in Germany.Germany.

As a result, on Jan. 18, 1871 Wilhelm I As a result, on Jan. 18, 1871 Wilhelm I was proclaimed Kaiser before an was proclaimed Kaiser before an assembly of German princes in the Hall assembly of German princes in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles.of Mirrors at Versailles.

The unification of Germany was The unification of Germany was complete, Bismarck became Chancellor.complete, Bismarck became Chancellor.

Politics and Culture in Politics and Culture in The Second ReichThe Second Reich

Bismarck, fearing internal opposition to Bismarck, fearing internal opposition to conservative rule, moved against conservative rule, moved against enemies: Catholics and Socialists.enemies: Catholics and Socialists. Catholics – with the Catholics – with the KulturkampfKulturkampf program, program,

attempted to take control of church functions attempted to take control of church functions away; this failed.away; this failed.

Socialists – the Socialists – the Social Democratic PartySocial Democratic Party of of Ferdinand LassalleFerdinand Lassalle was forced was forced underground in public life, but continued to underground in public life, but continued to gain in Reichstag elections.gain in Reichstag elections.

Lessons and ImpactLessons and Impact

Liberal nationalists had failed to unify Germany Liberal nationalists had failed to unify Germany and Italy from below in 1848 .and Italy from below in 1848 .

Where they failed, conservative nationalists Where they failed, conservative nationalists were able to succeed from above in the 1860s.were able to succeed from above in the 1860s.

The unification of Germany and Italy changed The unification of Germany and Italy changed the balance of power established at the the balance of power established at the Congress of Vienna (1815) at the expense of Congress of Vienna (1815) at the expense of Austria and France.Austria and France.

Immediately, Germany became the most Immediately, Germany became the most powerful nation on the European continent.powerful nation on the European continent.

Reform in RussiaReform in Russia After defeat in the Crimean War, Tsar After defeat in the Crimean War, Tsar

Alexander II abolished serfdom in 1861.Alexander II abolished serfdom in 1861. MirMir (village communes) grew in importance for (village communes) grew in importance for

establishing farming communities for former establishing farming communities for former serfs.serfs.

ZemstvosZemstvos (district councils) were created in (district councils) were created in 1864 to increase local control.1864 to increase local control.

Revolt in Poland in 1863 and the assassination Revolt in Poland in 1863 and the assassination of Alexander II in 1881 kept the government in of Alexander II in 1881 kept the government in tight control.tight control.

Popular CulturePopular Culture

Mass culture in Europe reached more Mass culture in Europe reached more people than ever before.people than ever before.

Culture took on distinctly national Culture took on distinctly national elements.elements.

Museums, theatres, opera houses and Museums, theatres, opera houses and historic sights opened to the public and historic sights opened to the public and were treated with national reverence.were treated with national reverence.

NewspapersNewspapers

By mid century, newspapers and By mid century, newspapers and periodicals took on great importance.periodicals took on great importance.

Circulation of some newspapers Circulation of some newspapers increased tenfold in less than a half increased tenfold in less than a half century.century.

Newspapers grew in size, used new Newspapers grew in size, used new technologies (telegraph and technologies (telegraph and photography) and made considerable photography) and made considerable profits on advertising and subscriptions profits on advertising and subscriptions

Changing StylesChanging Styles Most cultural expressions of the Most cultural expressions of the

period reflected national pride period reflected national pride and connections to history.and connections to history.

OperaOpera was the most popular was the most popular artistic form as it attempted to artistic form as it attempted to synthesize the arts.synthesize the arts. Richard WagnerRichard Wagner Giuseppe VerdiGiuseppe Verdi

The The novelnovel continued to grow as continued to grow as the main literary style.the main literary style.

Romanticism began to give way Romanticism began to give way to to realismrealism (c. 1850-1880) in all (c. 1850-1880) in all of the arts of the period.of the arts of the period.

Realism – Edgar DegasRealism – Edgar Degas

The Bellelli FamilyThe Bellelli Family

Realism - Jean-François MilletRealism - Jean-François Millet

The GleanersThe Gleaners

Cultural ProfessionsCultural Professions

Writers, artists and performers were able Writers, artists and performers were able to make a considerable living during this to make a considerable living during this period by excelling in their profession.period by excelling in their profession.

This was extended to academics as This was extended to academics as departments of history, economics, and departments of history, economics, and the arts took shape at universities.the arts took shape at universities.

History had a special place in the History had a special place in the formation and understanding of national formation and understanding of national cultures.cultures.

Religious ThoughtReligious Thought

In many ways, the 19In many ways, the 19thth century was a century was a very religious period.very religious period.

Reaction against the Enlightenment Reaction against the Enlightenment fueled this pattern.fueled this pattern.

Strict “Victorian” morality permeated the Strict “Victorian” morality permeated the culture.culture.

Religious influence brought about the Religious influence brought about the end of slavery and established charity end of slavery and established charity organizations.organizations.

Cultural ImpactCultural Impact

National cultures during the Middle 19National cultures during the Middle 19thth Century were more dynamic than ever Century were more dynamic than ever before.before.

The arts were national and urban, rather The arts were national and urban, rather than centered in courts or salons.than centered in courts or salons.

Mass culture allowed more writers, artists Mass culture allowed more writers, artists and musicians to succeed at their craft and musicians to succeed at their craft and reach a larger audience than ever and reach a larger audience than ever before.before.