San Diego: From Mission to Metropolis

By Sergio Alanis

History and Theory of Urban Planning

Fall 2013

Dr. Maggie Valentine

San Diego: From Mission to Metropolis

San Diego, California, has been described as “the birthplace of California”1, given

that the first European settlements in California (then part of Mexico) were established

there in 1769 in the form of a presidio (fort) and a mission. In more recent times, the

city acquired the unofficial slogan “America’s Finest City”2, given by its then mayor, Pete

Wilson, in 1972. This investigation aims to explain how San Diego evolved from being

one of 21 missions along the coast of California to a modern metropolis populated by

1.3 million people, and how historic events and figures shaped its urban fabric.

The most important physical element in the planning history of San Diego is the

deceiving San Diego River. Documented by explorer Sebastian Vizcaino in 1602, the

river was described as a “"good port, although it had at its entrance a bar of little more

than 2 fathoms depth, and there was a very large grove at an estuary which extended

into the land, and many Indians.”3 In 1769, the Spanish came back to San Diego with

intentions to settle, and Captain Vincent Vila of the ship San Carlos found the San

Diego River as a “river with excellent water,” and noted that about 35 to 40 Indian

families lived along the river. It seems that both Vizcaino and Vila were fooled by first

impressions, thinking that the water was always going to flow and that since the Indians

(Kumeyaay) lived along the river, that so could they. Vila overlooked the fact that the

Kumeyaays were nomad hunters, not agricultural people, so they did not have the need

of a constant water stream, since they could easily move towards the better condition.

Also, unbeknownst to Vila, the river, (through its documented history), has always been

depicted more like a mirage than a river, having portions that dry in a few days and

other portions that overflow with a minimum amount of rain. In spite of noting the

unpredictability of the water supply from the river, Fr. Junipero Sierra founded the

Mission San Diego de Alcalá and a military post known as the Presidio on July 16,

1769. Through a letter written by Fr. Palau, it was found that the first year they planted

their crops near the river, and the river rose so high that it carried away all that was

sown. The second year planting was done further back from the stream, but water was

so scarce that most of the plants died.4 After dealing with this situation for about 5

years, Fr. Serra and the padres moved the Mission to its current location. Fr. Serra

reported:

1 McGrew, Clarence Alan (1922). City of San Diego and San Diego County: the birthplace of California. American

Historical Society. Retrieved 26 October 2012. 2 Ancona, Vincent S. (Fall 1992). "When the elephants marched out of San Diego". Journal of San Diego History (San

Diego Historical Society) 38 (4). 3 Richard F. Pourade, The Explorers (San Diego: Union-Tribune Publishing Co., 1960) p 184. Translation of diary of

Vizcaino. 4 Ibid. p 50, 51. Letter of Fr. Palau.

“It is determined to move the Mission within the same cañada of the port toward the

northeast of the presidio, at a distance of a little less than two league (about 6 miles). The

place is much more suitable for a population, on account of the facility of obtaining the

necessary water, and on account of the vicinity of good land for cultivation."5

With this move from what now is Presidio Hill to Mission Valley, Mission San

Diego de Alcalá became California’s first mission, in what became El Camino Real

(King’s Highway), a road consisting of 21 missions along the coast of Alta California.

(fig. 2)

There is little documentation on the layout of the Presidio and the Mission San

Diego de Alcala. However, a found sketch of the Presidio show it was laid out as a fort,

and did not follow the Law of the Indies, as later settlements did. (fig. 3). Mission San

Diego’s layout (fig.4) is also ambiguous when compared to other Spanish settlements,

as the church was built right in the middle, separating the cemetery and the patio, which

were de dominant spaces.

Figure 2. El Camino Real and its 21 Missions Source: http://www.californiamissionsmuseum.com/

5 Ibid. p 56. Letter of Fr. Serra.

Figure 3. Presidio de San Diego in 1820 Figure 4. Layout of Mission San Diego Source: http://www.nps.gov/ Source: http://californiamissions.pbworks.com/

After Mexico won its independence from Spain in 1821, San Diego became part

of Alta California. The presidio was slowly abandoned and the land where Mission San

Diego de Alcalá rested was secularized and sold by the Mexican government. Mexican

land grants extended beyond town and became ranchos that helped the local economy

of the time. Some ranchos, such as Rancho Bernardo, later became part of the sub-

urban fabric of San Diego (fig.1).

The people who decided to stay in San Diego established their homes around

what was left of the presidio (now Presidio Hill). The layout of the pueblo (now old town)

exhibits heavy Spanish influence, using principles from the Law of the Indies to organize

its layout. From a map elaborated by Thomas L. Scharf (fig.5), to complement the

book Old Town San Diego, 1821-1874, by Iris Engstrand and Ray Brandes, it is clear

that the town was organized around the Plaza, the center of public life and recreation.

However, one cannot find the church or determine much else about the remaining

spaces due to the lack of recorded evidence.

Figure 5. Old Town around 1820

Source: http://www.sandiegohistory.org/

By 1834, San Diego had a population of about 500, but it shrunk to 150 by 1841.

Writer Clare B. Crane explains that “the depopulation was partly due to the fact that

those who received land grants from the Mexican government moved out of town and

settled on their ranchos with their families.” It was until 1850, after Alta California was

ceded from Mexico to the United States and California was admitted to the Union, that

the population increased to 650.6 In the same year, William Heath Davis and Andrew

Gray bought 160 acres near the waterfront, creating a development they named “New

San Diego”, which would later be known as “Davis’ Folly”. The subdivision, which

consisted of a wharf and several buildings, intended to re-establish the center of the city

near the waterfront, but the people of Old Town “clung tenaciously to its position as the

commercial and governmental center of San Diego.”7 By 1862, the wharf had been

destroyed and the whole “New San Diego” development was stalled. The whole city

seemed to have paused up until after the Civil War.

Alonzo Horton landed in San Diego in 1867, and with him, the real growth of the

city began. Once he arrived, he called San Diego “… a Heaven on Earth …I have

been nearly all over the world and it seemed to me to be the best spot for building a city

I ever saw."8 Soon after, he bought several hundred acres, neighboring Davis’ New

6 San Diego Historical Society population table. https://www.sandiegohistory.org/

7 http://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/91spring/pueblo.htm

8 MacPhail, The Story of New San Diego, 11.

San Diego, convinced that the city would improve its economy by switching its location

near the waterfront. Iris Engstrand elaborates:

“He built a wharf and began to promote development there. The area was referred

to as New Town or the Horton Addition. Despite opposition from the residents of the

original settlement, which became known as “Old Town”, businesses and residents

flocked to New Town, and San Diego experienced the first of its many real estate booms.

In 1871, government records were moved to a new county courthouse in New Town, and

by the 1880s New Town (or downtown) had totally eclipsed Old Town as the heart of the

growing city.”9

Horton created a rigid grid with rectangular lots around New Town Park (now

know as Balboa Park), laying out industrial parcels by the waterfront and commercial

and residential lots near the park. By the early 1870’s even prominent residents had

moved to “Horton’s Folly”. However, San Diego’s growth was extremely slow during

this time, comparing its population of 3,000 to San Francisco’s 200,000.

Another crucial factor in the history and development of San Diego happened

during the 1880’s with the arrival of the railroad, which brought a financial and building

boom to the city. Thanks to the railroad system, people started to move from the East,

since traveling from coast to coast would only take one week. In March 1887, when the

first Sanborn map for the city of San Diego was published, the fire insurance company

recognized New Town as the city of San Diego, completely disregarding Old Town,

leaving out of its publication. (fig. 6). By the 1890’s, New Town had a commercial

downtown section, an industrial waterfront, and residential hills, all part of the typical

American cities of the era. At the same time, 29 miles of street lighting were installed

and houses were “electrified” within an 8 mile radius of downtown.

9 Engstrand, Iris Wilson, California’s Cornerstone, Sunbelt Publications, Inc., 2005, p. 80

Figure 6. 1887 Sanborn Map

Source: http://sanborn.umi.com

Just as progress was becoming evident, the city went from boom to bust and

people started fleeing. From 1887 to 1890, San Diego’s population went from 30,000 to

16,000. The main reasons behind the sudden decrease in population were the real

estate bust and Santa Fe railroads’ decision to re-route the railroad along the coast,

relegating San Diego from a shipping destination to a mere terminus for Los Angeles’

railroad line. As consequence, the few people who remained in the city started

sprawling out, abandoning the newly developed downtown. By 1904, only 23 percent of

Uptown was developed, with mostly single family houses. In 1906 alone, 40 buildings

were built as far out as Normal Heights, even though a lot of Golden Hill and Uptown

was still very much vacant. According to Philip Pryde, the topography and the public

transit system were crucial factors which allowed people to build in cheaper land while

maintaining connectivity to the rest of the city.

George W. Marston, regarded today as "San Diego's First Citizen", is the most

significant figure in San Diego’s planning history. He helped make Balboa Park a local

landmark and was, throughout San Diego’s history, always committed to the progress

and improvement of the city. In 1908, he hired John Nolen to design a plan for the city

of San Diego. Nolen expressed how the city was then “neither interesting, nor beautiful”

and how San Diego’s city plan at the time was “not thoughtful, but, on the contrary,

ignorant and wasteful”. In summary, Nolen’s plan envisioned development of a civic

center of downtown public buildings, more urban open space, parks and playgrounds

and a bayfront with promenades and public amenities10, Even though the plan was not

fully adopted at the time, much of its content was later incorporated and is still relevant

today. Marston hired Nolen again in 1926 to revise the plan.11

Attempting to gain a boost in their economy and population, San Diego hosted

two world expositions, which attracted nationwide attention and helped put the city on

the map. These expositions acted as catalysts of growth and greatly influenced San

Diego’s urban landscape for years. The first was the Panama-California Exposition of

1915 (fig. 7). The expo was held in Balboa Park to celebrate the opening of the

Panama Canal. Park Blvd was cut through the park for better access and Santa Fe

station was rebuilt to handle the big crowds. The event promoted the city as a climactic

paradise with a rich Hispanic history, and people realized how anything could grow with

enough water. It also had the greatest impact on the new Spanish-Moroccan –Italian

cityscape12. The second exhibition, the California Pacific International Exposition (fig.8)

had such financial and attendance success that it was held for two years (May 29 –

November 11, 1935 and February 12 – September 9, 1936). Both expositions

ultimately helped San Diego to bring in more people and businesses to the city while

expanding its infrastructure and public transportation systems.

10

Carrier, Lynne. “Planning History.” City of San Diego, 2007. 11

Sutro, Dirk. San Diego Architecture: From Mission to Modern: Guide to the Buildings, Planning, People, and Spaces That Shape the Region San Diego, 6. 12 Pryde, Philip R., San Diego : An Introduction to the Region : An Historical Geography of the Natural Environments

and Human Development of San Diego County.

Figure 7. Panama-California Exposition, 1915. Figure 8. California Pacific International Exposition, 1935.

Source: http://www.sandiegohistory.org/ Source: http://www.sandiegohistory.org/

Another contribution to San Diego’s expansion came between 1945 and 1962,

when the City of San Diego, with the help of state and federal funding, acquired lands to

develop a Master Plan for Mission Bay Park (fig. 9), which would eventually become the

largest man-made aquatic park in the country. In order to help diversify the City’s

economy, Mission Bay was turned into a tourism and recreational center, bringing

numerous attractions such as SeaWorld and Belmont Park, surrounded by numerous

hotels, restaurants, boating, and swimming facilities. On one hand, the development of

Mission Bay helped establish San Diego as a tourist destination, bringing new jobs and

prosperity along. However, the park also facilitated sprawl, as many people relocated

near this thriving part of the city, which was about 8 miles away from the established

downtown area (fig. 10).

Figure 9. Mission Bay Proposed Plan.

Source: http://www.sandiegohistory.org/

Figure 10. Mission Bay Sanborn Map, 1956.

Source: Source: http://sanborn.umi.com

During the 1960’s and 1970’s San Diego was in decline and sprawling without

control. As a solution, the city, through a grant from the Marston family, hired renowned

urban planners Kevin Lynch and Donald Appleyard to create a qualitative document of

the city, in which they were to analyze it thoroughly and then suggest how the city could

fix its problems. Temporary Paradise? attempted to “celebrate the unique physical

layout [of San Diego], while accommodating and encouraging growth. Among its main

points, Lynch and Appleyards’ document advocated for:

Developing the mesa tops while preserving the canyons as natural gardens

between plains.

“Access for everyone” to the waterfront and water features around the city.

Provide affordable housing and increase density by investing in infrastructure.

Redeveloping downtown and reconnecting public transit.

Concentrating growth around civic centers and protect open spaces.

Expanding public transit above grade.

Embrace Mexico (Tijuana).

Even though San Diego did not put into practice every suggestion from Temporary

Paradise?, it helped city planners understand the severity of the situation and the

potential devastating consequences if nothing changed. As a result, planners shifted

their focus on regulation and policy aimed at slowing down growth and focusing on the

quality of such. As result, in 1979, the Progress Guide and General Plan of San Diego

was established to offer a “comprehensive strategy to respond to public concerns over

growth, housing density and development patterns and environmental protection.”

Since then, additional plans have emerged, aiming to solve San Diego’s

prevalent problems of sprawl and overcrowding. Most recently, in 2004, the City

Council of San Diego approved five projects to become Pilot Villages for the City of

Villages strategy of smart growth in San Diego (fig. 11). To establish this plan, the city

made a conscious decision to shift from an outward growth focus to one that looks

inward, centered on the concept of villages, using urban design as the driving force

behind it. City of Villages envisions dozens of compact, walkable mixed-use nodes

centered on the city's already existing community centers, connected by regional transit.

The plan identifies ten guiding principles:

1. An open space network formed by parks, canyons, river valleys, habitats,

beaches, and ocean;

2. Diverse residential communities formed by the open space network;

3. Compact and walkable mixed-use villages of different scales within communities;

4. Employment centers for a strong economy;

5. An integrated regional transportation network of walkways, bikeways, transit,

roadways, and freeways that efficiently link communities and villages to each

other and to employment centers;

6. High quality, affordable, and well-maintained public facilities to serve the City’s

population, workers, and visitors;

7. Historic districts and sites that respect our heritage;

8. Balanced communities that offer opportunities for all San Diegans and share

citywide responsibilities;

9. A clean and sustainable environment; and

10. A high aesthetic standard.

Figure 11. City of Villages.

Source: http://www.planning.org/awards/2010/

So far, City of Villages has been well received and supported by the general population,

successfully progressing to the implementation and building phases in the five pilot

villages.

San Diego’s history reveals how slowly but surely a small Mission developed into

one of the fastest growing cities in the nation, relying on its nearly flawless climate and

diverse economy to attract people. Through time, growth in San Diego has gone up

and down, both in numbers and direction, eventually suffering of uncontrolled sprawl

and overcrowding. However, San Diego was very fortunate to have leaders and

visionaries who were interested in what San Diego could become. People such as

Alonzo Horton and George Marston are key factors in both the physical and theoretical

growth of the city. Even though Horton established the foundation for today’s downtown

area and the overall grid of the city, Marston’s contribution is quite more significant to

San Diego’s history. Marston is responsible for hiring John Nolen, Kevin Lynch and

Donald Applewood, who assessed problems and proposed solutions to the city’s most

prevalent issues during different eras. Ideas stipulated by Nolen, Lynch, and

Applewood, are still relevant today and shape how planning is perceived and practiced

in San Diego.

Bibliography

Carrier, Lynne. “Planning History.” City of San Diego, 2007.

http://www.sandiego.gov/planning/community/pdf/cow/planninghistory.pdf

Kalebaugh, Tehia. “San Diego, California: America’s Finest City.’’ University of Washington. 2006.

http://depts.washington.edu/open2100/Resources/1_OpenSpaceSystems/Open_Space_System

s/San%20Diego%20Paper.pdf

Macchio, Melanie. "John Nolen and San Diego’s Early Residential Planning in the Mission Hills Area." The

Journal of San Diego History, no. 52 (2006): 131-150.

http://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/v52-3/pdf/2006-3_nolen.pdf

Mayer, Robert. “San Diego : A Chronological & Documentary History, 1535-1976.”, In American Cities

Chronology Series. New York: Oceana Publications, 1978.

Pryde, Philip R., and San Diego State University. Dept. of Geography. San Diego : An Introduction to the

Region : An Historical Geography of the Natural Environments and Human Development of San

Diego County. 2nd ed. Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Pub., 1984.

San Diego, California. “Digital Sanborn Maps, 1887– California.” From ProQuest.

http://sanborn.umi.com/ca/810/dateid-000001.htm?CCSI=1009n

Sutro, Dirk. San Diego Architecture: From Mission to Modern: Guide to the Buildings, Planning, People,

and Spaces That Shape the Region San Diego. San Diego Architectural Foundation, 2002.