SAUDI ARABIA

١

Saudi Arabia

Translated by

Prof. A. Homiedan

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٢

INTRODUCTION: --------------------------------------------- ١١

ABSTRACT:-------------------------------------------------- ١٢

CHAPTER ONE: THE LAND ------------------------------------- ١٥

NATURE ---------------------------------------------------------------١٥

THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE PLACE -------------------------------------- ١٥

The Red Sea ---------------------------------------------------------- ١٥

The Coastal Plain of the Red Sea (The Tihâma Plains) ----------------------- ١٦

The Tihâma Mountains------------------------------------------------- ١٧

The Western Heights--------------------------------------------------- ١٧

CLIMATE ------------------------------------------------------------ ٢٦

THE ELEMENTS OF CLIMATE ---------------------------------------------- ٢٧

Solar Radiation ------------------------------------------------------- ٢٧

Temperature --------------------------------------------------------- ٢٧

The Winds ----------------------------------------------------------- ٢٩

Rain----------------------------------------------------------------- ٢٩

Humidity------------------------------------------------------------- ٣٠

Evaporation ---------------------------------------------------------- ٣٠

GEOLOGY------------------------------------------------------------- ٣١

OIL------------------------------------------------------------------ ٣٢

WATER RESOURCES----------------------------------------------------- ٣٣

THE MINERAL RESOURCES ----------------------------------------------- ٣٣

THE NATURAL HABITAT IN THE KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA-------------------٣٦

MAMMALS ------------------------------------------------------------ ٣٨

Sea Mammals --------------------------------------------------------- ٣٩

WHALES AND DOLPHINS (CETACEA) --------------------------------------- ٣٩

FISH ----------------------------------------------------------------- ٤٠

BIRDS IN THE KINGDOM ------------------------------------------------- ٤١

Birds of Prey --------------------------------------------------------- ٤٢

Vultures ------------------------------------------------------------- ٤٢

Eagles --------------------------------------------------------------- ٤٣

Falcons -------------------------------------------------------------- ٤٣



٣

Coastal birds --------------------------------------------------------- ٤٤

Wading Birds --------------------------------------------------------- ٤٤

Stock Doves and Pigeons------------------------------------------------ ٤٥

Ducks and Geese ------------------------------------------------------ ٤٥

Sea Birds------------------------------------------------------------- ٤٦

Other Birds----------------------------------------------------------- ٤٦

REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS ---------------------------------------------- ٤٧

Serpents ------------------------------------------------------------- ٤٧

Turtles and Tortoises--------------------------------------------------- ٥٠

CAMELS------------------------------------------------------------- ٥١

PLANTS ------------------------------------------------------------- ٥٨

Environmental Factors Affecting the Growth and Distribution of Plants -------- ٥٩

PLANT ENVIRONMENTS: -------------------------------------------- ٦٥

SOCIAL SCIENCES --------------------------------------------------------٦٨

POPULATION ---------------------------------------------------------- ٦٨

Specifications and Distributions------------------------------------------ ٦٨

HISTORY ------------------------------------------------------------ ٧٦

Introduction: --------------------------------------------------------- ٧٦

Special Education ----------------------------------------------------- ٩٠

Illiteracy and Adult Education------------------------------------------- ٩١

Higher Education------------------------------------------------------ ٩٢

Technical Education and Vocational Training ------------------------------ ٩٧

Other Kinds of Education----------------------------------------------- ٩٨

CULTURAL MOVEMENT-------------------------------------------------- ٩٩

Cultural organizations: ------------------------------------------------ ١٠٠

Seasonal Activities ---------------------------------------------------- ١٠٣

Literary and Cultural Prizes:------------------------------------------- ١٠٤

King Faisal Charitable Foundation -------------------------------------- ١٠٤

Developments in Organization, Authentication, and Preservation------------- ١٠٥

The King Fahad National Library --------------------------------------- ١٠٥

The Printing of the Holy Qur’an ---------------------------------------- ١٠٦

Cultural Information-------------------------------------------------- ١٠٧

ARCHAEOLOGY ------------------------------------------------------- ١٠٩

THE FINE ARTS ------------------------------------------------------- ١١٩



٤

The Local Heritage --------------------------------------------------- ١٢٠

The Arab Heritage---------------------------------------------------- ١٢٠

The Islamic Heritage -------------------------------------------------- ١٢١

General Humanitarian Subjects and Issues ------------------------------- ١٢١

INFORMATION -------------------------------------------------------- ١٢٤

Historical background------------------------------------------------- ١٢٥

TOURISM ------------------------------------------------------------ ١٣١

HUNTING ------------------------------------------------------------ ١٣٦

HORSEMANSHIP ------------------------------------------------------- ١٤٠

JANADRIYA ---------------------------------------------------------- ١٤٣

KING ABDULAZIZ CITY FOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (KACST) -------------- ١٤٥

WOMEN ------------------------------------------------------------ ١٤٧

Women in the Islamic Era --------------------------------------------- ١٤٧

Women in the Arabian Peninsula during the Modern Era ------------------- ١٤٨

Women's Education--------------------------------------------------- ١٤٩

Working Women ----------------------------------------------------- ١٥٢

Clothes ------------------------------------------------------------- ١٥٤

Marriage Customs ---------------------------------------------------- ١٦٥

Women’s Charitable Societies ------------------------------------------ ١٧٠

Health Services------------------------------------------------------- ١٧١

SOCIAL SERVICES-------------------------------------------------- ١٧٤

SPORTS ------------------------------------------------------------ ١٨١

General Objectives: --------------------------------------------------- ١٨١

The Sports Unions and Associations:------------------------------------- ١٨٢

International Sports Participation: -------------------------------------- ١٨٢

CHAPTER ٣: THE CIVILIZATION ------------------------------- ١٨٦

THE HOLY PLACES ------------------------------------------------------١٨٦

THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE HOLY KA‘BA---------------------------------- ١٨٧

MAKKAH, UMM AL-QURÂ----------------------------------------------- ١٨٧

ABRAHAM'S SEAT ----------------------------------------------------- ١٨٨

THE ZAMZAM WELL --------------------------------------------------- ١٨٩

THE BLACK STONE ---------------------------------------------------- ١٩٠

THE ANCIENT ISLAMIC MONUMENTS IN MAKKAH ---------------------------- ١٩٠



٥

The Home of the Prophet (PBUH) --------------------------------------- ١٩٠

Al-Arkam al-Makzumî's Home ----------------------------------------- ١٩٠

The Hujra Home ----------------------------------------------------- ١٩٠

Abû Sufyân's Home--------------------------------------------------- ١٩١

Dar al-Nadwa-------------------------------------------------------- ١٩١

Hirâ ‘Mountain: ----------------------------------------------------- ١٩١

Nûr Mountain ------------------------------------------------------- ١٩٢

Thûr Mountain ------------------------------------------------------ ١٩٢

Mina Valley --------------------------------------------------------- ١٩٢

Arafat -------------------------------------------------------------- ١٩٢

Al-Tana‘um: -------------------------------------------------------- ١٩٣

Al-Ju‘rânî----------------------------------------------------------- ١٩٣

Al-Hudaibiya -------------------------------------------------------- ١٩٣

Mahsir Valley-------------------------------------------------------- ١٩٣

The Ka‘ba Covering -------------------------------------------------- ١٩٣

The Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, King Fahad Ibn Abdulaziz,

Expansion of the Holy Mosque in Makkah. ------------------------------- ١٩٥

The First Expansion of the Holy Mosque --------------------------------- ١٩٥

The King Fahad ibn Abdulaziz Project for Construction and Expansion

of the Two Holy Mosques ---------------------------------------------- ١٩٥

URBANIZATION-------------------------------------------------------١٩٩

ARCHITECTURE----------------------------------------------------- ١٩٩

Traditional Architecture of the Najd Region ------------------------------ ١٩٩

Traditional Architecture of the Western Region --------------------------- ٢٠١

Traditional Architecture of the Southern Region--------------------------- ٢٠٢

Traditional Architecture of the Eastern Region---------------------------- ٢٠٤

Modern Architecture-------------------------------------------------- ٢٠٥

URBAN AREAS AND CITIES ---------------------------------------------- ٢٠٧

Development of Urbanization------------------------------------------- ٢٠٧

The Stage of Limited Traditional Urbanization before the Unification of

the Kingdom. -------------------------------------------------------- ٢٠٨

The Stage of Slow and Gradual Urbanization: ١٩٧٠-١٩٣٠ ------------------- ٢٠٨

The Stage of Rapid Urbanization: ١٩٩٠-١٩٧٠ ----------------------------- ٢٠٩

The Stage of Urban Stability (١٩٩٠- present) ------------------------------ ٢١٠



٦

Levels of Urbanization in Administrative Regions-------------------------- ٢١٠

ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENT--------------------------------------------٢١٤

TRADITIONAL FOLK PROFESSIONS AND CRAFTS ------------------------------ ٢١٤

Pottery ------------------------------------------------------------- ٢١٤

Calligraphy---------------------------------------------------------- ٢١٤

The Khûs ( Palm leaf crafts)-------------------------------------------- ٢١٥

Carpentry ----------------------------------------------------------- ٢١٥

Smithery ------------------------------------------------------------ ٢١٥

Weaving Crafts( Sadû) ------------------------------------------------ ٢١٥

Leatherwork--------------------------------------------------------- ٢١٦

Goldsmithery -------------------------------------------------------- ٢١٦

Examples of Some Traditional Folk Craft Products ------------------------ ٢١٧

Herding------------------------------------------------------------- ٢٢٠

MODERN INDUSTRIES -------------------------------------------------- ٢٢١

The Industrial Cities -------------------------------------------------- ٢٢١

The General Stock Companies of the Petroleum Industry Sector ------------- ٢٢٢

PERCENTAGE AND CLASSIFICATION OF SHARES PER COMPANY-----------------٢٢٣

The Light Industries -------------------------------------------------- ٢٢٣

AGRICULTURE -------------------------------------------------------- ٢٢٧

Trade--------------------------------------------------------------- ٢٢٧

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT: PRESENT AND FUTURE ----------------------- ٢٢٨

The Traditional Stage (before ١٩٧٠) ------------------------------------- ٢٢٨

The Large-scale Stage (١٩٨٥-١٩٧٠) -------------------------------------- ٢٢٩

The Balanced and Specialized Stage (١٩٩٥-١٩٨٥) -------------------------- ٢٣١

The Arabian Palm ( Phoenix Dactyfifera) -------------------------------- ٢٣٥

Exploration for Oil --------------------------------------------------- ٢٣٨

Oil Pipelines --------------------------------------------------------- ٢٣٩

Joint International Projects -------------------------------------------- ٢٤٠

Gas Accumulation Program -------------------------------------------- ٢٤٢

The Contribution of the Oil Sector to the Total Local Production------------- ٢٤٣

TRADE IN THE PAST---------------------------------------------------- ٢٤٥

Onland Trade-------------------------------------------------------- ٢٤٥

The Sea Trade ------------------------------------------------------- ٢٥٠

Modern Trade ------------------------------------------------------- ٢٥٤



٧

Finance Programs and Insurance of Trade-------------------------------- ٢٥٤

Seaports ------------------------------------------------------------ ٢٥٥

Exports ------------------------------------------------------------- ٢٥٧

THE BANKING SECTOR ------------------------------------------------- ٢٦٣

The first stage: ------------------------------------------------------- ٢٦٤

The Second Stage: ---------------------------------------------------- ٢٦٥

The Third Stage: The Saudiization of Foreign Banks ----------------------- ٢٦٦

The Instruments of the Monetary Policy in the Kingdom-------------------- ٢٦٨

THE PRIVATE SECOR AND DEVELOPMENT ----------------------------------- ٢٧١

SAUDI FOREIGN AID --------------------------------------------------- ٢٧٩

Loans--------------------------------------------------------------- ٢٧٩

Capital Funds-------------------------------------------------------- ٢٨٠

Aid to Social, Economic and Development Sectors ------------------------- ٢٨١

Construction of Islamic Centers and Institutions--------------------------- ٢٨٣

CHAPTER FOUR --------------------------------------------- ٢٨٨

COMMUNICATION--------------------------------------------------- ٢٨٨

TRANSPORTATION ------------------------------------------------- ٢٨٨

The General Foundation of Saudi Railroads ------------------------------ ٢٨٩

Roads -------------------------------------------------------------- ٢٩٠

Transportation Foundations-------------------------------------------- ٢٩١

Sea Transportation --------------------------------------------------- ٢٩٢

The Airlines --------------------------------------------------------- ٢٩٤

Air Transport-------------------------------------------------------- ٢٩٧

THE SAUDI TELECOMMUNICATIONS -------------------------------------- ٢٩٩

The Microwave and Satellite Systems ------------------------------------ ٣٠٠

Telephone (Telecommunications) --------------------------------------- ٣٠١

The International and Long-Range Communications ----------------------- ٣٠١



٨

INTRODUCTION:

Saudi Society has been trying to achieve comprehensive social, cultural and

economic development. Since unification by its founder King Abdulaziz,

the Kingdom has developed using all human and material resources

available. The Kingdom spares no effort to exploit any intellectual

development that might contribute to the achievement of this goal. The

motivation for this has to do with the status of the Kingdom. In religion, the

Kingdom hosts the holy places. Holy Makkah is the center for Islamic

propagation and is the direction of prayer for more than one billion

Muslims all over the world. In Madina there is also the Mosque of the

Prophet (PBUH).

The land of the Kingdom also witnessed the establishment of the first

Islamic State, which spread Islam and established moral values. Thus, the

land of the Kingdom was the center of a civilization that contributed to the

development of other civilizations. It has a strategic position among the

continents of the ancient world. It also has strong economic, technological,

and cultural relations with the civilizations of the New World. The climate

and geographical features of the Kingdom are diverse. The Kingdom has

also tremendous oil and mineral resources that form the basis of its modern

economy. At the international level, the Kingdom has its political and

economic power. The Saudi people have achieved remarkable development

within a civilization based on a system of noble thought and human values.

Thus there has been a need for a comprehensive and objective book about

the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Along these lines, this book aims at relating

the past with the contributions of the present in its social, cultural and

economic context. In doing so, we have been interested in including data

and figures in a clear and simple language that will hopefully match the

diverse cultures of the readers.



٩

ABSTRACT:

Area: The Kingdom covers four-fifths of the Arabian Peninsula or

٢،٤٢٠،٠٠٠ km٢). The West Coast is ١،٨٠٠ km long and the East Coast ٥٠٠

km long.

Topography: The Kingdom comprises very high mountains and very wide

valleys. It also has the biggest sand desert in the world at about ٠٠٠ ,٦٠٠

km٢.

Population: According to the ١٩٩٢ census, the Kingdom’s population is ١٧

million.

Climate: It is dry and hot in summer, though mild in the southwestern

cliffs. On the coasts, the climate is hot and humid. In the winter, the

temperature drops below zero in the center, the east, the north, and the

south of the Kingdom.

Currency: The Saudi Riyal is the currency unit, and it consists of ١٠٠

halala. There are bank notes of one riyal, five riyals, ten riyals, fifty riyals,

one hundred riyals and five hundred riyals. Coins, on the other hand, are of

five halala, ten halala, twenty-five halala, fifty halala and a hundred

halala. The American Dollar equals ٣٫٧٥ Saudi Riyals.

Transport: Air transport is considered one of the best means of transport

between the cities of the vast Kingdom. Therefore, there is a network of

local flights connecting the Kingdom’s cities together. There are also a

large number of international airlines serving the country. There are twenty-

four local airports and three international airports as well: King Abdulaziz

Airport in Jeddah, King Khalid International Airport in Riyadh and the

Eastern Region Airport in Dhahrân.

Limousine, bus and taxi services are available in most areas. There are six

trains daily between Riyadh and Dammâm. There is also a modern network

of roads connecting the Kingdom’s regions and facilitating the process of

transportation.



١٠

Communication: The telephone communication system in the Kingdom is

considered one of the most sophisticated systems. One can make national

and international phone calls without resorting to the operator. Direct phone

calls to ٢٠٢ countries through ٥،٢٣٢ pay phones are possible in the

different cities of the Kingdom.

Animal Resources: Animal resources are available in the Kingdom both

on land and at sea. The most important of these are camels, Arabian horses,

sheep, cows, poultry, fish, hawks, partridges, addaxes, bustards, wild goats

and rabbits.

Oil: The Kingdom has a quarter of the world reserves of crude oil, while its

reserve of natural gas is ١٩٢ million cubic feet.

Education: The number of schools for boys and those for girls in the

Kingdom is ٢٣،٧٥٢ accommodating ٤،٠٨٨،٦٣٧ male and female students.

There are seven universities with sixty-eight colleges accommodating

١٥٥،١٨٢ male and female students. There are also sixty-one colleges for

girls accommodating ١٠٠،٠٠٠ students. In addition, there are fifty-six

technical colleges with specializations in health, technology and teacher

training.

Health: There are ٢٩٦ hospitals in the Kingdom, ١٧٩ of which belong to

the Ministry of Health, thirty-nine to other governmental sectors, and

seventy-eight to the private sector. There are also ٣،٥٣١ clinics and health

centers, ١٧٣ of which belong to the Ministry Health, ٤٤٣ to other

governmental sectors, and ١،٣٥٣ to the private sector. There are ١٣٥،٢٥٩

employees in the health sector, ٣٢،٢٧١ of whom are physicians, ٦٤،٣٤٥

nurses, ٥،٢٦١ pharmacists and ٣٣،٣٨٢ technicians.

The Holy Places: The Two Holy Mosques in the Holy cities of Makkah

and Madina are located in the Holy cities of Makkah and Madina in the

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. More than one billion Muslims face the Holy

Ka‘ba five times a day when praying.



١١

Archaeology: There are a number of archeological sites in the Kingdom.

The most important of these sites are ‘Ulâ, Madâ’in Sâlih, Taimâ’, Dûmat

al-Jandal, Rabda, Faw Village, Ukhdûd and Dir‘iya.

Plants: The Kingdom’s flora is known for its diversity. There are more

than ٢،٧٠٠ species in more than ١٣٠ families, most of which grow in the

southern area.

Agriculture: The most important agricultural products available in the

Kingdom are dates, wheat, and barley. In addition, there are fruits such as

pomegranates, apples, citrus fruits, peaches, as well as different kinds of

vegetables.



١٢

CHAPTER ONE: THE LAND

NNAATTUURREE

THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE PLACE

The Arabian Peninsula can be categorized into various geographical

regions. We will briefly deal with these regions from the West to the East,

i.e. we will start with the Red Sea in the West and move on to the Arabian

Gulf in the East.

THE RED SEA

The Red Sea separates the Arabian Peninsula from the Northeast of Africa.

It is connected with the Indian Ocean from the South and almost connected

with the Mediterranean Sea through the Suez Canal. The Red Sea is

important for international trade because it reduces the distance between

Europe and the Indian Ocean. The area of the Red Sea is about ٤٥٠،٠٠٠

km٢ and its average depth is ٤٩١ m. The highest recorded depth of the Red

Sea is ٢٨٥ m, while the average depth of oceans is ٣،٧٠٠ m.

The Red Sea is a narrow oceanic ridge extending for ٢،٠٠٠ km, beginning

with Bâb al-Mandab, which links the Indian Ocean with the Red Sea

through the Gulf of Aden. The Red Sea is located between the latitudes of

thirteen and twenty-eight degrees north. Both the Suez Canal and Arabian

Gulf in the North are extensions of the Red Sea. The width of the Red Sea

in the North is about ١٨٠ km, while in the South it is about ١٨٠ km. Then it

becomes as narrow as thirty kilometers at Bâb al-Mandab.

Various types of the coral reefs are scattered in five areas on the Eastern

Shore of the Red Sea. This does not mean that the other areas do not

contain such coral reefs since the development of these reefs depends on the

natural circumstances of the environment.

The distribution of islands along the Eastern Shore of the Red Sea varies

depending on the factors that contribute to the formation of these islands.



١٣

However, most islands consist of either above-the-surface coral reefs or

submerged coral reefs. Volcanic rocks, on the other hand, rarely exist

though many of the coral reef islands were formed on volcanic rocks. Thus,

two types of these islands can be identified and examined with respect to

the surface forms and factors that contributed to their formation. These

types are (١) the muddy submerged reef shoals and (٢) the above-the-

surface reef islands such as Jazâ‘ir, Farasân, Sinâfir and Tirân.

THE COASTAL PLAIN OF THE RED SEA (THE TIHÂMA PLAINS)

The word tihâma is locally used to refer to the coastal plains along the Red

Sea and the neighboring hills. These coastal plains are very narrow in the

north, and they disappear at the latitude of ٢٧ degrees north. They are the

widest near the Jâzân, where they are forty kilometers wide. The Tihâma

Plains are referred to by the local names ‘Tihâma Asîr’ and ‘Tihâma al-

Shâm’, which are separated by the ‘Hura al-Birk.’ The other lava fields or

huras in the Tihâma Plains are Hurat Idâm and Hurat Shâma.

Along the coast of the Red Sea, the hot climatic conditions help form salt

marshes, as well as other relief formations like coastal lagoons and soluble

calcareous rocks. Floodwaters collect in areas of coastal sands, too. Along

the coast of the Red Sea, there are small openings called shurûm, meaning

‘small bays’ or ‘inlets’, sometimes called akhwâr, having the same meaning

as shurûm, or marâs, meaning ‘anchorages’. Some of these openings are

linked to the valleys that extend along the coastal mountains, while others

are not linked to any valley.

The top of the Sarawât Heights is considered as a clear boundary between

the valley waters running to the east and the valleys extending to the west

toward Tihâma Plains. The valleys extending to the west are steep, narrow,

and they have a lot of rain. Among the most important Tihâma valleys are

the Jâzân Valley, the Baish Valley, the ‘Utud valley, the Halî Valley, the



١٤

Yaba Valley, the Qanûna Valley, the Ahsiba Valley, the Laith Valley and

the Yalamlam Valley.

THE TIHÂMA MOUNTAINS

These mountains are located between the Tihâma valleys and are therefore

called the Tihâma Mountains. They are called foothills because they are

located at the foot of the Sarawat Heights. Tihâma Mountains consists of

hills and mountains formed as a result of the geological changes which led

to the separation of the Arabian Peninsula from Africa. Among these

mountains are Faifa Mountain at ١،٨١٤ m, Qahar Mountain at ١،٩٤٧ m,

Tharyân Mountain at ١،٧٤٦ m, Higher Shadâ Mountain at ٢،٢٠٢ m, Lower

Shadâ Mountain at ١،٥١٣ m, and Nâtif Mountain at ١،٢٥٨ m.

THE WESTERN HEIGHTS

The Western Heights region is known as Hijaz because it is located

between Tihâma and Najd. Yâqût mentioned in his Mu‘jam al-Buldân that

the Hijaz were mountains separating Najd from Tihâma and that their

highest point was known as Sarât. The Western Heights are considered one

of the most important topographic features in the Arabian Peninsula. They

extend from Aqaba in the North to the south of the Republic of Yemen. The

Western Heights consist of three parts: the Sarawât Mountains in the South,

the Hijaz Mountains in the center, and Madyân Mountains in the north.

They are terraced mountains, steeply inclined towards the Red Sea and

gently sloping towards the interior regions. The highest mountain is this

area is Sawda Mountain at ٣،٢٢٥ m, which is near the city of Ahbâ. The

principal parts of the Western Heights are:

The Sarawât Mountains

The Sarawât Mountains extend from the Kingdom’s borders with the

Republic of Yemen in the south to the city of Tâ’if in the north. The

Tihâma valleys mentioned before extend toward the West. Many valleys



١٥

extend from these mountains toward the East. Among these valleys are

Najrân Valley, Hubûna Valley, as well as tributaries of the Dawâsir Valley,

i.e. Tathlîth Valley, Bîsha Valley, Ranya Valley, and Turaba Valley.

The Sarawât Mountains are divided into five main sections usually after the

tribes that inhabited them. The following are these divisions (from north to

south):

١. Sarât Thaqîf, which is adjacent to Arafât and extends toward the south

٢. Sarât Bani Mâlik at Jilaya

٣. Sarât Ghâmid and Zahrân

٤. Sarât al-Hajar which is linked to Sarât Asîr from the Southeast

٥. Sarât Asîr, which is located around the city of Abhâ.

The Hijaz Mountains

The Hijaz Mountains extend from the north of Makkah and end at the

latitude of ٢٨ degrees north where the Madyan Mountains begin. They

include a series of mountains such as Subh Mountain, Radwî Mountain, Râl

Mountain, Dubbagh Mountain and Shâr Mountain. Many valleys originate

at these mountains. Examples are Fâtima Valley, Qadîd Valley, Qâha

Valley, Safrâ’ Valley, Hamad Valley, and Jizl Valley. These mountains also

include many hurât or lava fields such as Hura Rahâ (or Rahât), Hura

‘Uwaiyridh, Hura Khaibar and Hutaim, Hura Lunayyir, Hura Kuramâ’,

Hura Ruhât, Hura Kushub, Hura Hadhan, and Hura Nawâsif and Buqum.

The Madyân Mountains

The Madyân Mountains are located in the towns of Madyan at the latitude

of ٢٨ degrees north. They include groups of very high mountains like

Fayhân Mountain at ٢،٥٤٩ m, Qulûm Mountain at ٢،٣٩٨ m and Lawz

Mountain at ٢،٤٠١ m. There are also many big and small valleys in this

area, the biggest and best known of which is ‘Ifâl Valley.



١٦

The Western Plateaux

Toward the east of the Western Heights, there are very large areas of

plateaux extending from the north to the south. These mountain ranges can

be categorized into five distinct plateaux: The Asîr and Najrân Plateau, the

Najd Plateau, the Hijaz Plateau, and the Hismâ Plateau. The Asîr and Najrân Plateau

The Asîr and Najrân Plateau is located in the eastern part of the Asîr

Heights. It is considered as a transitional area between the high mountains

in the West and the Najd Plateau in the Northeast. The height of the Asîr

Plateau ranges between ٩٠٠ and ١،٧٠٠ m. Floods in the Asîr plateau are

drained into Tathlîth Valley and Bîsha Valley. On the other hand, floods in

the Najrân Plateau are drained into Hubûna Valley and Najrân Valley. The Najd Plateau

The Najd Plateau is known by the Arabs as the Najd Heights. The Najd

Plateau is so vast that its width is about ٦٠٠ km. The surface of this plateau

gradually slopes towards the East and the South from about ١،٠٠٠ to about

٨٠٠ m). The Ruma Valley drains the water in the northern parts of the Najd

Plateau, while the valleys of Bîsha, Tathlîth, and Randya combine to form

the Dawâsir Valley and drain the southern part.

Ruma Valley is one of the great valleys in the Arabian Peninsula. It drains

the waters of most of the Najd Plateau, as well as the waters of many large

and small valleys. In the past, it used to be a river running toward the

Arabian Gulf across Bâtin Valley. After the drought period, however, that

river was filled with sands and consequently Bâtin Valley was separated

from Ruma Valley. It used to terminate at Sinâm Mountain near the Shatt

al-‘Arab.

There are prominent groups of mountains in the vast area of the Najd

Mountain Range extending from the Shamar Mountains (Ajâ and Salmâ) in

the North to the southern part of the Dawâsir Valley. Among these

mountains are the Majâmi‘ Mountains, the Hadhb Mountains, the Nair



١٧

Mountains, the Abânât Mountains (Abân al-Asmar and Aban al-Ahmar),

the Sha’bâ’ Mountains, Aja Mountain and Salma Mountain. These chains

of mountains are separate from one another but they are also close to one

another. The Najd Plateau also includes a number of small and large sandy

accumulations such as ‘Urûq Subai’, Nufud al-Surra, and Nufud al-‘Uraiq.

The Hijaz Plateau

The Hijaz Plateau is located to the south east of Hismâ Plateau and extends

from the Tubaiq Mountains in the north to Hura Khaibar in the south. It also

extends to al-Nufûd al-Kabîr in the east. Because the Hijaz Plateau slopes

towards the east and north, the valleys in it take the same direction. Among

these valleys are Qû Valley, Matrân Valley and Silsila Valley, which

extends to the far west of the plateau. The height of this plateau ranges

between ٩٠٠ and ١،٤٠٠ m.

The Hismâ Plateau

The Hismâ Plateau is located in the northeast of the Kingdom to the east of

the Madyân Mountains and to the north of Hura al-Rahâ. It is bordered by

Ra’s al-Naqb in Jordan to the north, the northern parts of Hura al-Rahâ to

the north, and the Tabûk Lowland in the east. This plateau consists of

Cambrian and arenaceous sandstone. The surface of this plateau is divided

into several parts due to the valleys. As a result, there is a complex network

of small plateaux and hills.

The Najd Sedimentary Plateau

It is located directly to the east of Najd Crystallized Plateau. This area is

characterized by mountainsides and is sometimes known as the Region of

Sides.



١٨

The Sand Accumulations

Sand accumulations due to winds are very common in the Arabian

Peninsula. Most of these accumulations exist in four main seas of sand, the

Empty Quarter or Rub’ al-Khali, al-Nufûd al-Kabîr, Dahnâ’ and Jâfûra.

These sand seas cover about half of the sedimentary part of the Arabian

Peninsula. They are also other sandy areas connected with the main valleys

of the vast alluvial plains. In addition, there are small sandy areas in

Tihâma. The area of sand in the Arabian Peninsula is almost one third of the

whole Peninsula. Al-Nufûd al-Kabir

The desert of al-Nufûd al-Kabir is located in the northern part of the

Kingdom between the region of Hâ’il in the south and the region of Jawf

i.e. between the latitudes of ٢٩٫٥ north and ٤٠٫٢٩ degrees north. It extends

for thirty-four kilometers, while its width is ٥٧٢ km. However it gets

narrow in the east where its width is no more than ١٢٨ km. Thus, al-Nufûd

al-Kabîr is like a triangle, the base of which is in the west and the top of

which is in the east. The total area of al-Nufûd al-Kabîr is ٦٣،٦٣٠ km٢. Dahnâ’

Dahnâ’ is a sandy desert shaped like a bow. It extends for ١،٢٠٠ km

between the region of Jâlât in the east and the Plateau of Summân in the

west. It also connects the desert of al-Nufûd al-Kabîr in the north with the

Empty Quarter in the south. As to its width, it varies from one area to

another. However, its average width towards the north of the Bâtin Valley

is only twenty m. It is also connected with Nufûd al-Madhhûr and Nufûd al-

Thuwayrât through ‘Urûq al-Sayyâriyât. The reason for the sand

accumulations in this area is that it is located to the east of the old Ruma

Valley (the Ajrudî Valley), which is lower than the areas surrounding it.

The width of Dahnâ’ is about sixty kilometers, while its total area is ٤٠،٧٨٩

km٢.



١٩

Jâfûra Jâfûra is located to the east of the Summân Plateau along the coast of the

Arabian Gulf. It extends toward the south near Jabail until it merges with

the sands of the Empty Quarter. Many problems are caused to the cultivated

lands in Ahsâ’ by the Jâfûra sands. The Empty Quarter (Rub’ al-Khali)

The Empty Quarter contains the biggest sandy desert in the world. The area

of this desert is more than ٦٠٠،٠٠٠ km٢. The length of the Empty Quarter is

about ١،٢٠٠ km between the longitudes of ٣٠٫٤٤ and ٧٤٫٠٠ degrees east.

Its width is about ٦٤٠ km between the latitudes of ١٥٫٠٠ to ٢٣٫٠٠ degrees

north. It extends between the United Arab Emirates to the Yemen

Mountains and from Hadramawt Plateau in the south to Jâfûra and Dahnâ’

in the north. The northeastern part of the Empty Quarter was known as

Yabrîn or Jabrîn, while the part that is located to the north of Hadramawt

Plateau was known as Ahqâf. The northwestern part of the Empty Quarter

that is located to the south of Dawâsir Valley was known as Jaz’, while the

western part that is adjacent to Yemen was known as Wabâr. The

contemporary divisions of the Empty Quarter are the dunes in the eastern

part, Dakâka, ‘Urûq (Dunes) al-Mawârid and Qa’âmiyât in the southern

part of the Emply Quarter, Shaqa al-Kharîta, Ramlat Ya’m and Ramlat

Dahm in the southern western part, ‘Urûq (Dunes) Bani Mu‘ârid and Bani

Hamrân, ‘Urûq al-Remliyah in the western part, as well as Turâ‘îz, Hibâka,

Kursû‘, and Sanâm in the middle and the northern part.

The Northern Plateaux

The northern plateaux in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia are divided into two

parts, The Hamad Plateau

The Hamad Plateau is located to the northeast of Hurra al-Hurra. The height

of this plateau ranges from ٨٠٠ to ٨٥٠ m. There are many plains and flood

plains in this plateau.



٢٠

The Hajara Plateau The Hajara Plateau is located to the east of the Hamad Plateau, i.e. between

the longitudes of ٤٠٫٣٠ degrees east and ٤٥٫٠٠ degrees east, where the

Dibdiba Gravel Plain starts. This plateau extends for about ٦٠٠ km, sloping

towards the northeast. There are hundreds of valleys and tributaries

throughout this plateau.

The Summân Plateau

The Summân Plateau is located between the coastal plain on the Arabian

Gulf in the east and Dahnâ’ in the west. It is a rocky oblong plateau with a

width ranging between ٨٠ and ٢٥٠ km. Ghawâr, which is the biggest

petroleum field in the world, is located below this plateau to the west of

Hofûf.

The beginning of the Summân Plateau is the end of the Dibdiba Gravel

Plain between the longitudes of ٢٠٫٠٠ and ٤٥٫٠٠ degrees east. It ends in the

south in the Empty Quarter at the latitude of ٢١٫٠٠ degrees north. Thus the

Summân Plateau extends for ٩٩٦ km, and it is given a number of local

names.

The Eastern Plains

The Eastern Plains are located to the east of the Summân Plateau and

stretch from north to south. The following is a presentation of two major

divisions of the Eastern Plains. These are The Ahsâ’ Plains and the Coastal

Plain, which comprises sea terraces and high shores. The Ahsâ’ Plains

The Ahsâ’ Plains are located about seventy kilometers from the Arabian

Gulf coast between the Coastal Plain and the edge of Shadqam. The

elevation of these plains ranges from ١٣٠ to ١٦٠ m above sea level. They

slope gently towards the Arabian Gulf and extend to parts of Jâfûra.



٢١

The Coastal Plain of the Arabian Gulf

The Coastal Plain of the Arabian Gulf extends from northwest to southeast

between The Summân Plateau in the west and the Arabian Gulf in the east.

Its width is between ٥٠ and ١٠٠ km. Many Parts of this plain are covered

with sands and salt terraces. It extends along the whole of the Arabian Gulf

Coast. In the Kingdom, this plain extends between Um-Qusbah to the north

of Khafjî and Dûha Duwaihin to the south of the Gorge of ‘Udaid. Some of

these parts contain the petroleum riches of the Kingdom, such as Ghawwâr,

Buqaiq and Qatîf.

The Arabian Gulf

The Arabian Gulf is characterized as shallow, semi-closed and surrounded

by a dry environment. It extends from the north of the western north

towards the south of the eastern south between latitudes of ٢٤٫٠٠ and ٣٠٫٣٠

degrees north and the longitudes of ٥٦٫٠٠ and ٤٨٫٠٠ degrees east. Its length

is about ١،٠٠٠ km, while its width ranges between ٢٠٠ and ٣٠٠ km. The

average depth of the Arabian Gulf is ٣٥ m, though in some areas in the

north its depth could reach to ١٠٠ m or even a little more. About ١٨٪ of the

Arabian Gulf is considered shallow, i.e. less than ٥m deep. About ٧٤٪ of

these shallow areas is internal, while the rest consists of coastal shores and

coral reefs. The areas that are five to ten meters deep constitute ٨٫٥٪ of the

Arabian Gulf, while the rest is more than ten meters deep. The total area of

the Arabian Gulf is ٢٢٦،٠٠٠ km٢. Among the most important islands in the

Gulf are Karân, Janâ, Juraid, Kurain, Hurqûs (Hurqûsh), and ‘Arabiyya.

References: ١. al-Jâsir, Hamad. Fî Sarât Ghâmid wa Zahrân (Riyadh: ١٣٩١H, Manshûrât Dâr al-Yamâma li’l-Bath wa al-Tarjuma). ٢. al-Ghunayim, Abdullah ibn Yûsif. Aqâlîm al-Jazîra al-‘Arabiya bain al-Kitâbât al-‘Arabiya wa al-Qadîma wa al-Dirâsât al-Mu‘âsiriya, (Kuwait: ١٩٣١AD, Jam‘iya al-Jughrâfiya al-Kuwaitiya). ٣. Cole, R. U., et al. al-Jiyûmûrfûlujiya li-Tanmiya al-Ardî fî al-Sahrâ’ ma‘a tarkîz ‘alâ al-Mamlaka al-‘Arabiya al-Sa‘ûdiya, translated and annotated by Abdullah ibn Nâsir al-Walai‘î (Riyadh: ١٤١٥H, al-Jam‘iya al-Jughrâfiya al-Sa‘ûdiya). ٤. al-Walai‘î, Abdullah ibn Nâsir. Ashkâl al-Arâdî fî al-Mantiqa al-Sharqiya min al-Mamlaka al-‘Arabiya al-Sa‘ûdiya: Dirâsa Jiyûmûrfûluyia (Riyadh: ١٩٩٤, Islamic University of Imam Muhammad ibn Sa‘ûd). ٥. al-Walai‘î, Abdullah ibn Nâsir. Bihâr al-Rimâl fî al-Mamlaka al-‘Arabiya al-Sa‘ûdiya (Kuwait: ١٩٩٤, Jam‘iya al-Jughrâfiya al-Kuwaitiya).



٢٢

٦. al-Walai‘î, Abdullah ibn Nâsir. Sahrâ’ al-Rub‘ al-Khâlî: Mawtin Mahmiya ‘Urûq Banî Ma‘ârid (١٩٩٤, al-Hay’a al-Wataniya li-Himâya al-Hayât al-Fitriya wa ‘Inmâ’ihâ). ٧. al-Walai‘î, Abdullah ibn Nâsir. Jiyûlûjiya wa Jiyûmûrfûlujiya al-Mamlaka al-‘Arabiya al-Sa‘ûdiya (Riyadh: ١٩٩٥)



٢٣

CLIMATE

The climate is an important factor affecting the lives of people, animals and

plants. Due to the diversity of geographic environments and topography in

the Kingdom, climate conditions differ from one area to another. Thus the

weather conditions in coastal areas are different from those in the internal

plateaux and heights.

The climate in the Kingdom can be classified into three types: the climate

of coasts, the climate of internal plateaux and the climate of heights. These

climates vary in conditions such that a given division can have different

areas within the division, depending on its position in relation to the

Equator.

The types of plants and animals are determined by the type of climate. Thus

in the desert environment we find plants and animals that need little water

and food. Climate also affects the life of the people, health, food, cloth,

agriculture, industry, trade and education. It also affects the social and

economic life, as well as other activities. For instance, in the field of

agriculture the types and seasons of agricultural crops are determined by the

climate. Thus crops cultivated in internal plateaux are those that stand high

temperature and little water. A given crop can grow in different seasons in

different areas, and consequently, it will be available in the market

throughout the whole year.

In the field of tourism, climate affects people’s activities. For instance, in

winter, people living in cold areas like the north and middle of the Kingdom

move to the western coastal areas. In summer, people living in warm areas

move to the areas where the weather is mild.

Thus the Kingdom generally has a desert climate and a semi-desert climate.

Humidity, rains and temperature vary from one area to another. Coastal

areas have climatic conditions different from internal areas and high areas.



٢٤

THE ELEMENTS OF CLIMATE

SOLAR RADIATION

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is located in the tropical and semi-tropical

area between the latitudes of ١٦ and ٣٢ degrees north. In summer, the sun is

vertical on the Tropic of Cancer (٢٣٫٥ degrees north), which nearly passes

through the middle of the Kingdom. These geographic and climatic factors

affect the amount and duration of the solar radiation. The average duration

of solar radiation is ٨٫٨ hours daily. This duration increases in the summer

season and decreases in winter. The average amount of the annual solar

radiation is about ١٥٥،٠٠٠ calories per square meter. This amount is

sometimes affected by local topographical features and weather factors such

as clouds and dust. TABLE SHOWING THE DAILY DURATION OF SUN RADIATION IN SOME CITIES IN THE

KINGDOM. Average Temperature City

Annual Winter Summer ٨٫٠ ٦٫٩ ٧٫٧ Abha ٩٫٤ ٨٫٧ ٩٫٩ Aslayel ١٠٫٢ ٧٫٨ ٨٫٨ Riyadh ٩٫٩ ٧٫١ ٨٫٢ Qateef ٩٫٩ ٧٫٨ ٨٫٧ Skaka ١٠٫٢ ٨٫٧ ٩٫٣ Taif ١١٫٦ ٧٫٨ ٩٫٤ Hail ١٠٫٨ ٦٫٩ ٨٫٧ Madinah ١١٫٢ ٦٫٩ ٨٫٧ Azulfi

TEMPERATURE Temperature varies from one area to another depending on environmental

and geographic factors. With the exception of the mountain areas, the

temperature is high in the summer and mild in winter. The average daily

temperature in the Kingdom is ٢٤٫٥ Degrees Celsius. The lowest mean

temperature is ١٥٫٦ Degrees Celsius, while the highest is ٣٠٫٢ Degrees



٢٥

Celsius. These averages increase in low and coastal areas and decrease in

elevated areas.

Temperatures in the Kingdom vary also from one season to another. In

winter, the average temperature is ١٦٫٢ Degrees Celsius, while in summer it

is ٣٠٫٦ Degrees Celsius. The winter rate goes down towards the north and

in mountain areas, while the latter gets higher towards the south and lowers

towards northern and mountainous areas. In Riyadh, the mean temperature

in summer is ٣٢٫٩ Degrees Celsius, while in Abhâ and Nammâs at the Asîr

Heights, the rates are ٢٢٫٣ Degrees Celsius and ٢٠ Degrees Celsius

respectively. TABLE SHOWING TEMPERATURE RATES IN SOME CITIES IN THE KINGDOM

City Annual Average

Seasonal Average Summer Winter

Range

Abha ٩٫٨ ١٣٫٥ ٢٢٫٣ ١٧٫٨ Al-Sulail ١٩٫٣ ١٧٫١ ٣٤٫٣ ٢٦٫٢ Yabreen ٢٢ ١٦ ٣٥ ٢٥٫٧ -Madina ١٦٫٣ ١٨٫٩ ٣٣٫٩ ٢٧ Riyadh ١٩٫٧ ١٥٫٢ ٣٢٫٩ ٢٤٫٦ Al-Zulfi ٢٠٫٢ ١٤٫٣ ٣٢٫٨ ٢٤٫٣ Al-Qatif ١٩ ١٦٫٤ ٣٣٫٧ ٢٥٫٦ Hail ٢٠٫٤ ١٢٫٢ ٣٠٫٥ ٢٢٫٠ Tabuk ٢٠٫٤ ١١٫٩ ٣٠٫١ ٢١٫٦

Due to its desert nature, high temperature during daytime and low

temperature at night, we notice that daily, seasonal and annual temperature

ranges in the Kingdom vary. The seasonal temperature range in the

Kingdom is ١٦ Degrees Celsius. This range varies from one area to another

and from one season to another. For instance, it gets lower toward the

western coast due to the effect of the Red Sea. This temperature range also

gets lower in the desert areas. It is ١٩٫٧ Degrees Celsius in Riyadh, in Abhâ

٩٫٨ Degrees Celsius, while in Madhlîf on the Red Sea only ٦٫٨ Degrees

Celsius.



٢٦

THE WINDS The Kingdom is exposed to a variety of local and regional winds. The

winds that come from the north and the northeast are cold and dry in winter,

and hot and dry in summer. Winds from the northwest are cold and dry,

while the winds from the southeast and the southwest are warm and humid.

The Kingdom is also exposed to local winds that are hot, dry and dusty.

The speed and direction of winds in the Kingdom are different in different

days, months, seasonal years and different areas. This is due to the different

geographic conditions. The average speed rate of winds in the Kingdom is

٨٫٥ km/hr annually. In coastal areas it is ١٦٫٢ km/hr. This is the case in

Dahrân and Yanbu‘. In internal areas such as the Empty Quarter, it is ٩

km/hr. Wind direction also varies from one area to another due to the

different temperature rates in different months. The permanent and local

winds in the Kingdom always carry dust and sand due to the dry soil and

the scarcity of plants.

RAIN Due to its desert and semi-desert nature, rainfall in the Kingdom is very

low. Rain in the Kingdom might fall heavily in one year and not at all for a

number of years. The annual amount of rain in the Kingdom is less than

١٥٠ mm, with the exception of the western and southern heights, where the

rate exceeds ٥٠٠ mm. This variation is due to the diverse topography and

the different winds in the Kingdom. TABLE SHOWING RATES OF ANNUAL RAINS IN SOME CITIES IN THE KINGDOM

City

Abh

a

Nam

ass

Bal

jara

shi

Bis

ha

Sula

yel

Taif

Yab

reen

Har

dh

Riy

adh

Zulfi

Hai

l

Tabo

uk

Gur

ayat

A

verage

٣٧٥

٤٧١

٤٨٨

١١١

٣٦

١٢٤

٤٦

٤٨

٨٠

١١٣

١٢١

٢٠

٤٥



٢٧

HUMIDITY

The rates of humidity in the Kingdom vary according to the sources of

humidity such as seas and agricultural areas, as well as the directions of

winds. The annual rate of humidity in the Kingdom is ١٤٪. This rate gets

higher in the eastern and western coastal areas, as well as in elevated areas.

In general, humidity increases in winter and decreases in summer.

EVAPORATION

Due to such factors as topography, temperature and wind speed, the

evaporation rates in the Kingdom vary from one area to another. Water lost

due to evaporation is ٣،٦٧٩ mm annually. This rate varies from one area to

another. In Dawadmi it is ٥،٧٩٦ mm, in Nammâs ١،٩٠٤ mm and in

Baljarshî ٢،٣٢٢ mm.



٢٨

GEOLOGY

The western third of the Arabian Peninsula, the Arabian Shield (al-Dir‘ al-

‘Arabî) was a land parcel of Africa, made up of igneous rocks such as

granite, metamorphic rocks, such as schist, and which was a demarcation

line between Africa, on one hand, and the northeast regions of Europe and

Asia on the other.

The rest of the Arabian Peninsula has developed around Arabian Shield as

a result of constant sediments. The accumulation of sediments in this great

sea led to the creation of sedimentary rocks around the Arabian Shield for

more than ٥٠٠ million years of the Cambrian era to our present time. Since

that time, the Arabian Shield has been under the effect of up and down

movements in addition to cleavages, volcanic activities, denudation action,

and movement of sediments from the bottom to the precipitating basin

surrounding the Arabian Shield, creating a shield of lime, clay, and sand

sediments besides the organic and chemical sediments.

The sedimentary rocks look like curved belts around the Arabian Shield.

Their layers tilt eastward and northward. This now covers two thirds of the

Arabian Peninsula with the remains of sedimentary rocks and various

products scattered over all the rocks of the Arabian Shield (See Figure

One). Finally, the Arabian Peninsula was split from the African continent

by the Red Sea collapse during the last thirty million years.

The most important mineral resources in the Kingdom are the oil reserve

and underground water which are found in layers of sedimentary cover in

various depths in the Eastern Regions, the Empty Quarter (Rub‘ al-Khali),

and the Central Region.

The metallic and non-metallic mineral resources come second as

importance is concerned, and have been discovered in the area of the

Arabian Shield, the sedimentary area in the Arabian Peninsula.



٢٩

OIL

Oil holds a main position in the economy of the Kingdom, a virtue that

makes the Kingdom one of the largest and the biggest producers and

exporters of oil in the world. It has the biggest known oil reserve, though it

was in ١٩٤٥ the fourth in world oil production. When the oil market was

unstable, some countries including the Kingdom made great efforts to

destabilize it by either increasing or decreasing their oil production. The

Kingdom’s oil production was about eight million barrels a day in ١٩٩٣,

making up ١٣٫٤ % of the world production. New discoveries led to an

increase in oil reserves in the Kingdom to reach ٢٦١٫٤ billion barrels in

١٩٩٣. The reserve of natural gas also increased to reach ٥٢٦٥٫٨ billion

cubic meters. Nowadays the Kingdom holds a front position in world oil

industry.

Oil fields in the Kingdom are found in the sedimentary continental shelf,

especially in the Eastern Region, the Empty Quarter, and the Central

Region, and in the Kingdom’s territorial waters in the Arabian Gulf. Fifty-

seven oil fields have been discovered (Figure Two), each containing several

layers (oil reservoirs).

The main oil fields are Gawâr, Baqaiq, Dammâm, Qatîf, Kharsâniya, Abû

Hadriya, Harmaliya (east of Gawâr), Fâdilî, Barrî, Safâniya, Munîfa, Abû

Su‘fa, Dhulûf, Marjân, Kirîn, Janâ, Mazâlîg, Karân, Jarîb‘ân, Shîba, and

others.

New fields have been discovered in the Central Region, southeast of

Riyadh, in the Hawta area, south of Kharj. These discoveries have been

very important because their new oil is the lightest oil yet discovered in the

Kingdom, for it contains a very small proportion of sulfur.

New hydrocarbon reserves have also been discovered in the coastal plain of

the Red Sea in Waja, Madîn, Jizân, the northern region of the Kingdom,

particularly in Kahif Region, near Jawf.



٣٠

WATER RESOURCES

Water in the Kingdom, regarding environment and weather, is the most

important natural resource. Water resources can be classified into four

kinds: the deep underground water, and the processed seawater, water

pumped out of sixteen main and secondary sedimentary layers. The deep

underground water has been constantly decreasing, because of the constant

pumping for drinking as well as for agricultural purposes, and because of

the limited amount of rainfall necessary to feed these layers. The

underground water provides about ٨٢٪ of the Kingdom’s needs of water.

Surface ground water, found in the beds of valleys and broken rocks, runs

out and renews constantly because of rainfall in certain seasons.

Some parts of the Kingdom suffer either from want of drinking water or

from its bad quality. Therefore, the government created water purification

plants (water processing stations) to compete with the increasing population

and construction development. They provide some coastal or inner cities

such as Riyadh, Makkah, and Medina with fresh drinking water, which will

be an extra resource for the groundwater already existing in these cities.

The Kingdom, with the help of Allah, has become one of the pioneering

countries in the field of refining seawater. There are now twenty-three

desalination plants, nineteen on the coast of the Red Sea, and four on the

coast of the Arabian Gulf. Refined water production has rose in ١٩٩٤ to

about ٥٢٠ million gallons a day. The total production of all water refineries

makes up about ٧٠٪ of the home water supply. Processed sewage water is

used for irrigating farms near cities.

THE MINERAL RESOURCES

The discovery of mineral resources in the Kingdom goes back to the olden

days. However, mining activities became larger during the Umayyid era

and the early days of Abbasid era. There were mines for gold, silver,



٣١

copper, for example in the Arabian Shield area in places such as Mahed al-

Dhahab, Umm al-Damâr, Nuqra ,Safra, Samra, Musîn‘a and others.

In modern times, King Abdulaziz (may Allah bless him) was interested in

searching for natural resources. Mahed al-Dhahab mine was reopened to be

exploited. In a period between ١٩٣٨ and١٩٥٤, twenty-three tons of gold

and thirty-one tons of silver had been extracted. Since then the Kingdom

has started really mining its natural resources to enrich its economy.

These natural resources are regarded as the main support for various kinds

of industries and uses.

In the Kingdom there are precious metals such as gold and silver, in

addition to other minerals such as copper, zinc, lead, iron, aluminum,

chrome, tin, nickel, manganese and others.

There are about ٩٣٥ well-known sites for gold, and in ٧٨٢ of them, gold

comprises the main metal. In ١٥٣ sites, gold is a secondary metal. Flint

rocks carrying gold ore have been discovered in an area stretching from

Najrân and Dhulm to Hâ’il. Places such as Mahed al-Dhahab, Sukhîbarât,

Âmâr, Hajjâr and Hamdha are of the most important regions for gold ore in

the Kingdom. Now gold has been dug out in two main areas: Mahed al-

Dhahab and Sukhîbarât.

In the area called the Arabian Shield, there are more than ٥٠٠ sites for

silver ore, which usually accompanies ores of lead, zinc, copper and iron.

The Duwâdmî area is the most important area of silver, with more than ١٠٠

sites, such as the Samra mine, Sumîra, and Mutîra. The most important sites

for copper are Sâyid Mountain, Katâm, Shazam Mountain, and Umm al-

Damâr.

Iron has been discovered in many places such as the Sawâwîn valley area in

the northeast of the Kingdom, Fâtima valley near Makkah, Adsâs Mountain

west of Riyadh, and other small places having no economic value spread

throughout the Arabian Shield.



٣٢

Zinc is an important metal found in about ٤٠٠ sites, such as Khanâqiya,

Masâni‘, Shu‘aib, Nuqra, Rudîna, and Âmâr. Small precipitates of chromate

have been discovered in sixteen areas in the Arabian Shield, such as the

Wâsik Mountain in ‘Is Valley.

Nickel is available in small quantities in a number of places, such as Kamâl

Valley and Qatan Valley in the south of the Kingdom. The non-metallics

that have been discovered play an important role in the industrial and

architectural development of the Kingdom. Of these are materials of the

ceramic industries (feldspar, bauxite, argillite) and construction materials

such as cumulative materials for cement industries, plaster, glass, building

and decorating stones (granite, limestone, marble, green-stone, and

sandstone and industrial metals such as asbestos, glass, mica, salt, and

phosphate.

There are sites for precious stones. Table One shows the most important

places of minerals in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.



٣٣

TThhee NNaattuurraall HHaabbiittaatt iinn tthhee KKiinnggddoomm ooff SSaauuddii AArraabbiiaa

In the history of Arabian Peninsula there have been periods of heavy rain

that helped to create better life conditions for many and varied kinds of

creatures. At the same time there had been other dry periods that led to

extinction of many kinds of animals and plants. In the Pleistocene age,

twenty to thirty-two thousand years ago, the Empty Quarter (Rub‘ al-Khali)

and areas around it used to have enough rainfall to form many lakes.

Excavations show remains of hippopotamus teeth, buffaloes, wild cows,

zebras, hyenas, sheep and camels.

The last rainy period in the Arabian Peninsula was that which happened in

the first half of the Holocene Era (Low Holocene) exactly ٨،٥٠٠ years ago.

Lakes had been naturally established in many areas such as the Empty

Quarter and the Nofowz al-Kobra. Water flowed again all over the valleys,

and vegetation spread to make life for many animals such as camels, zebras,

hyenas and predators such as leopards, wolves, hyenas, and Asian cheetahs.

Weather changes in Pleistocene era brought about four consecutive Ice

Ages alternating with warm periods. The last Ice Age in the area of the

Arabian Peninsula was called al-Farm during which areas of woods of

temperate climate spread south, together with many living things in the

Arabian Peninsula. This also brought about a decrease in the Red Sea level

of ١،٠٠٠ m compared with its level today. At the same time the Arabian

Gulf was dry, and Shat al-Arab (Arabian Coast) used to pour out into the

end of the Oman Gulf near Hermosa Strait.

The Red Sea level subsidence and the dryness of Gulf made it easy for

many animals from East Africa and Southeast Asia to come to the Arabian

Peninsula area. This consequently led to the gathering of a variety of

animals that may not have been found in many other places in the world.

This great variety of creatures did not last long, and as a result of drought,

which began ٦،٠٠٠ years ago, the life of many animals and plants had

begun to deteriorate. A decrease in the level of the lakes took place after



٣٤

subsidence of rain caused by seasonal wind which had been dominant

during the rainy eras. This situation caused the death of many kinds of

plants and animals, especially those in constant need of water such as the

hippopotamus, buffalo and wild ass (zebra) and some predators, except for

a few animals that could stand the drought.

The number of animals in the flat areas, valleys, and mountainous regions,

went down as the result of constant drought and the change in seasonal

wind movements in the Arabian Peninsula. However, some kinds of

animals such as the Arabian antelopes, hyenas, ostriches, wild cats, and

some birds and reptiles which could stand the harsh circumstances of

environment and the scarcity of food and water continued their lives. Some

animals, with lower ability to stand drought, living in the mountainous

regions, where water and suitable temperature were available, could

survive. There were animals like the Arabian cheetah, antelope and the wild

leopard and some kinds of birds as well as the other small mammals. In

spite of weather changes, there are still rich resources of plants and animals

peculiar to the Arabian Peninsula such as mammals, sea and wild birds, a

number of reptiles and a few amphibians in addition to a great number of

arthropods and insects.

This natural life variety went on steadily with its environmental variety,

increasing during periods of much rain, and going down during drought and

water scarcity. The Arabian antelope and hyena herds were seen on the

outskirts of the Empty Quarter and in the northern plain region. Hyenas,

wolves, and ostriches have been mentioned in many books of travelers who

crossed the outskirts of the Arabian Peninsula from east to west or from

north to south.

As a result of competition among the European countries such as Britain,

France, Germany and others which had started to manufacture hunting

weapons and export them to various parts of the world including the

Arabian Peninsula, the number of wild animals had begun to drop. This was



٣٥

followed by the introduction of four-wheel-drive vehicles by the oil

companies and then by individuals. Consequently, hunters were able to

pursue animals very deep into the desert. These factors brought about the

extinction of many kinds of animals such the Arabian antelopes, ostriches,

ibexes, leopards and many kinds of surviving birds.

The Kingdom has a great animal natural resource, varied according to

environment as land, sea or wet regions. There are many wild sea mammals

in addition to domestic or migrating birds which cross Arabia in summer or

winter. The environment gives an opportunity for reptiles and unlimited

number of amphibians to survive in the east and the southeast area of the

Kingdom.

MAMMALS

In the Kingdom there are eight classes of mammals, comprising twenty-five

families and seventy-six species, living in various environments. The

dhalafiyât class or shafiya al-hâfir which makes a single family, namely

bakariya, is regarded as the most important and distinguished class of the

environment of the Arabian Peninsula. The Arabian antelope or wadhî is

regarded as a symbol of the sandy desert of the Empty Quarter. However,

with international help, the cattle have been recollected and taken back to

their previous habitat in the Kingdom. Omani and Jordanian antelopes are

smaller and more efficient than those which live in South Africa.

Deer of the Arabian Peninsula such as the rîm or rimâl are regarded as very

efficient with unique beauty. Such beautiful gazelles proved fit enough to

suit the sandy environment where they live. Some of these animals can be

found in the wildlife preserves and others are still at large in the Empty

Quarter.

Common or mountain gazelles can be found in the southwest parts and

some northern regions.



٣٦

Ibexes can be found in abundance in the Sarawât Mountains side by side

with a small number of Arabian leopards, desert lynx (caracal) and

baboons, especially in the southwest part of the Sarawât Mountains.

Mountain slopes and their surrounding areas provided a habitat for a

number of wolves, striped hyenas, red foxes, hyraxes, large numbers of

insect-eating bats and some varieties of rodents.

SEA MAMMALS

The Arabian Gulf and Red Sea environment are among the richest sea

regions regarding the variety of plants and animals. There are many kinds

of fish, reptiles, sea birds and mammals.

Two types of sea mammals: Sirenae and Cetacea are found in the Arabian

Gulf and the Red Sea.

Sea Cows (Sirenae)

These animals were called sea cows (manatee) and legends have described

them as half fish and half man in form. These sea cows are mammals and

herbivores living in the waters of the Arabian Gulf and the Red Sea as well

as in other warm seas.

They differ from cetacea in the form of the front flipper and the form of the

jaw. There also lack a back flipper. They live near the seashores in the

shallow water, and are distinguished by their slow movement and their

ability not to be disturbed by man. This made them easy victims for hunters.

Due to their small number, they are subject to extinction, for they need ten

years to reach maturity, and on the other hand, the female gives birth to a

single baby only once every three years.

WHALES AND DOLPHINS (CETACEA)

The waters of the Arabian Gulf accommodate up to twenty-five varieties of

dolphins and whales, making up a third of all the kinds known

internationally. There are ten varieties of dolphin in the Red Sea.



٣٧

Cetacea are divided into two classes: whales and dolphins. The toothed

whales consist of two families, the sperm whale and the dwarf sperm whale.

The sperm whale is the biggest of the toothed whales, about eighteen meters

long for males, with a large head making up about a third of the body.

These are found in the Arabian Gulf and the Red Sea. The dwarf sperm

whale is different from the sperm whale, smaller in size, not more than

three meters and a half long. This kind of whale can be found abundantly in

the Gulf of Oman.

The dolphin family has many varieties, such as the killer whale, the false

killer whale and the pilot whale. The killer whale can be distinguished by

the black on its back and white on the belly. It is also distinguished by its

sharp dorsal fin, which can be as long as ١٫٨ meters in the male. The body

is eight meters long and weighs eight tons.

The baleen whales include a number of kinds such as the blue whale, the

biggest of all creatures, about thirty meters long and weighing ١٥٠ tons. Its

color is blue and gray with white spots. The fin whale is not very much

smaller in size than the blue whale. Its length is about twenty-four meters

and its color is dark gray. There are many kinds of whales in the Arabian

Gulf and the Red Sea, such as the sei whale, Baird’s beaked whale, and the

Minke whale. These creatures feed on the organisms floating over the

surface of the water.

FISH

The environment of the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf provides areas with

many kinds of fish with economic value. There are more than fifty families

containing about ٢٠٠ kinds of commercial fish. The famous fish families of

commercial value, preferred by the Saudi customers are the emperor fish,

grouper, jack, red snapper, barracuda, pomfret, Spanish mackerel, and bugle

fish.



٣٨

There are eight of these kinds in the Red Sea, and three in the Arabian Gulf.

Some of the important ones are emperor fish, abûkiya, karsît, mahîsini, and

abû zahwa.

Groupers usually live in shallow water around coral reefs and are predators.

They belong to a group of excellent quality fish. Among the best known of

these are various kinds of grouper, milkfish, and nâjil.

There up to twenty-seven kinds of jack fish, the majority of them found in

the Red Sea. They are mostly predatory and living near the coral reefs. It is

known that they stay in their environment for a long time. They have

excellent commercial value. Of these kinds are the large and small jack fish,

the jedbâ, the qaza, and the trevally. Spanish mackerel can be as long as

١٣٠ cm and usually live in a fixed place. This particular kind of fish is

preferred in the market for its good taste and lack of small bones.

In addition to the great number of fish in the waters of the Red Sea, there

are many kinds of shellfish, such as prawns, shrimp and crayfish.

There are also in the Gulf and the Red Sea a number of gristly fish such as

sharks.

BIRDS IN THE KINGDOM

Birds in the Kingdom form a unique legacy of natural animal resources

where a varied environment helps to make a home for ٤٥٠ kinds of sea,

coastal and wild birds. ٢٣٦ kinds of birds live and breed in a constant or

temporary situation in the region. The location of the Kingdom in the

Arabian Peninsula has its own effect on the variety of birds. There are many

kinds of African origin inhabiting the southwest part of the Kingdom,

whereas kinds of Eastern origin can be found in the southeast part, and

those of European origin in the northwest. The Kingdom is located on two

important migratory routes. The migrating birds from Western Europe fly

over the outskirts of the Mediterranean and the coast of the Red Sea to East

Africa. The other route is from Eastern Europe across the Euphrates and



٣٩

Tigris Rivers and then to the northern outskirts of the Gulf and across the

middle of Arabian Peninsula to Ethiopia and East Africa. During these

journeys, some of these birds settle down in the Kingdom during winter, or

when they are back in summer.

BIRDS OF PREY

Predatory birds such as eagles, falcons and many others fly during daylight.

They have sharp curved beaks, and large, strong wings to help them fly and

soar for many hours. Usually males are bigger in size than females. They

usually have similar colors. These predators usually feed on meat. Some of

them choose to kill their victims, while others live on the flesh of other dead

animals. The Kingdom accommodates more than eighty-two kinds of these

birds.

VULTURES

Vultures are big birds distinguished by a featherless neck and head. Their

long wings enable them to soar high in the sky to check the region either in

search of dead animals or to identify the other flying eagles which usually

soar over the dead bodies of animals. Males and females are similar in color

and size.

The griffon vulture is regarded as one of the biggest vultures in the

Kingdom. Its wings, which are large with straight edges on the front, are

١٫٥ m long. The tail is short if compared with the size of the body. It prefers

to live on tops of mountain and in deep slopes. The Egyptian vulture

(rakhma), which can be found in the Kingdom, is smaller in size than the

griffon vulture and is usually distinguished by its white color and black-

edged wings. It lives near cities and settlements. There are also other kinds,

such as the black vulture.



٤٠

EAGLES

These are large strong birds, brave enough to kill animals for food. They do

not eat the meat of dead animals. They have long wings and long tails and

are distinguished by their head, neck, and legs that are covered with

feathers. Males usually are bigger than females, and their color is dark

brown. These birds like to live on mountains or in the tops of trees. The

biggest eagles in the Kingdom are the royal eagle and the plains eagle.

The royal eagle’s wingspan can reach ١٨٥ cm. This kind usually lives near

water. The plains eagle’s wingspan is ١٧٠ cm, and it is usually found in the

open desert areas.

There are other kinds such as the nasârî or fish eagle (osprey) which can be

found in abundance in some areas of Hijaz as well as near the Gulf coast.

Its wing span is ١٦٠cm. It can be distinguished by its white head and the by

the black line behind its eye. Its back is covered with brown feathers, while

the belly is white. Being a good fisherman, this bird feeds on what it

catches.

FALCONS

From olden times, falcons have been associated with the life of the Arabian

Peninsula. They have been a part of the sport of hunting that the people of

Arabia love. They are fond of hunting with a special kind of these birds,

namely the peregrine falcon, the sunset falcon or the gazelle falcon. The

peregrine falcon is fifty-five centimeters in length with a wingspan as wide

as ١٢٥ cm. Its body is covered with dark brown feathers on the back and

wings, while its head is white. The color of these birds varies according to

their environment.

The peregrine falcon is an migrant bird and can be seen in the Kingdom in

winter. It lives and breeds in mountain areas in central Asia and Eastern

Europe. This bird spends winter in some parts of the Arabian Peninsula

where it falls victim to hunters who can catch it by using nets. The shahîn



٤١

falcon is also another bird that usually stays in the region during winter.

This falcon is a bit smaller than the peregrine falcon. It is forty-eight

centimeters in length with wings that can be stretched as wide as ١١٠ cm. It

is distinguished by the dark brown color on its head and back. It is light

brown on the belly. The shahîn is regarded as a skillful hunter, quick in

attacking its prey.

There are many other kinds of falcons such as the long-legged falcon and

the honey falcon. There are also some kinds of hawks, such as the common

hawk and the manshad hawk in addition to the black kite and kestrel. There

are also five kinds of predators, such as the owl, a nocturnal bird feeding on

rats, small birds, frogs and other animals. There is also the store owl or

white owl, the eagle owl and the little owl, which is known as umm quwîq

(see the section on hunting).

COASTAL BIRDS

The Kingdom hosts a variety of large coastal birds, especially of the heron

family, such as the brown balshûn, or heron.

These are regarded as migratory birds, usually coming to the country in

winter when salty or fresh water has accumulated. The purple heron also

can be found near water with a heavy cover of vegetation. This also is

regarded as a migratory bird.

The small bittern, sea heron, and rock heron are regarded as coastal birds.

The coastal bird called the ibis is reddish on the neck and back and dark

green on its wings. It is also a winter migratory bird.

WADING BIRDS

There are many kinds of the wading birds in the Kingdom. The most

important of these kinds are plovers. Sandpipers and plovers are medium

and small size birds distinguished by their short and wide beaks. Of the

wading and migratory birds we can find the ringed and the sandy plovers as

well as the brown plovers. The kinds of sandpipers are dunlins, the small



٤٢

dunlins, the sandpipers with curved beaks, the green legged sandpipers, the

red legged sandpipers, and the common sandpipers. Other kinds are

curlews, kingfishers, and skylarks.

STOCK DOVES AND PIGEONS

There are about ten kinds in the dove family. Some of these kinds are

migratory others settlers. There are wild and domestic birds. The wild kinds

are stock doves. The birds of this family are distinguished for their thick

feathers, small heads, and weak short beaks. They live in groups in orchards

and around cities. The most famous of these are the rock pigeons, which in

the Hijaz region are called mosque pigeons (al-haram) for their large

numbers in Makkah and Madina, where they win the protection of the Two

Holy Mosques on one hand and enjoy the care and feeding of visitors. This

kind also is widespread internationally, in northern Europe and Africa. Of

the other kinds are the collared doves, distinguished by their brown color

and the black collar surrounding the back of the neck and live in wild trees.

Palm pigeons are reddish brown or rosy in color and the edges of their

wings are blue. They live on farms. There are also other kinds such as the

stock doves and the long tailed stock doves.

DUCKS AND GEESE

The duck family contains many kinds of ducks and geese. Ducks are

distinguished by being smaller in size with shorter legs. Feathers also vary

according to the breed. Usually they have distinguishing colored spots on

their wings. Some ducks coming to the damp regions in the Kingdom

during their migration are mallards. The male of this kind is distinguished

by a green head and white color round the neck, gray body, and white and

black tail, whereas the females are brown speckled. There are other kinds of

ducks such as the green-eyed ducks, seasonal visitors with a green line

around the eyes. Also there are other kinds of ducks called the long-tailed

ducks.



٤٣

Kinds of geese visiting some parts of the Kingdom during their migration

are the gray geese, big in size with gray or relatively brown color and wide

pink beaks. The country is also visited by another kind of goose, (wâqî), a

white bird with a long neck and yellow beak and relatively short legs.

SEA BIRDS

The most common widespread sea birds in the islands near the eastern

seashore of the Kingdom are the cormorants or sea crows. More than

٧٠،٠٠٠ birds gather in the islands. They are black birds with long and beaks

curved at the tip. They can be found in abundance in the Arabian Sea and

Socotra Island.

Terns (sea swallows) can be found in large numbers in some coral islands in

the Gulf, such as Karîn and Kârân Islands, which have about ١٠،٠٠٠ birds

of this kind. There are other kinds such as black-faced and white terns.

The white pelican is one of the spring migratory birds, distinguished by its

large beak, about forty-five centimeters long, which is used to catch fish.

The common gull, a winter visitor, and the coal gull, found in some Gulf

islands, are members of the sea gull family. Terns that breed in the Gulf are

of many kinds, such as the swift tern, the undulatory tern, and the Bahraini

tern, which is among the winter visitors to the region.

OTHER BIRDS

Other birds, which characterize the Kingdom’s environment, are the bustard

birds. There are only two species of these birds in the Kingdom.

The Arabian bustards, which can be found in the southwest regions of the

Tihâma plain, are regarded as indigenous birds. The Asian bustards,

migrant birds from Southeast Asia, come to the northeast region during

winter and spring, while some of these birds settle in the northern regions.

This kind was subject to severe hunting in the past years, and as a result its

numbers had fallen and it was near extinction. This matter concerned the

people interested in the wildlife in the Kingdom to take necessary measures



٤٤

to help breed these birds in captivity and then reintroduce them in the

preserved areas.

The partridge is another kind of game bird in the Kingdom. Of this family

we can find the gray-headed partridge, the sandy partridge, quail and

turkey. There are also three kinds of grouse: the striped sand grouse. And

the speckled sand grouse. Other birds forming an important element of the

wildlife in the Kingdom are nightingales, sparrows, skylarks, hoopoes, bee-

eaters, warblers, and various kinds of parrots and crows.

REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS

Reptiles and amphibians are an important part of the wildlife in the

Kingdom. In spite of drought, the scarcity of greenery, and the high

temperature, there can be found nine kinds of amphibians in addition to a

large number of snakes (land or water), lizards, sea reptiles, fresh water

reptiles and land reptiles.

SERPENTS

Fifty kinds of serpents can be found in the Kingdom, nine of which are sea

serpents usually living in the water of the Arabian Gulf. The rest can be

found in various areas such as sandy areas, mountains, villages, open plains

and agricultural regions. Twenty-three different kinds of these serpents,

about ٤٥٪, are poisonous. Also all sea serpents are regarded as poisonous.

THE ARQAM FAMILY - TRUE SERPENTS In the Kingdom, there are about twenty kinds, most of them poisonous. The

lacertine snake (abû al-‘uyûn) is most common in the open desert regions,

usually distinguished by a very dark spot behind the eye. This snake is

forty-one centimeters long.

Other members of the serpent family are the zârûq or abû-siyûr al-shajarî,

which takes its first name from to its fast movement. Abu al-siyûr is noted



٤٥

for the bright-colored stripes on both sides of its body. It is a back-toothed

snake, common in the agricultural regions and forested areas.

Another common serpent, especially in the agricultural areas, is the arqam,

about one and a half meters long, sandy-brown in color with dark-colored

spots, from which its name is derived. It is a non-poisonous serpent. TABLE SHOWING THE FAMILIES AND KINDS OF REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS IN THE

ARABIAN PENINSULA Family Group No. of

Families No. of Types

Reptiles Snakes Lizards Turtles

٨ ٧ ٥

٥٥ ٩٨ ١٠

Amphibians Frogs – Water Frogs – Land

٢ ١

٣ ٦

THE SALÂL FAMILY This family contains very poisonous serpents. They inject their poison into

their prey through their front teeth in the upper jaw. The poison mainly

effects the nervous system. The most common and well known of this

family are the cobras, which have the ability to create what is known as a

hood to cover themselves to scare their enemies. The Arabian cobras are

common in the southwest region near agriculture areas and watery places as

well as dams. These are two meters long, brown on the back and yellow on

the belly. There is also another kind not less dangerous than the cobra,

common in deserts in the central and northern regions. The desert cobra is

one of the most dangerous kinds and is distinguished by its dark black

color. It is two meters long. What makes it very dangerous is that it preys

on the lizards which live underground so that the lizard hunters usually are

subject to its fatal bite.

THE SERPENT FAMILY (VIPERS) This family contains very poisonous snakes. Most of its members are

commonly distinguished by their triangular-shaped heads, narrow necks and

short tails. They have many front teeth in the upper jaw. Their poison

affects the blood system in particular, causing coagulation. Other kinds of

serpents common in the sandy areas are horned snakes, known as



٤٦

“centipedes” for the way they run on land. The other kinds of serpent are

the gharîba, nawâma or nâfitha, and the eastern carpet or raqtâ’ (speckled)

snake.

THE ABTAR FAMILY This family contains very limited number of serpents living in Africa and

Southeast Asia. They are poisonous serpents with short teeth. They are able

to move sideways, which makes them more dangerous and difficult to

catch. The black libertine snake, a member of this family, is common in the

areas close to the Kingdom and is distinguished by its glittering black color.

It is about eighty centimeters long and is regarded as one of the species

which cause a lot of fatal bites.

SEA SERPENTS The sea serpents are supposedly rooted in the salâl family, but later adapted

to life in water due to changes in the shape of the body and tail, as well as

the positions of some organs such as the nose hole. These poisonous

serpents live in warm water and the Arabian Gulf hosts about nine kinds of

them. These serpents are often peaceful and do not attack human beings.

They are distinguished by vivid colors that can be easily seen. Their kinds

are: the yellow-bellied sea serpent, the ringed sea lacertine, and the twisted

sea lacertine.

THE LACERTILIA FAMILY (LIZARDS) Lizards comprise two-thirds of the reptiles found in the Arabian Peninsula.

There are about one hundred kinds of them spread throughout the sandy

areas, stony plains, valleys and mountain regions, in addition to a number of

kinds living in the moist areas and farming regions in particular. Lizards

usually feed on insects, except for the dhabb lizard. Some of them are

active during the day, others at nighttime only.

The lacertila family is known to most people, and the best known member

is the lizards which are prevalent in the Arabian Peninsula. The most



٤٧

common is the one called the Egyptian lizard, also the biggest in size,

which weighs an average of more than one and a half kilograms. This kind

is common in the central and northern regions of the Kingdom. However, it

has recently been the subject of a large-scale hunting campaign. It has been

hunted for both food and for sport. The Yemeni lizard is another member of

this family. It is sometimes called the wahir and is an average sized lizard

common in the southeast of the Kingdom and Yemen. It is distinguished by

its blue color, which sparkles in the sun, and usually lives among rocks.

Two members of the monitor lizard family can be found in the Kingdom.

The monitor lizard is a small creeping animal, with a long body and tail,

living in the open plain areas and feeding on small mammals, lizards and

snakes.

The gecko family, especially the house gecko, is well known to people. A

mountain version of this family lives in the rocky areas and is different

from the house gecko in its very dark body. It is the subject of many

legends saying that it is poisonous and contaminates food. However, there

are no poisonous lizards in the Kingdom. Some kinds of geckos feed in the

desert at night, others feed on trees.

In the southeast part of the Kingdom there are three kinds of chameleons.

There are also a number of true lizards and skinks.

TURTLES AND TORTOISES

The best known turtles living in the Kingdom are the green turtles and the

hawksbill turtle. There are two kinds in the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf.

Three other kinds can be found in the Gulf and the Arabian Sea.

Two kinds of fresh-water turtles can be found, one living in the Ahsâ’ and

Qatîf oases called the bark turtle, and the other kind, called the sided-neck

turtle, is common in the Jizân and Qanfadha regions.

There are also two kinds of tortoises, one living in the eastern region, and

the other living in the Jizân region.



٤٨

It is noteworthy that the National Assembly for Natural Habitat

Preservation and Development, since its establishment in ١٩٨٦, has made

great efforts to reintroduce some animal species that have suffered

extinction in their natural habitat. These are Arabian antelopes, gazelles,

ostriches, and bustards. This assembly has created twelve wildlife preserves

in different parts of the Kingdom to help preserve plants and native animals

and to carry out the necessary research for this purpose. It also plays an

important role in stimulating public opinion on issues of environmental

protection. This is achieved by constant arrangements with the concerned

authorities in the Kingdom, on one hand, and by cooperation with the

international corporations and organizations on the other.

CAMELS

Camels are of two types, the Arabian camel and the Bactrian camel. The

Bactrian camels have two humps and they live in cold areas in the middle

of Asia and the east of Europe. They have long and thick hair and they can

stand the cold and the snow. However, these camels walk slowly and

cannot carry as much weight as the other type. The Arabian camel (the

dromedary), on the other hand, has only one hump. It has an elegant body,

moves easily, runs fast, can stand thirst and can carry a lot of weight.

Arabian camels live in mild and hot areas such as the Arabian Peninsula,

fertile regions in Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Palestine, Lebanon, the north of Egypt,

Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, Libya, Tunis, Algeria, Morocco,

Mauritania, the Moroccan Sahara, Chad and other places as well.

The male Arabian camel is known in Arabic as the jamal, and its female

counterpart is known as the nâqa. Arabian camels are known for their light

hair, their height (٣-٢ meters), and their ability to live in the desert.

Scholars believe that Arabs domesticated this useful animal between ٥،٠٠٠

and ٤،٠٠٠ BC Other scholars believe that this was long before this date



٤٩

based on evidence from drawings and inscriptions found on some rocks in

the Arabian Peninsula.

The camel constitutes one of the main bases of the Arabs’ life. It is one of

the four dimensions of the Arab’s personality, namely the person himself,

his horse, his camel and his tent. The horse is the protective power an Arab

resorts to at the time of hardship, while the camel is the base on which his

whole life is founded. An Arab relied on camels in travelling and carrying

his food, water, and clothes. He used its milk as a main source of food and

its hair for making his clothes, his bed and parts of his tent.

Camels have been companions of the Arab since a long time ago. No other

animal has the same linguistic status as the camel. In one of the Arabic

dictionaries, there are in excess of ١٠،٠٠٠ words for the camel! Moreover,

many current Arabic words are etymologically related to “camel”. For

instance, the word i‘tiqâl, which means “internment”, came from ‘iqâl

which means the “shackles of the camel.” Similarly, the words zimâm al-

umûr, which mean “control of matters” came from the word zimâm, which

means “camel reins.” Thousands of poems about camels have been

composed by Arab poets since the beginning of the Arabic poetry and until

fifty years ago. Camels are mentioned in almost all poems, as well as in

prose, whether in colloquial or standard Arabic.

During the Islamic conquests around the world camels were used as shields

to protect warriors from the attacks of the enemies and in attacks against

enemies. In the economic field, camels were used as a means of transport.

They were also put to use to power the water wheels that brought up

underground water for use in drinking and irrigation of farmland in the

Peninsula.



٥٠

Camels have come in many colors and combinations of color. Two are very

common in the Kingdom, the maghâtîr and the majâhîm. The former

includes white and off-whites as well as blond, moonlight, flame and red,

while the latter includes black and its different shades as well as blue,

smoke and yellow. These colors are sub-categorized into various colors

with a different name for each.

The most common camel diseases are scabies and coughing. Camels’ feet

can also get sore or galled from walking on rough ground.

There are many ways to tame or control camels. The most common is the

use of the ‘iqal to tie the camel’s front leg or both legs when it is sitting.

The word i’tiqal which means internment is derived from the camel’s ‘iqal.

The shackle is a kind of rope known in Arabic as qayd. It is tied around the

camel’s legs while standing in order to restrict its movement and steps. The

Arabic word quyûd, meaning restrictions, is etymologically derived from

the camel’s qayd. Another rope is used to control camels is known as the

hujâr which is used to tie up the front leg of the camel with its back

counterpart so that it allows the camel to walk and look for food but

prevents it from running away. Camels can also be tied up with a rope

above the front knees and below the thighs. This kind of rope gives the

camel more freedom to move and it is known in Arabic as al-ta‘dhîd.

Another rope is tied to the camel’s groin at the bottom of the abdomen

while its other end is tied to one of the camel’s thighs so that it can move

freely but it cannot run away. Another rope is tied to the bottom of the

camel’s legs and the end of its back. The Arabic for this rope is the hijâz

from which the Arabic word ihtijâz, meaning detainment, was derived.

Thus, when the camel is tied by the ‘iqâl and the hijâz, it cannot move at

all. Any one type of the ropes mentioned above can be used alone except

for the ‘iqâl and the hijâz, which have to be used together for specific

purposes.



٥١

The camel’s halter is called rasan or qarârîs, and it is fixed on its head and

is used for leading the camel. The camel halter consists of the noseband,

which is fixed around the camel’s muzzle, the headstall, which is fixed

around the back of its head, the halter ring and the halter rope. Arabic

expressions such as sa‘b al-qiyâda, meaning difficult to lead, and sahl al-

qiyâda, meaning easy to lead, were developed from the camel’s halter.

Another word called khuzâm, meaning nose ring, refers to another type of

rope which goes through the camel’s nose and is used with camels which

are difficult to control.

People can ride camels without using anything to sit on, though this would

not be comfortable. Therefore, certain devices such as the saddle (shadâd)

and the litter (hawdaj) for women were developed to used for riding camels.

Camels water at different intervals of time and each interval is known in

Arabic as wird. If camels are offered water every day and whenever they

like, this is known in Arabic as raffa from which the Arabic word rafâhiya,

meaning luxury, was derived. If water is offered every other day, this is

called raghab. If offered every fourth day, this is called in rub’ (i.e. fourth),

and if offered every fifth day, this is called khums (i.e. fifth), etc.

To ascertain a camel’s age, one should know that camels have different

names at different ages. One should also know about the development of

camel’s teeth. For instance, the word jid‘ refers to a camel which is four

years old and getting into the fifth, the word thunî refers to a camel which

has completed the fifth year and is getting into the sixth. At this age, a

camel loses its two incisors and develops two bigger ones instead. When a

camel is six years old and starting the seventh, it is called ruba. At this age,

a camel loses two teeth and grows bigger ones instead. When completing

seven years old and getting into the eighth, camels lose the rest of their



٥٢

teeth and get new ones. At this age, a camel is called sudâs. At the age of

nine, camels’ canines come out and at this age camels are called fâtir or

shârif. The peak of the camel’s strength is between the age of six and eight.

When they start growing canines, camels start to get weak and slow.

There are many words in Arabic referring to the camels’ walking and

running at different speeds. The Arabic word rafîf refers to slow walking,

next to this in speed is khabab. Other Arabic words referring to camels’

walking and running are jamz, na‘q, tazayyud, dhamayl, rasîm, ramal,

irqâl, ranf, and kab‘, which refers to the camel’s running while lifting his

front and back legs simultaneously.

Camels also have different titles such as “God’s gift,” “whose milk is

sweet,” “whose steps are long,” “whose necks are bent,” “whose hocks are

bent,” etc.

Groups of camels that differ in number have different names. For instance,

the word dhawd is used for a group of camels consisting of three to ten,

sirmah for a herd from thirty to fifty, the word hajma for a group of ٩٠-٥٠,

and next is hanîda for a group of ١٠٠ camels.

Camels which carry litters, women and provisions are called tha’n. Those

carrying luggage and other things while traveling are called madhhûr. The

number of camels a person owns is the measure of his wealth. The Arabic

word na’am, meaning cattle or livestock, is exclusively used with camels.

Camels are nicknamed “hoof” just as sheep are nicknamed “cloven hoof”.

A caravan is a number of camels carrying goods and other things.

Camels reproduce through mating. The male camel is called in Arabic

jamal, while the female is called nâqa. Male and female camels have also



٥٣

many nicknames such as mitfal and dhi’r. Among all animals, the female

camel has the strongest band of affection towards its offspring. If it loses its

baby, it will become uncontrollable and it might die because of this. When a

baby camel dies, its skin is taken and stuffed with grass and other things, so

that its mother will smell it. This stuffed baby camel is called baww.

Mating between male and female camels takes place at specific times

during the year. When the male camel approaches its female (for

intercourse), it gets wild and aggressive, particularly if it sees another male

camel near its female. If anybody tries to take it away from its female, he

might even kill this person. This wild behavior of the male camel begins

with what is called hadîr, meaning “growl”. There are many words in

Arabic referring to the different phases of this hadîr. It begins with what is

called the kashîsh, then it develops into the katît, then the zaghd, then the

rijs, and finally the badhakh. The badhakh is the highest degree of hadîr,

when foam comes out of the male camel’s mouth like a balloon. The word

badhakh, which means sumptuous mode of life, is etymologically related to

the camel’s phase of badhakh.

Arabs used to mark their camels by using certain drawings to identify them.

The device was similar to what we know now as logos and trademarks,

which are used by companies and institutions. These marks and drawings

were usually done either by using a knife or branding on obvious areas of

the neck or cheek. Marking could also be done by notching the ear.

Arabs used to live on the camels’ meat and milk. It has been shown by

analysis that camel’ milk contains the following ingredients: ١٤٫٤ – ١٠٫٤ %

solid substances, ٢٪ fat, ٢٫٥٪ protein, ٧٫٥ - ٣٪ lactase, ٢٧ – ١٤٪ sodium

chloride and the rest is water.



٥٤

Camel meat contains a lot of protein, iron, and fat. The meat of young

camels is the best. When camels are old, their meat consists of solid tissue

and muscles that are difficult to digest.



٥٥

PLANTS

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is located between the latitudes of ٢٢٫٣

degrees north and ١٦٫٣ degrees south of an area of ٢،٤٢٠،٠٠٠ km٢, about

four fifths of the Arabian Peninsula. It used to be bordered on the west by

the African continent and on the east by Iran. The topographic changes

which resulted in the formation of the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf area

had its impact on the type of plants that grow in the Arabian Peninsula. As a

result, the types of plants in the Arabian Peninsula are identical with those

in Africa, Asia and the Mediterranean region. Due to the climatic changes

over the ages, certain geographic areas underwent formal changes to adjust

to the environmental conditions and consequently certain indigenous plants

grew in these areas. These indigenous plants do not grow outside this area.

In the Arabian Peninsula, there are about ٣٥٠ types of indigenous plants,

from which about sixty types are in the Kingdom.

Generally, plants that grow in the Arabian Peninsula are adapted to such

difficult conditions as drought, high temperature, and very salty soil. Thus,

most of these plants are desert plants with particular characteristics.

Despite the difficult conditions mentioned above, the plants growing in the

Kingdom are quite diverse. There are more than ٢،٧٠٠ types of plants in the

Kingdom, which can be classified into more than ١٣٠ categories. Most of

these plants grow in the southern region, while small trees grow in the

mountain areas and valleys. Annual plants, on the other hand, grow in the

desert plains after rainfall.

The inhabitants of the Kingdom have relied on wild plants for raising their

cattle and sheep. Some of these plants were used as food. There are about

١٠٠ plants that are edible, either as cooked or fresh food. Among the plants

that are still used in daily meals are ruma vesicavius, trigovellla stallata,

spina-christi, zizyphus nummularia, launea capitatea, oleo vera, capparis

spirosa and mesembryanthenum forsskaler.



٥٦

Muslim scholars have pointed out that some of the wild plants can be used

to cure many diseases. Many wild plants in the Kingdom are still used in

medicine. Scientific studies have shown that many wild plants in the

Kingdom can be used for pharmaceutical products to cure many diseases.

Among these plants are artimisia herba-alba, cassia senna and

cymbobopagon schoenathus. Other wild plants are used as perfumes and

food flavor. Among these plants are publicaria undulata, pulicario arabica

and ocimum.

In the past, the Saudi people used tree woods in constructing houses, water

wells, and kitchen facilities. Nowadays the use of these woods is confined

to traditional wooden industries such as wooden plates, food containers and

beehives. Among the trees that produce this wood are junaperus polycarpos

and zizyphus nummularia. However, the consumption of the wild wood is

threatening for the life of such plants as calligonum comosum, acacia seyal,

acacia lacta, acacia raddiana, ochrademus baccatus, retama raetam and

haloxylon persicum.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING THE GROWTH AND DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS

Plants are closely related to the environment where they grow, since the

environment provides the plants with the factors necessary for their growth.

These environmental factors are, in turn, interrelated, and they affect one

another. Thus plants that grow in any area are conditioned by the

environmental factors of that area. These plants also constitute an organic

unity where they depend on one another. Among the factors affecting the

growth and distribution of plants are the following:

TEMPERATURE: Temperature is the main source of energy for plants. However, each plant

needs a minimum and a maximum of temperature. If these limits are



٥٧

exceeded the plant will die. Thus temperature controls the type of plants

and their growth.

Due to the vast area of the Kingdom, the climate conditions are very

diverse. Most areas in the Kingdom have hot and dry weather in the

summer, while the winter is characterized with cool weather and a little

rain. The Southern Region, however, is mild and rainy in summer, and cold

in winter. This type of weather is reflected on the type of plants in this area

where forests of pulicario arabica grow. Other plants such as acacia seyal,

acacia raddiana and haloxylon persicum are adapted to the difficult

environmental conditions and grow in other areas of the Kingdom.

RAIN Water plays an essential role in the growth and development of plants.

Thus, the appropriate amount of water is among the main factors that affect

the growth of plants. For instance, trees need more water than herbs. This

means that the amount of water determines the type of plants and their

characteristics. The amount of annual rainwater in the Kingdom ranges

between a few millimeters in the Empty Quarter to ٦٠٠ mm in the mountain

areas of the Southern Region. Most rains in the Kingdom arrive in winter

and the rate of rains does not exceed ٢٠٠ mm. These rains are often like

heavy showers for a short period of time. As a result, surface floods are

drained in valleys and lowlands. This affects the distribution and growth of

plants. Thus, plants are rather dense in valleys and lowlands where water is

plenty, while herbs grow in the sloping areas. Rains may not fall at all in

some years.

SOIL All types of plants, with the exception of the water plants, get all they need

for growth from the soil. Thus plants cannot grow without a certain amount

of soil. Also the distribution and categorization of plants depend on the

physical and chemical characteristics of the soil. These characteristics



٥٨

determine the ability of the soil to preserve the water necessary for the

growth of plants. Chemical features also affect the growth of plants, since

different plants need different chemical substances.

The Kingdom hosts different types of soil. In sandy soils, there are certain

types of plants such as haloxylon persicum, artemisia monosperma and

panicum turgidum. In valleys where the soil is muddy there exist such trees

as acacia seyal and acacia raddiana. In salty soil, we find plants like

suaeda monoica, zygophyllum coccineum and hypericum chrysostrictum.

GEOGRAPHIC RELIEFS: In the Kingdom, the areas which are higher than the sea level affect the

growth of plants. For instance, the Sarawât Mountains along the Red Sea

are separated from the sea by a narrow plain, which in certain areas could

be ١٠ km wide. Areas that are above the sea level are affected by many

factors such as low temperature, water availability, the direction and

strength of winds and exposure to sun. Thus, in an area ranging between

zero above sea level and ٣،٥٠٠ft. as it is the case with the mountain cliffs in

the Southern Region, one finds that such an area comprises a very diverse

variety of plants. Among these plants are: juneperus polycarpos, olea

chrysophylla, acacia seyal, acacia raddiana, solvadora persica, alyssum

homalocarpum, hyphoena thebaica, zizyphus nummularia, and avicennia

mariany.

THE BIOLOGICAL FACTOR: Living beings, whether they are plants or animals, usually seek a kind of

equilibrium based on mutual benefit. For instance, bees use the flower

nectar for producing honey, and at the same time the flowers use the bees

for pollination. This kind of equilibrium between plants and animals

continues as long as man does not interfere.



٥٩

In the Kingdom, man has tremendous impact on the environmental

equilibrium between plants and animals. The reason for this is that the

Saudi people raise a lot of cattle and sheep, and they consume a lot of tree

woods. Consequently, many plants and trees are eradicated. Modern

methods of agriculture also have a role in this regard, since these methods

affect the natural environment that contains many types of plants. For

instance, the agricultural terraces in ‘Asîr Mountains and the big farms in

most parts of the Kingdom have resulted in a shortage of underground

water which plants need. Due to all these factors, more than fifty types of

plants are subject to extinction.

THE GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS: The world is classified into six plant kingdoms based on the different

latitudes and environmental factors. Each plant kingdom is divided into

geographic regions depending on the type of plants in each region.

According to this classification, the Kingdom is located between two

geographical regions. The southern part of the Arabian Peninsula belongs to

the Sudanese Region which is known for seasonal rains, while the rest of

the Arabian Peninsula belongs to the North African Sahara Region which is

known for very little rains, and consequently plant’s density is very low.

THE NATURAL PLANT REGIONS: Any natural plant region in the world comprises a variety of certain trees,

bushes, and herbs that are distinctive of that region. However, no clear-cut

boundaries distinguish one region from another rather there are transitional

plant areas between one region and another. Any natural plant region in the

world comprises a variety of certain trees, bushes, and herbs which are

distinctive of that region. However, no clear-cut boundaries distinguish one

region from another rather there are transitional plant areas between one



٦٠

region and the other. In other words, it is more like a continuum containing

a variety of distinct plant regions.

In the Kingdom the distribution of natural plant regions depends on such

factors as the geographic position, the geological structure, and the surface

level. Therefore, the Kingdom is divided into two main regions: (١) The

Western Region and (٢) East of the Hijâz Mountain region.

THE WESTERN REGION: It includes the Hijâz Mountains that extend from the north to south. It is

composed of volcanic rocks sloping sharply toward Tihâma Plain and

gradually toward the east.

EAST OF THE HIJÂZ MOUNTAIN REGION: It includes the Eastern, the Middle and the Northern Region. Geologically,

it is different from the Western Region since it is composed of sedimentary

rocks.

The Western Region is divided into two parts depending on the geographic

and climatic factors that affect the growth of plants.

SOUTH OF THE WESTERN REGION: This includes the Western southern region which begins at the latitude of

٢١٫٣٠ north until the Yemen borders in the south. This part is characterized

by hot weather and seasonal rains that are due to the clouds accumulating

over mountains during August and September. These rains fall on ‘Asîr and

Bâha, while winter rains fall on the northern parts. In the beginning of

summer, some rains fall on some parts of this region such as Faifa

Mountain. Normally, rainy seasons are characterized by lower temperature

and higher rates of humidity.

The southern part of the Western Region is characterized by high

mountains. These mountains are as high as ٣،٧٠٠m near Abhâ in the south;

they get less high towards the north. Mountains are sharply sloping

westward. There are also tributaries where water is gathered to form big



٦١

valleys from which water passes to the Tihâma and the sea. The Tihâma

Plain, which is from two to ten kilometers wide, separates the mountains

from the sea.

Among the tropical trees which grow on the mountain foot in this region

are: juneperus polycarpos, olea chryophylla, zizyphus spino-christia,

comiphara mulmul, rumex nervosus, dodonea viscosa, ficus sycamorus, and

arnebia hispidissima. The plants that grow in Tihâma Plain are hyphaene

thebacia, acocio syyol, alyssum homalocarpum and solvadora persica.

NORTH OF THE WESTERN REGION: This part is located outside the hot area, and consequently rain falls in

winter. This part is also less rainy and hotter than the southern part.

Mountains get less high northwards; they do not exceed ١،٥٠٠m high

except for few mountains such as Radhwî Mountain and Lawz Mountain.

Plants in this part are less dense than in the southern part. They are also

different plants in each part. The plants growing on mountain foot are

phanterium suaeveolens, acacia raddiana, and acacia asak, while the

plants growing in the valleys are acocio seyal, retama raetam, and acacia

asak.

THE EASTERN, MIDDLE AND NORTHERN REGIONS: It is located to the east of the Hijâz Mountains. It is a plateau of ١٠٠٠m

high containing a series of mountains. These mountains are formed of

crystallized granite rocks, and they are about ١،٥٠٠m high. This region is

also characterized by sandy areas such as Nufûdh Al-Dahnâ to the west of

which there are the Tuwayq Plateau and the Samân Plateau.

In this region, winter is cold and rainy, while the summer is hot and dry.

Rains usually fall between October and April, and the annual rate of rain

does not exceed ١٣٠mm. As a result, plants grow only in valleys, meadows

and mountain foot. Among the plants growing in this region are: lycium

shawii, haloxylon persicum, hansada elegans, acacia seyal, colotropis



٦٢

procera, rhaterium eppaposum, frocoria crispa, capparis cartilaginea,

rhazya stricta, and plantago albicans. After the fall of rain, annual plants

increase. Among these annuals are: harwoodia albicans, authemis voblis,

medicago spp, launea spp, rumex vesicarius, trigovella stallata and

neurada procumbens.

PLANT ENVIRONMENTS:

MOUNTAINS Among the most important plant environments in the Kingdom are

mountains. For instance, the Sarawât Mountains along the Red Sea are

higher in the south at ٣،٧٠٠ m, while in the north they go down gradually to

١،٥٠٠ m with the exception of few mountains that are ٢،٠٠٠ m high.

In the middle and the north of the Kingdom there are some mountains that

are not very high, but they are known for particular plants, e.g. the

mountains of Ajâ and Salmâ in Hâ’il. On the other hand, the mountains of

the Western Region are known for heavy rains, low temperature and high

humidity. Consequently, there are certain plants know to be different from

other plants in the Kingdom. Among these plants are juneperus polycarpos,

olea ehrysophylla and acacia raddiana, which grow at the top of

mountains. At the foot of the mountains, we find such plants as ziziphro

nummularia, comiphora mulmul and lycium shawii. In the rest of the

Kingdom’s mountains, we often find plants such as morinya peregrina,

rhanterium suaeveolens, moltkiopsis, acacia seyal, acacia lacta and ratama

ratam.

VALLEYS Valleys are formed from the runoff of heavy rains. A main valley usually

has a number of tributaries that provide it with rainwater. A valley could be

as long as ١٠٠ km, while its width might range between ١٠ and ١٠٠ m. The

valley floor is usually covered with sedimentary deposits that are delivered

by water. As a result, valleys are richer in plants than the neighboring areas.



٦٣

Trees, bushes and annuals, also grow on both sides of the valley. Among

the most important valley plants in the Western region are zizyphus spina-

christia and acacia lacta. In the north of the Western region, grow plants

like acacia seyal, acacia raddiana, renama raetam, zizyphus nummularia

and alyssum homalo. In the rest of the valleys in the Kingdom, we find

plants such as acacia seyal, panicum turgidum, rhanteriam appaposum,

tamarix aphylla, zizyphus nummularia, rhazya stricta, capparis

cartilaglnea, artemesia herba, achillen fragrantissina and zilla spinosa.

SANDS Sands constitute about a third of the whole area of the Kingdom of Saudi

Arabia. Among these sandy areas are the Empty Quarter in the southeast of

the Kingdom, al-Nufûd al-Kabîr in the north of the Kingdom and the

Dahnâ’ in the east of the Kingdom. These sandy environments are very dry

due to the rarirty of the rains there, and to the fact that sandy soil cannot

hold water. Thus plants growing in the areas are of the type that can survive

under these conditions. Among these plants are calligonum camosun,

haloxylon persicum, artimisia monoperma and hamada elegans. After

rainfall, the following annuals grow: picris abyssinica, picris cyanocarpa,

cyperus conglomyratus, asphodelus fistulosus, aristida plumsa, stipagrostis

scoparia, neurada procumens and cornulaca movacantha. No plants grow

in the migrating sand dunes.

MEADOWS Meadows are lowlands where water accumulates via the tributaries. These

meadows are known for sandy, muddy lands. As a result, plants in these

meadows are so dense that they look like big farms in the middle of the

desert. Among the trees that grow in these meadows are acacia seyal,

zizyphus spino-christia, frocaria crispa, artimisia herba-aba, achillea

fragrantissina, calotropis procera and capparis cartilaginea. Annuals that

grow in these meadows during the spring season are plantago albicans,



٦٤

authemis voblis, launea spp. and mint. In the middle region, there are plenty

of meadows, such as Khuraym Meadow, Sabla Meadow and many

meadows in Samân.

MOORLAND Moorland is salty land, and can be classified into two types in the Kingdom:

coastal moorland near the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf and internal

moorland in the Middle and Northern Regions. Plants growing in these

moorlands are of the type that can put up with the high concentration of salt

in the soil. Among these plants are suaeda monoica, zygophyllum

coccineum-album and hypericum chrysostrictum. Other plants grow in

moorlands where soil has a lower concentration of salt. Examples of these

plants are tamarix aphylla and zizyphus nummularia. Other areas of

moorland are too salty for plants to grow at all.

DESERT PLAINS The desert plains are vast areas varying in height and containing some small

tributaries and meadows. Desert plains are plentiful in the Kingdom,

particularly in the middle and northern Regions. Among the plants growing

in these plains are rhazya stricta, hamada elegans and rhanterium

oppoposum. In rainy seasons, annual plants grow in these plains, and

consequently these plains turn green instead the usual khaki. Among these

plants are horwoodia diksonea, plantago albicans and echinosciadium

arabicum.



٦٥

CAHPTER ٢ : THE PEOPLE

SSoocciiaall SScciieenncceess

POPULATION

SPECIFICATIONS AND DISTRIBUTIONS

The Kingdom’s prosperous economy is the result of stable security and the

discovery of oil, for oil revenue is used to carry out joint infrastructure

projects and provide general services all over the country. These important

historical accomplishments have led to a flood of foreign workers and to

internal population movement towards the main developing industrial and

trading centers in large cities. Consequently, there have been constant and

great changes in the number of the inhabitants, their distribution and their

demographic structure as well as their social and economic situations.

The number of inhabitants in the middle of the Arabian Peninsula was very

small if we compare it with the number today. Some of them were settled at

oases and in small villages, while others were spread over the vast desert.

The population growth was rather slow during the period before the Saudi

era. This situation was due to scarce natural resources and unstable political

situations, especially after the administration of the Islamic state weas

moved to Syria and then to Iraq. The spread of diseases, pestilence and

starvation, too, killed a large percentage of the population. This harsh

reality naturally led to a constant emigration out of Peninsula before and

after the advent of Islam.(١)

Some sources point out that the population in the central part of the

Peninsula, the area of the Kingdom today, was about one million people at

the time of Jesus’ revelation. The population grew to reach two million in

the period of the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs. However, due to the

constant emigration referred to previously, the population started to go

down(٢) and afterwards, the number fluctuated according to the



٦٦

circumstances of the Arabian Peninsula. For example, according to some

sources, a period of drought struck the country between ١٦٣٧ and١٨٧٤. The

same source points out that diseases, starvation and pestilence also hit the

country repeatedly, exemplified by the strong freezing cold wave of ١٧٤٩,

and the spread of the damgha pestilence known as oasis fever from ١٧٦١-

(٣).٢

It is to be regretted that an estimation of number of inhabitants is not

available for past centuries, except a few references to population figures to

be found in books of western travelers in the second half of the last century.

These figures were mostly confined to particular areas or provinces.

THE POPULATION GROWTH FROM ١٩٦٢ TO١٩٩٢ During the last two or three decades, the Saudi population has been

increasing as a result of the stable political situation, the stable security all

over the country, and to the improvement of the standard of living and the

availability of basic health services. These factors had led to the termination

of diseases and pestilence and a general improvement in the health

condition of the population. Death rates in general, and infant and mother

death rates in particular have decreased. Table ١ shows an increase in

number of inhabitants from about three million in ١٩٦٢ to about seven

million people. Seven millions was the figure according to the census

carried out in ١٩٦٢. This number went up to about ١٧ million people in

١٩٩٢. It was a period of a very prosperous economy, when workers from all

over the world and especially form Arab countries and Southeast Asia

poured into to the country to carry out the development projects during the

٧٠’s and the ٨٠’s.



٦٧

Chart (1) Shows the Population Growth in the Kingdom from 1962 to 1992

The annual growth rate of Saudi population is ٣٫٧٩ %. It is a relatively high

rate in comparison with many other world growth rates (٤). Figure (٢)

shows differences in rates from one region to another (look at table ٢). The

fast growing population and the sharp geographical differences in growth

were due to emigration from inside or outside in addition to the natural

increase. No doubt, the high rates in the Eastern Province were due to the

oil industry, other economic activities which attracted workers from inside

and outside the country and all other political and administrative centers

with ministries and government establishments, which are located together

with many other economic institutions. These reasons justify the high

growth population rates in these two provinces. TABLE (2) - THE GROWTH RATE IN GENERAL AND OF THE SAUDI POPULATION IN

PARTICULAR DURING 1974/1992

Region Total Pouplation Growth

Rate Saudi Population Growth

Rate Riyadh Region ٤٫٧٢ ٦٫١٨ Makkah ٣٫٨٣ ٥٫١٧ Gizan Region ٤٫١٧ ٤٫١٧ Eastern Province ٥٫٧٦ ٦٫٧٦ Aseer Region ٣٫١٩ ٣٫٧٧ Quaseem Region ٣٫٧٤ ٤٫٦٥ Hail Region ١٫٥٨ ٢٫٤٣ Madinah ٣٫١٤ ٤٫١١ Al-Baha Region ٢٫٦٢ ٣٫٢٢

٢٠

١٥

١٠

٥

٠

٦٫٢٨

٤٫٩%

population growth rate ١١٢٫٥٦ ١٤١٫٧٩ Year Population

٣٢٩٧٦٥٧ ١٩٦٢

٧٠٠٩٤٦٦ ١٩٧٤ ١٦٩٤٨٣٨٨ ١٩٩٢



٦٨

It is noteworthy that the Saudi woman gives birth to an average of six

children during her life. Death rates are forty cases out of a thousand

people. Infant mortality went down from twenty-four per thousand, i.e.

every year twenty-four babies out of a thousand die. This figure is a result

of the improvement in health services that have been made available to all

people throughout the country.(٥)

THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION Population distribution varies from one province to another, according to

the area, nature and human living types (look at figure ٣). Makkah province

provides more than the quarter of the Kingdom’s total population. Riyadh

province is second, accommodating ٢٣٪. The Eastern province comes third,

accommodating ١٥٪ of the Kingdom’s population. (Look at Table No. ٣),

the fourth is ‘Asîr, ٨٪, Madina, ٦٪, Jizân, ٥٪, and Qasîm, ٤٪. The cities

with the lower figures on the scale are located on the northern borders.

They are Jawf at ١٫٦ % and Najrân at ١٫٨٪.

According to nationality, in ١٩٩٢ statistics reveal that the non-Saudi

population constitutes more than one quarter of the Kingdom’s total

population (٢٧٪). Table number (٣) shows that the non-Saudi population

rate is growing fast in the Makkah region (about ٣٨٪), the Riyadh region

(about ٣٢٪), the Eastern region (٢٦ %). This is true, because these three

regions are the centers of most religious, political and economic activity. TABLE 3 SHOWING POPULATION DISTRIBUTION IN 1992 ACCORDING TO NATIONALITY.

Percentages of populations Administrative Region % of Population Saudi Non-Saudi Riyadh Region ٣١٫٨٤ ٦٨٫١٦ ٢٢٫٦٣ Makkah ٣٧٫٧٥ ٦٢٫٢٥ ٢٦٫٣٦ Gizan Region ١٥٫٢٤ ٨٤٫٧٦ ٥٫١١ Eastern Province ١٨٫٢٦ ٧٣٫٨٤ ١٥٫٢٠ Aseer Region ١٤٫١٨ ٨٥٫٨٢ ٧٫٩١ Al-Quaseem Region ١٨٫٧٠ ٨١٫٣٠ ٤٫٤٣ Hail Region ١٥٫٨٣ ٨٤٫١٧ ٢٫٤٣ Madina ٢٢٫٠٢ ٧٧٫٢١ ٦٫٤٠ Al-Baha Region ١٢٫٧١ ٨٧٫٢٩ ١٫٩٦ Northern Borders ٢٢٫٠٢ ٧٧٫٩٨ ١٫٣٥ Tabuk Region ١٧٫٢٧ ٨٢٫٧٣ ٢٫٨٦ Najran Region ٢٠٫٠٧ ٧٩٫٩٣ ١٫٧٨ Al-Jouf Region ١٦٫٨٠ ٨٣٫٢٠ ١٫٥٩ Total of the Kingdom ٢٧٫٣٧ ٧٢٫٦٣ ١٠٠



٦٩

POPULATION DENSITY AND TYPES Population density in the Kingdom has been growing rapidly for the recent

three decades. It has risen from ١٫٧٤ people per square kilometer in ١٩٦٢ to

three people in ١٩٧٤. It rose again to seven people per square kilometer in

١٩٩٢.

The highest population density can be found in the Jizân region about fifty-

four people per square kilometer in ١٩٩٢. Makkah has thirty people per

square kilometer, Bâha twenty-four per square kilometer, ‘Asîr seventeen

per square kilometer and Riyadh about ten per square kilometer. A low

population density can be found in the Qasîm and Madina regions (Look at

Table ٤). Najrân and the northern borders come in the end of the list

regarding the density population rate in the Kingdom in١٩٩٢. The low-

density population rate in Najrân and the north borders is because the

former includes parts of the non-populated quarter area, whereas the latter

does not include large populated centers. TABLE (4) SHOWING POPULATION DENSITY IN THE PROVINCES IN 1992

Administrative Region

Percentage of Population in ١٩٩٢

Gizaan Region ٥٤٫١٦ Makkah ٢٩٫٦٠ Al-Baha Region ٢٤٫٤٤ Aseer Region ١٦٫٤٩ Riyadh Region ٩٫٦٢ Quaseem Region ٩٫٤٦ Madina ٦٫٧٦ Eastern Province ٣٫٦١ Tabuk Region ٤٫٢٢ Al-Jouf Region ٢٫٢٣ Hail Region ٣٫٣٨ Najraan Region ٢٫٠٥ Northern Borders ١٫٧٧ Total Kingdom ٧٫٥٣

THE CHANGE OF LIVING PATTERNS The Bedouin way of life is still dominant in the Arabian Peninsula, and the

civilized centers are limited in size and number. However, the number of

Bedouin has started to go down, and their ways of life have started to die



٧٠

out as the majority of them are emigrating to cities and villages for jobs or

to benefit from public services and free health services.

According to an estimate in ١٩٣٢, the unsettled Bedouins made up more

than half of the total population of the Kingdom. However this figure went

down to ٢٥٪ in ١٩٧٤, because of large-scale emigration from villages to

cities in the previous two decades.

This influx of people helped the main cities to grow rapidly. For example,

the annual growth rate in Riyadh is estimated at ٨٪. Its population went up

from ٨،٠٠٠ in ١٩٣٢ to about three million people in ١٩٩٢.

In the recent decades, the number of urban people went up as a result of the

economic transformations and population movements in the Kingdom. So

the urban population rate has gone up sharply during recent decades. In

١٩٣٢, the urban population constituted about ٢٠٪ of the Kingdom’s total

population. In ١٩٦٢, this figure went up to ٢٤ % and to ٤٦ % in ١٩٧٤. In

١٩٩٦, it was estimated at ٧٩٪ (Look at figure No. ٤) (٦).

POPULATION, AGE AND TYPE Age composition means the number of inhabitants, their relative age or

their different age section. Type composition means classification of people

as females or males.

Type Composition

Though the number of males is a little bit greater than that of the females, in

general one can say that females and males are equal in number at ١٠٢

males to ١٠٠ females. (Look at figure No. ٥.) In other words, Saudi females

are ٥٠٫٤٩٪ and males ٤٩٫٥١ % of the population.

The balance between males and females in the Kingdom varies from region

to another. The rate is highest in Tabûk at an estimated ١١٠, in the Easten

region at ١٠٨, and in the north border region at ١٠٧. The lowest rate at ٩٦

can be found in the Jizân and Hâ’il areas. In the ‘Asîr region, it is ٩٧. It is

noteworthy that the number of males is greater in the former regions, while



٧١

we have the opposite in the latter regions. (Look at Table No. ٥ and Figure

No.٦).

Age Composition

The Kingdom’s population is generally young. Young people, less than ١٥

years old, make up ٤٠٪, while people of ٦٥ years or more, make up a small

portion, not more than ٢٪ in ١٩٩٦. (See Figure No. ٧). This is due to high

birth rates, with women giving birth to an average of six children.

It is noteworthy that such population compositions are not confined to the

Kingdom. It is common in most developing countries that have high birth

rates. There is no doubt that such a population composition creates

economic problems, e.g. the sufficient provision of necessary services such

as education, health, etc. to a great number of people. This became the

situation when the Saudi economy boomed drawing foreign manpower in

large numbers into the country. (Figure No. ٨ shows the make up of the

young population).



٧٢

TABLE (5) - THE TYPICAL MAKE UP OF THE SAUDI AS WELL AS NON-SAUDI POPULATION

R e g i o n Saudi population

Percentage of Males Percentage of Females

Riyadh Region ٤٨٫٦٧ ٥١٫٣٣ Makkah ٤٩٫٦٣ ٥٠٫٣٧ Gizan Region ٥١٫٠٢ ٤٨٫٩٨ Eastern Province ٤٨٫٠٩ ٥١٫٩١ Aseer Region ٥٠٫٧٩ ٤٩٫٢١ Quaseem Region ٥٠٫٣٣ ٤٩٫٦٧ Hail Region ٥٠٫٩٨ ٤٩٫٠٢ Madina ٥٠٫٢٦ ٤٩٫٧٤ Al-Baha Region ٥٣٫١٧ ٤٦٫٨٣ Northern Borders ٤٨٫٣٨ ٥١٫٦٢ Tabuk Region ٤٧٫٦١ ٥٢٫٣٩ Najran Region ٥٠٫١٣ ٤٩٫٨٧ Al-Jouf Region ٤٩٫٦٨ ٥٠٫٣٢ Total of the Kingdom ٤٩٫٥١ ٥٠٫٤٩ ١. Al-Sâleh, Nâsir (١٤٠٢H) ‘ Population Cases in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia,’ Education Magazine, Um al-Qura

University (A special issue on Geography.

٢. McEvery, C. and Jones, R. (١٩٧٨), Atlas of World Population History.

٣. al-Ruwaithî, Muhammad (١٤٠٠ H.). The Population of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, as quoted from ibn ‘Issa and

Philpy.

٤. Statistics show that that normal world increase rate was ١٫٥ % in ١٩٩٦, not more than ١٪ in any country in Europe,

whereas in the Asian countries, for example, it is as high as ٤٫٩ % in Oman, and ٥٪ in the Gaza Strip, and ٣٫٧٪ in Syria and

Iraq. (See Population Reference 1996).

٥. Population Reference (1996) World Population Data Sheet, Washington: PRB.

٦. These statistics have been quoted from different sources as follows:

- al-Hammâd , Muhammad abdullah (١٩٨٣) “The Development of Saudi Cities: Between the Theory and Practice” A paper

presented at the Symposium on Saudi Cities : Spread and Inner-Composition,” ٢٣-٢١ March, at the Geography

Department, King Saud University, Riyadh.

- Nâsir al-Salah (١٤٠٢H.), op. cit.

- Muhammad al-Ruwaithî, op. cit. (١٤٠٠ H.).

- Atlas of the Population of Saudi Arabia (١٤٠١ H.), Department of Geography, King Saud University, Riyadh.



٧٣

HISTORY

INTRODUCTION:

The agreement between Prince Muhammad bin Saud, Prince of Dira‘iya,

and Sheikh Muhammad bin Abdulwahhâb in ١١١٥ A.H. / ١٧٤٥ AD marks

the beginning of Saudi history on the basis of which many issues have been

resolved and the small town of Dira‘iya has become a powerful and

influential state. The Prince believed that the Sheikh was right in fighting

the false religious innovations and superstitions that dominated the feelings

and thoughts of many Muslims. The Prince was also convinced that

spiritual corruption and deviation from the right belief were the causes

behind the Muslims’ backwardness and disunity.

When the agreement between the Prince and the Sheikh took place, Najd

was divided between sheikhs of tribes and leaders of groups. Although the

Hanbali sect of thought, a prominent Sunni school, that lays much emphasis

on the purity of religion was dominant in Najd, and although scholars were

available in the town of this area, most Bedouins were ignorant of their

religious duties, and the false religious practices of Sufism were also

common.

To sum up, its situation in Najd was religiously, politically, economically,

socially and culturally unacceptable. Najd was in need of a spiritual

movement to get rid of the religious misguidance and deviation and teach

the ignorant people their religious duties. Najd was also in need of a

political movement to unify the area, unify the efforts of the people, utilize

its potentialities, establish security and get rid of the chaos and enmity

common among the various tribes and people of rural and urban areas.

THE FIRST SAUDI STATE: The Dira‘iya agreement has led to a covenant consisting of one article,

namely Jihad in order to purify religion, spread the right religion, and fight



٧٤

the opposing powers whose concern is separation only. Their actions were

truly in accordance with this article. The reign of Muhammad bin Saud

lasted for twenty years after the agreement. Throughout his reign, he fought

against those who deviated from the right religion, as well as tribal and

village leaders who wanted to preserve their authority. He was able to bring

most of Najd under his control, even though there was some cases of

betrayal and hypocrisy during this period. He died before defeating his

toughest opponent Dahâm ibn Dawâs, who was the governor of Riyadh.

Thus the Prince deserved the title Imam.

After the death of the Imam in ١٧٧٣, his son Prince Abdulaziz succeeded

him as Imam. His son’s military power led to the conquest of Riyadh, and

thus Dahâm’s opposition, which had lasted for twenty-seven years, was

over. This facilitated the unification of Najd, which took place when

Shammar mountain was brought under the control of Dira‘iya in ١٧٩٢.

During the reign of Imam Abdulaziz, both Ahsâ’ and the Gulf region were

brought under his control. The only two parts of the Arabian Peninsula

remaining outside Dira‘iya’s authority were the Hijaz and Yemen. Finally,

the Hijaz and Yemen were brought under the authority of his successor,

Saud bin Abdulaziz, who succeeded his father after latter’s assassination in

١٨٠١.

Imam Saud was a partner with his father in the government. He was known

for his bravery and military skills. During his reign, the Saudi State reached

the climax of its power, and its authority extended to parts of Iraq and Syria

where many tribes were influenced by the Islamic teachings of the spiritual

movement. Consequently, after Ottoman authority had been undermined in

the Arabian Peninsula, the Ottoman State was concerned that the Saudis

were a threat to its interests in Arab countries. So the Ottoman Sultan had

no option but to ask the strong governor of Egypt, Muhammad Ali, to fight

the Saudis.



٧٥

The Sultan’s request appealed to the strong ambition of Muhammad Ali,

who wanted to take advantage of the bad circumstances of the Caliphate,

gain more power, and extend the territories under his authority. Thus he

sent a military expedition under the leadership of his son Tusun. In the

beginning, the military expedition was defeated. But finally, the Saudi’s

withdrew from the Hijaz due to the continuous military support for the

expedition, the big difference in materials and fighters on both sides, the

Imam Saud’s lack of leadership skills, and his death in ١٨١٤.

Abdullah succeeded his father as Imam. He was a righteous and brave man,

but he lacked the political and military experience of his father. It was clear

to him that the main objective was to destroy his state in Dira‘iya. The

resistance of Imam Abdullah ibn Saud to the invaders in the north and

middle of Najd lasted until Ibrahim Pasha managed to reach Dira‘iya and

besiege it. In ١٨١٨, Dira‘iya surrendered and Imam Abdullah was

imprisoned. He was taken to Egypt and then to Constantinople, where he

was executed.

THE SECOND SAUDI STATE The fall of the first Saudi state did not stop its spiritual, political and

cultural power. It was natural that the Saudi determination would overcome

the setback. This is exactly what happened when Prince Turki bin

Muhammad bin Saud restored Saudi authority in Najd in ١٨٢٠. His son

Faisal was able to control some Gulf states besides Najd during the first

period of his reign, which began in ١٨٣٠ and lasted for four years. But

Muhammad Ali, who was planning to establish an Arabian Empire for

himself viewed the revival of the Saudi State as an obstacle in the way of

carrying out his plan. Therefore, he organized a military expedition that

resulted in the capture of Imam Faisal.

Prince Khalid bin Saud succeeded his father Imam Faisal, and he ruled Najd

for three years and some months, after which one of his cousins, Abdullah



٧٦

ibn Thenyen succeeded him. Abdullah’s tough nature and his killing of

people on the basis of mere suspicion spoilt the relative stability and the

gains he achieved. Thus, the people were looking forward to the return of

Imam Faisal, who was released by the governor of Egypt. Then he ruled

Najd for the second time in ١٨٩٣. During this era, Najd enjoyed political

stability, security, stability, and economic development. However, there

were cases of draught and cases of the disobedience common in tribal and

desert life.

THE KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA: The first step towards the establishment of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

was the brave and successful military operation through which Prince

Abdulaziz bin Abdurrahman regained Riyadh and the areas around it in

١٩٠٢. Two years later, the south of Najd became under his control. In ١٩٠٤,

he conquered Qasîm, the Ahsâ’ region in ١٩١٣, and Hâ’il, as well as its

neighboring areas in the north, in ١٩٢١. A year later, he gained Asîr.

On Thursday, December ١٩٢٥ ,١٦, the Hijaz came under the Saudi

authority after the treaty of Jeddah. The name of the Kingdom of Saudi

Arabia was declared on the December ١٣. However, the September ٢٢,

١٩٣٢ AD was designated as the national day of the Kingdom.

After the declaration of the name of the Kingdom, there was a political

change that manifested itself by the international recognition of the

Kingdom. Security also developed, and the Hajj routes were made safe.

Culturally, emphasis was laid on education and literary journalism.

Socially, the geographical barriers and borders were eradicated. Finally,

economic conditions improved with the discovery of oil.

Thus the history of the Kingdom can be divided into three phases:

THE FIRST PHASE:

This phase covers the periods between the opening of Riyadh until the Qatîf

treaty with Britain in ١٩١٥. This period was known for series of wars and



٧٧

military expeditions. At that time, Abdulaziz thought of the settlement of

the Bedouins, so that they would be directed to Jihad instead of conquest.

He also thought of teaching them religion, agriculture and trade. Thus they

became obedient to him and ready to follow his instructions. Then the

Brotherhood Movement was established among the rulers of the Arabian

Peninsula. He also thought of restoring Ahsâ’. As an outlet to the sea, Ahsâ’

would also contribute with agricultural products as well as customs tax

revenues. Among the factors which helped in the restoration of Ahsâ’ are its

connection with Najd throughout its modern history, the weakness of the

Ottoman rule in this area, the attitude of the British, who supported the

Saudi rule of Ahsâ’, and the desire of the people there to get rid of the chaos

and tribal dictatorship.

THE SECOND PHASE: (From 1915 to 1932)

During this phase, the Sultan of Najd, King Abdulaziz, was powerful and

independent. He was also known for his skills in fighting and

argumentation. His object was to achieve his plan of unity despite the

confrontation with the Ottomans and the British, who wanted to prevent

him from conquering Hâ’il after the collapse of the Ottoman State in World

War I. However, he went on fighting Hâ’il until he liberated it.

At this phase, some Arab rulers who were frustrated because of occupation

viewed King Abdulaziz as a saving power. He was quite sure that reaching

a compromise with King Hussein was not possible. Therefore, King

Abdulaziz decided to unite the Hijaz with Najd. After doing this, he took all

responsibilities and handled all the consequences properly.

King Abdulaziz has practically proved that the unity of the Hijaz and Najd

from long ago could not be distorted by tribal disputes or enmity between

rulers. He was against the idea of considering the Hijaz as means for

establishing the Caliphate after it was banned by Kemal Ataturk. Nor did he



٧٨

accept the idea that the Hijaz would be ruled by organizations located in

occupied countries that might expose it to Westernization and

Christianization. After all, it was an Arab and Islamic country and it needed

independent and righteous leadership.

Thus King Abdulaziz became the master of the Arab Peninsula. The entire

Arab nation saw in him the potential for a comprehensive Arab union. In

fact, influential Arab leaders asked him to re-establish the Arab Empire.

This annoyed Britain, which tried to establish unity between two Arab

countries to compete with the state of King Abdulaziz. But it did not

happen.

ORGANIZATION AND REFORM: After the union was completed, King Abdulaziz began to organize and

reform the united state. For this purpose, he selected a board of directors

whose members were sincere, experienced, and willing to work for the

public interest, so that reform would be based on solid ground and would

take into account the priorities, needs, and the obstacles. This board issued

the basic instructions that determined the international and external policies,

rights and duties, regulations and responsibilities. Among these

responsibilities were the passport and nationality system, political

representation, foreign relations and avenues of cooperation.

King Abdulaziz placed particular emphasis on security in the Hijaz for the

sake of pilgrims, and he was able to provide security for the pilgrims. He

was much concerned with education, and he established a council to

supervise the educational process. This council was concerned with

educational development, curricula and modernization. He also established

an educational administration to take care of schools, teachers, students and

employees. He established a modern financial system compatible with the

demands of the modern age. Military training and equipment were also

modernized. There were also administrations for health and mail services,



٧٩

as well as for Hajj. He was also concerned with the communication system

to connect the different parts of the Kingdom together. Routes were

modernized, cars were made available, and a telegram network throughout

the whole Kingdom was developed. The King was keen to modernize his

Kingdom, and in fact, development and social harmony became obvious in

the new Kingdom.

DISCOVERY OF OIL: The King’s feelings of happiness due to stability, security, unity, and

reform were not complete until the oil was discovered in the eastern part of

the Kingdom in ١٩٣٣. At that time, there was a need for service

development, a need for huge potentialities, and a need for various

qualifications. It was very difficult for the King because the lack of all these

things would impede all the reform plans he had in mind.

Based on his intuition and his feeling that his country had to be similar to

Iraq and Iran when oil was discovered, the King always believed that his

country had to have the same natural resources. Even after a British oil

company announced that there was no oil in the Arabian Peninsula, the

King did not believe this. Later, the British company wanted to search for

oil in the Kingdom again, but the King refused so as not to spoil his

reputation for independence vis à vis the British Empire, which exploited

people. At that time the United States had not spoilt its history with

imperialism, so the King agreed that an American company would search

for oil. In ١٩٣٨, plenty of oil was discovered, and in ١٩٣٨, a celebration

under the patronage of the King was held in Dahrân for this occasion. In the

same year, Ras Tannura was designated as a harbor for oil export.

The impact of oil was obviously substantial in the late ١٩٤٠’s. Despite the

short period between the exportation of oil in the late ١٩٤٠’s and the death

of the King in ١٩٥٣, the King was able to establish a lot of development in

education, roads, railways between Riyadh and the Eastern region and



٨٠

electricity service. He also began to develop an air fleet that became the

biggest in the Middle East. Besides the existing ministers of Finance,

Foreign Affairs and Defense, the King also appointed a number of ministers

for different services.

After King Abdulaziz, his son the Crown Prince Saud succeeded him. He

became the King after the royal family selected him, and after he was

acknowledged by the masses. During his reign, there were many

developments in various services such as schools, routes, streets and

electric service. The first Saudi university was also established in ١٩٥٧.

In ١٩٦٤, King Faisal succeeded King Saud. King Faisal had a lot of

experience since his youth. He had been a fighter, a ruler, a minister, a

prime minister, and a crown prince. He was an expert on international

politics and was aware of the country’s affairs. He was known for deep

thoughts, his wisdom, and his far-sightedness.

During the reign of King Faisal, the economic system opened up, and its

objective was not just to meet daily needs. Emphasis was placed on national

industries and development programs. However, King Faisal was most

known for his foreign policy. Among his prominent contributions was his

attitude towards the Yemen situation, which led to the end of the civil war

there, and his support for the armed struggle in Palestine in the Khartoum

conference after the ١٩٦٧ war. He was able to influence the policy of

powerful countries such as that of the United States, which was biased for

Israel. After the war of ١٩٧٣, the King stopped the exportation of oil to the

United States, and all Arab countries supported that decision.

King Faisal supported the principle of Islamic solidarity, and he made visits

to many Islamic countries. First, the reactions to this varied but later there

was a strong response. In June ١٩٧٦, a conference for the Islamic countries

was held in Rabat, which paved the way for the establishment of an Islamic

Fund. Then, there were many Islamic conferences for political and

economic cooperation, as well as for condemning the Israeli actions.



٨١

Due to his actions and his sayings, King Faisal forced his enemies, whether

they were Arabs or foreign, to respect him. In the Arab world, King Faisal

had a special status, while the Islamic world built great hopes because of

him. The Palestinians liked him because of his insistence that Jerusalem

was Arab, his call for Jihad, i.e. the liberation of the Islamic holy places, his

denial of the Israeli claims, his unlimited moral and material support for the

Palestinian struggle, and the economic and political pressure he put on the

countries that cooperated with Israel.

In ١٩٧٥, Crown Prince Khalid ibn Abdulaziz succeeded King Faisal. King

Khalid was pious, simple, lovable, brave and honest. His father used to

assign him some responsibilities, and King Faisal used to assign him certain

duties on his behalf. During King Faisal’s reign, he was the Deputy Premier

and the Crown Prince. King Khalid placed much emphasis on internal

affairs. He also emphasized Arab agreement and coordination of Islamic

countries. Among his achievements were resolving the disputes between

Iraq and Iran, between Iraq and Syria, and between Algeria and Morocco as

well as his attempt to end the Civil war in Lebanon in ١٩٧٣.

In ١٩٨٢, the Crown Prince Fahad ibn Abdulaziz succeeded King Khalid

upon his death. On ٢٤ October ١٩٨٦, King Fahad chose the title “Custodian

of the two Holy Mosques” instead of the title “His Majesty”.

Besides his distinguished education in his childhood and his youth, King

Fahad, as well as all of his brothers, was brought up in special religious,

cultural, and social environments which were also experienced by whoever

wanted to attend King Abdulaziz’s meetings. In addition, since his youth,

King Fahad was assigned some local responsibilities. Also, he participated

in a number of international activities such as the following:

× He was a member of the Saudi delegation for the establishment of

the United Nations in ١٩٤٥.

× He was the head of the Kingdom’s delegation for the crowning of

the British Queen in ١٩٥٣.



٨٢

× He was the head of the Kingdom’s delegation for the exceptional

meeting of the Arab League in Lebanon in ١٩٦٠, as the ٣٢nd meeting in

Rabat in ١٩٦٥.

× He was the head of the Kingdom’s delegation for the discussion

of the Gulf situation in Britain in ١٩٧٠.

In the field of education, it was King Fahad who modernized the

educational systems, curricula and policies. He motivated parents and

students to follow up their studies by certain incentives. These incentives

also motivated the students to complete their higher education in different

specializations inside and outside the Kingdom, since education is the basis

for any development or progress.

When he was the Minister of the Interior, King Fahad emphasized the

modernization and sophistication of the security techniques. He also

emphasized the training and promotion of the personnel. The impact of the

King was quite obvious in both the internal and foreign policies, and his

responsibilities increased when he became the Second Deputy Premier and

Minister of Interior in ١٩٧٦.

Similarly, when King Fahad was the Crown Prince, his contribution was

quite obvious in all the achievements and developments that were carried

out. His economic directions were reflected in the progress and

development of the infrastructure. When negative aspects in the social

change began to appear, the cultural and scientific activities in the media

had a great role in distinguishing between the negative and positive

consequences of social change.

When he was the Crown Prince, King Fahad played a great role in resolving

disputes among the Arab countries. He also supported the Palestinian armed

struggle against Israel and proposed a peace plan in the Middle East in

١٩٨١.

There was also a lot of development in the Armed Forces, the National

Guard, and the standard of living in general. The private sector achieved



٨٣

great progress through big investments, its contribution in the development

processes, and its contribution at the international level. To achieve

integration among various sectors, the King relied on planning strategies

based on scientific rules to meet the economic, social, and cultural needs of

the country.

For the sake of fast and balanced development, integrative relations, and the

progress of the national economy, King Fahad placed particular emphasis

on both the heavy and light industries. The transformational industries

which are based on oil flourished in the industrial city of Yanbu‘ on the

Arabian Gulf.

In the field of agriculture, the land became fertile due to modern technology

and the drought problem was solved. King Fahad once stated that wheat

production was ١،٣٠٠،٠٠٠ tons, out of which ٩٠٠،٠٠٠ tons are consumed.

The King added that great countries that tried to dissuade us from growing

wheat had not reach this rate.

During King Fahad’s reign, routes connecting all the Kingdom’s cities were

established, the airline network improved, the railways renewed, bridges

and tunnels built, the telephone and electric services expanded, wells for

underground water developed, projects for water desalinization increased,

the problems of inflation and housing solved, banks Saudiized, loans and

financial aid made available and the cultural aspect of development

emphasized. The expansion of the two Holy Mosques was unprecedented:

The Haram Mosque now accommodates ١،٥٠٠،٠٠٠ pilgrims, while the

Prophet’s Mosque ١،٢٠٠،٠٠٠ pilgrims. The King did a great service for

Islam and Muslims, and now Muslims can perform Hajj and Umra in ease

and comfort.

The King has also established a center for printing the Qur’an known as the

King Fahad Complex for Printing the Qur’an, where various copies of the

Qur’an are accurately printed and distributed to mosques and institutions all



٨٤

over the world, translations of the meanings of the Qur’an available and

recitations of the Qur’an by well known reciters recorded.

King Fahad has issued three royal decrees that are considered as a re-

establishment of the State. The first deals with the basic system of the

government and consists of eighty-three articles. The second is concerned

with the establishment of the Shura Council, while the third has to do with

the system of regions.



٨٥

EDUCATION Education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was, and still is, based on the

fundamentals of the Islamic heritage. The beginning was the first verse of

the Qur’an ever revealed to the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him),

“Read in the name of your Lord, who created, created man from a clot.

Read, and most bountiful is your Lord, who has taught with the pen, and

taught man what he did not know.” Reading is the best way to knowledge.

Before unification of the Kingdom by King Abdulaziz, education was

offered in some religious schools, in informal gatherings in mosques and in

private and charitable schools. The process of education was organized by

individual effort and was aimed at teaching basic reading, writing and

arithmetic, the reading, memorization and recitation of the Qur’an, the

study of the Prophet Muhammad’s traditions and biography and Islamic

history.

The first important thing done by King Abdulaziz was to meet with scholars

and men of religion in Makkah in order to discuss current efforts and

resources available in Makkah in particular, and in the Hijaz reign in

general. That meeting produced new and original ideas and instructions and

led a newly designed plan. The plan was for an educational base to help

King Abdulaziz fulfill his goals and aspirations for a strong and modern

state. This state would adopt science, progress and a strong connection with

correct Islamic learning. King Abdulaziz adopted two parallel policies in

support of the education process. The first was to preserve the existing

individual efforts, encourage them and support them morally and

financially. The second policy was planning the establishment of a strong

system for the educational process, for he thought that the educational

process was a very important factor in the building of his desired state.



٨٦

One of the outstanding efforts fulfilled was the Hijar Project. A sheik was

sent to every village to teach people the basic teachings of Islam as well as

basic reading and writing.

The Directorate of Education was created in ١٩٢٥. It was the first official,

governmental organization to supervise the education process in the

Kingdom. Many schools and institutes were established all over the

Kingdom. They included al-Ma‘had al-‘Ilmî al-Sa‘ûdiya (The Saudi

Scientific Institute), Madrasa Tahdîr al-Ba‘athât (he School of the

Preparation of Missions), Madrasa Dar al-Tawhîd (the School of the Home

of Monotheism) and Madrasa al-Umarâ’ (The Princes’ School) in ١٩٣٧, as

well as Kulliya Shari‘a (The College of Islamic Law) in Makkah, which

became the nucleus for university education. The first educational System

for private schools was issued in ١٩٣٨.

In the desire for a quantitative change in the standard of supervision over

educational development, a royal decree was issued for the establishment of

the Ministry of Education, and the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques

was nominated the first Minister of Education in December ١٩٥٣. Thirteen

education directorates and eighteen teacher training Colleges were spread

all over the Kingdom and were also connected with the Ministry of

Education. The following tables show the development of the number of

schools, students, and teachers since the establishment of the Ministry of

Education till ١٩٩٤. NUMBER OF SCHOOLS SINCE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

L

evel of E

ducation

Year ١٣٧٩/ ٨٠H

.

Start of First ٥-

year Plan ١٣٩٠-٩١H

.

End of

First ٥-year Plan ١٣٩٤-٩٥H

.

End of

Second ٥-year Plan ١٣٩٩-١٤٠٠H

.

End of

Third ٥-

year Plan ١٤٠٤-٠٥H

.

End of

Fourth ٥-year Plan ١٤٠٩-١٠H

.

End of

Fifth ٥-year Plan ١٤١٤-١٥H

.

Primary ٥٤١٧ ٤٧٢٤ ٤٤١٣ ٣٦٣٨ ٢٠٦٧ ١٤٥٦ ٦٠٠ Intermediate ٢٣٤٩ ١٦٣٥ ١٤٢٣ ٨٩٦ ٤٢١ ٢٤١ ١٧

Secondary ٨٤٩ ٥٤٩ ٤٦٢ ٢٦٠ ٨٤ ٤٤ ١٦



٨٧

NUMBER OF TEACHERS

Level of

Education

١٣٧٩/٨٠H

.

Start of First ٥-

year Plan ١٣٩٠-٩١H

.

End of


.

End of


.

End of

Third ٥-


.

End of


.

End of


.

Primary ١٢١٥

٧

٦٨٢٠٠ ٥٢٧٨٨ ٤٥٤٠٦ ٢٨١٥٣ ٢٠٤٥٤ ١٢٤٢٢

Intermediat

e

٢٨٤٠١ ١٨٩٧٨ ١٤٩٤٧ ١٠١٧١ ٥٠٤٩ ٢٥٢٢ ٢٦٤٠

Secondary ١١٤٠٠ ٧١٨٠ ٥١٤٠ ٣٠٠٣ ١٣٧٧ ٦١٠ ٤٧٧

NUMBER OF STUDENTS

Level of

Education

Y

ear ١٣٧٩/٨٠H

.

Start of First ٥-

year Plan ٩١-١٣٩٠H

.

End of First ٥-

year Plan ٩٥-١٣٩٤H

.

End of Second ٥-year Plan ١٣٩٩-١٤٠٠H

.

End of Third ٥-year Plan ٠٥-١٤٠٤H

.

End of Fourth ٥-year Plan ١٠-١٤٠٩H

.

End of Fifth ٥-

year Plan ١٥-١٤١٤H

.

Primary ١٠١٥٤٠١ ٨٦٩٧٥٧ ٦٨٨١٧٠ ٥١٧٠٦٩ ٣٩١٦٧٧ ٢٨٤٦١٢ ٢٦٧٥٢٩

Intermediat

e

٣٧٨٨٦٥ ٢٥٨٣٤١ ٢٠٣٢٥٢ ١٤٣٧٢٥ ٨٠٦١٨ ٤٣٤٥٢ ٣٨٠٠٤

Secondary ١٧٥١٤٧ ١١٥٩١٦ ٧٩٩٩٠ ٥٤٨٤١ ٢٢٦٠٦ ١١٣٠٣ ٨٢٤٣

SPECIAL EDUCATION

The government was interested in the training and teaching of the mentally

and physically handicapped by establishing special schools and institutes

that offered programs of education and rehabilitation. The Nûr Institutes for

the Blind and the institutes for the education of the mentally handicapped

offered programs of education and rehabilitation for both males and

females.

The government started taking care of this class of society by establishing

the first two institutes for the blind in Riyadh, one for males in ١٩٦٠ and

one for females in ١٩٦٣. The progress continued, and now there are ten Nûr

Institutes for the blind, twenty-three institutes for the deaf and fourteen

institutes for the education of the mentally handicapped.



٨٨

Interest is focused on the technology and equipment like the central sound

library, which provides the handicapped with talking books, and a printing

office to produce the textbooks in Braille for institutes of the blind.

The following table shows the growing number of institutes and students of

special education during the period from the beginning of the first ٥-year

plan in ١٩٧١/١٩٧٢, to the end of the fifth ٥-year plan in ١٩٩٣/١٩٩٤. TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF INSTITUTES AND STUDENTS OF SPECIAL

EDUCATION

Start of First ٥-


.

End of First ٥-


.


.


.


.

End of Fifth ٥-


.

No. of Schools ٤٤ ٣٣ ٢٨ ٢٥ ١٥ ١٠ No. of Students ٤٦٦٩ ٤٠١٧١ ٢٥٦٤ ١٩٢٠ ١٧٨٤ ١٢٥٧

ILLITERACY AND ADULT EDUCATION

Illiteracy is considered a serious problem that hinders the progress of

nations. It cripples development in many fields of life. Through the

Ministry of Education, the government has persisted and will continue to

persist in offering programs aimed at giving chances to those who had no

education in childhood, until illiteracy totally vanishes. These efforts have

undergone different phases. In ١٩٤٩, the government opened some night

schools for illiterate. Then in ١٩٧٣, a new system was issued to deal with

illiteracy and adult education. Finally in ١٩٧٣, a new, comprehensive plan

was prepared to eradicate illiteracy within twenty years.

Statistics of the development of adult education and illiteracy for males

Start of First ٥-


.

End of First ٥-


.


.


.


.

End of Fifth ٥-


.

No. of Schools ١٢٣٨ ١٢٨٦ ١٤٧٥ ٢٢٠٨ ١٠٢٠ ٥٩٧ No. of Students ٤٥٣٤٨ ٦٣٥١٣ ٧٠٧٥٥ ٩١٢٨٠ ٦٢٩١١ ٤١٣٤٧



٨٩

HIGHER EDUCATION

As mentioned above, university education was started with the

establishment of the College of Sharia in Makkah in ١٩٤٩. It remained

under the supervision of the Directorate of Education until the Ministry of

High Education was established in ١٩٧٧, and it began to supervise

university education directly. In the Kingdom, there are now seven

universities, including seventy-eight colleges, ٤١٤ academic departments

and ١٤٣،٤٩٥ students.

If one compares the status of the universities in the Kingdom at their

beginning with what was available for them in ١٩٩٥/١٩٩٦, the growth of

higher education is clear. NUMBERS OF COLLEGES, DEPARTMENTS, STUDENTS AND GRADUATES SINCE THE

FOUNDATION OF THE UNIVERSITIES TO THE END OF 1995/1996

University and Date of

No. of Colleges

No. of

Departments No. of Male &

Female Students

Total University

Its Foundation Start of

Univer-sity

In the Y

ear ١٤١٥-١٦H

.

Start of U

niver-sity

In the Y

ear ١٤١٥-١٦H

.

Start of U

niver-sity

In the Y

ear ١٤١٥-١٦H

.

Graduates till ٩٥/٩٦

King Saud University ١٣٧٧H.

٥٧٨٥٦ ٣٧٠٤٤ ٢١ ١١٨ ٣ ١٧ ١

King Abdulaziz University ١٣٨٧H.

٤٢٧٢٠ ٣٨٣٢٣ ٩٨ ٨٧ ٢ ١٠ ١

Islamic University ١٣٨١H.

١٠٢٥٢ ٣١٤٠ ٨٥ ١٣ ١ ٥ ١

Imam Mohammed bin Saud Islamic

University ١٣٩٤H. ٣٧١٩٤ ٢٩٧٦٨ ٣٣٧٠ ٥٩ ٧ ١٢ ٣

King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals ١٣٨٣

٨٨٥٨ ٦٤٩٤ ٩٧ ٢٥ ١ ٧ ١

King Faisal University ١٣٩٥

٨٤١١ ٨١٢٦ ١٧٠ ٦٨ ٤٤ ٨ ٤

Ummal Quraa' University ١٤٠١H.

١٥٢٢٢ ٢٠٦٠٠ ٤٢٧٧ ٤٤ ١٧ ٩ ٢

Grand Total ٨٠٨٨ ٤١٤ ٧٥ ٦٨ ١٢ ١٤٣٤٩

١٨٠٥١٣ ٥



٩٠

KING SAUD UNIVERSITY IN RIYADH King Saud University in Riyadh was the first university to be established on

the Arabian Peninsula. It was founded in ١٩٥٧ in the lifetime of King Saud

ibn Abdulaziz. A fully integrated and modern campus was established,

including accommodation for staff and students. Three educational

hospitals are connected to this university, King Khalid university Hospital,

King Abdulaziz University Hospital and the Clinics of the College of

Dentistry. King Saud University has two branches, one in Abhâ’ in the

Southwest, the other in Qasîm to the North. NUMBERS OF COLLEGES, DEPARTMENTS AND STAFF SINCE THE FOUNDATION OF

KING SAUD UNIVERSITY - TO THE END OF THE FIFTH FIVE-YEAR PLAN

End of First ٥-


.


.


.


.

End of Fifth ٥-


.

End of

Academ

ic Y

ear ١٤١٦ H

.

M ١٨ ١٨ ١٨ ١٧ ١٠ ٨ Colleges

F - ١ - - - -

T ١٨ ١٨ ١٨ ١٧ ١١ ٨ M ٢٤٤٠١ ٢٠٩٥٢ ٢١١٥٠ ١٩٣٢٠ ١٠١٩٩ ٥٨٩٢

Students

F ١٢٦٦٧ ١١٢٥١ ١١١٠٤ ٥٦٢٤ ٢٦٦٨ ٨١٨

T ٣٧٠٦٨ ٣٢٢٠٣ ٣٢٢٥٤ ٢٤٥٢٤ ١٣١٢٤ ٦٧١٠ M ٢١٧٣ ٢١٣١ ٢٢١٥ ٢٠٦٧ ١١٥١ ٥٣١ Faculty Staff

F ٥٩٥ ٥٧٩ ٥٨٠ ٤٦٠ ١٥٢ ١٤

T ٢٧٦٨ ٢٧١٠ ٢٧٩٥ ٢٥٢٧ ١٣٠٣ ٥٤٥

THE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY IN MADINA The Islamic University of Madina was founded in ١٩٦١. It is an Islamic

university with students from all different Islamic countries, but it is Saudi

since it is located in the Kingdom of Saudi. Arabic is used as the medium of

instruction for all students of the University. It is the only university in the

Kingdom with its board of trustees chaired by the Custodian of the Two

Holy Mosques, King Fahad Bin Abdulaziz.



٩١

NUMBERS OF COLLEGES, DEPARTMENTS AND STAFF SINCE THE FOUNDATION OF THE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY TO THE END OF FIFTH FIVE-YEAR PLAN

End of


.

End of


.

End of

Third ٥-


.

End of

Fourth ٥-year Plan ١٤٠٩-

End of


.

E

nd of A

cademic

Year ١٤١٦

H.

M ٥ ٥ ٦ ٦ ٦ ٣ Colleges F - - - - - -

T ٥ ٥ ٦ ٦ ٦ ٣ M ٣٢٦٣ ٣٠٣٦ ٢٤٦٨ ٣٠٨٠ ٢٢٧١ ٩٠٢

Students F - - - - - - T ٣٢٦٣ ٣٠٣٦ ٢٤٦٨ ٣٠٨٠ ٢٢٧١ ٩٠٢ M ٣٣٦ ٣٤٧ ٣٨٣ ٣٧٠ ٢٣٩ ٤٢ Faculty Staff

F - - - - - -

T ٣٣٦ ٣٤٧ ٣٨٣ ٣٧٠ ٢٣٩ ٤٢

KING ABDULAZIZ UNIVERSITY IN JEDDAH King Abdulaziz University in Jeddah was a private university, which was

founded in ١٩٦٧/١٩٦٨. It was changed into a governmental university in

١٩٧١. It has a university hospital and College of Education in Madina. NUMBERS OF COLLEGES, DEPARTMENTS, AND STAFF SINCE THE FOUNDATION OF

KING ABDULAZIZ UNIVERSITY TO THE END OF FIFTH FIVE-YEAR PLAN

End of


.

End of


.

End of

Third ٥-


.

End of


.

End of


.

E

nd of A

cademic

Year ١٤١٦

H.

M ١٠ ٩ ٩ ٩ ١١ ٥ Colleges F - - - - - -

T ١٠ ٩ ٩ ٩ ١١ ٥ M ٢٢٥٥٩ ١٨٢٤٥ ٢١٧٦٨ ١٤٢٤٩ ١٣٧٠٤ ٤٥٨٦

Students F ١٥٦٥٦ ١٦٣٥٤ ١٥١٦١ ٦٢٥٢ ٥٥٨٣ ١١٧٥ T ٣٨٢١٥ ٣٤٥٩٩ ٣٦٩٢٩ ١٩١٦٤ ١٩٢٨٧ ٥٧٦١ M ١٢٤١ ١٤٧١ ١٤٠٤ ١٢٥٦ ٩٦٨ ٣٣٢ Faculty Staff F ٥٥١ ٦١٦ ٣٤٠ ٤٠٤ ٢٣٨ ٩٤ T ١٧٩٢ ٢٠٨٧ ١٨٣٤ ١٦٦٠ ١٢٠٦ ٤٢٦

KING FAHAD UNIVERSITY FOR PETROLEUM AND MINERALS IN DHAHRÂN

King Fahad University for Petroleum and Minerals in Dhahrân started with

the College of Petroleum and Minerals in Dhahrân in ١٩٦٣during the

lifetime of King Faisal ibn Abdulaziz. The university specializes in the



٩٢

petroleum sciences and minerals, engineering, administration, architecture

and computer sciences. It has a fully integrated campus. NUMBERS OF COLLEGES, DEPARTMENTS AND STAFF SINCE THE FOUNDATION OF KING FAHAD UNIVERSITY FOR PETROLEUM AND MINERALS TO THE END OF FIFTH

FIVE-YEAR PLAN

End of


.

End of


.

End of

Third ٥-


.

End of


.

End of


.

E

nd of A

cademic

Year ١٤١٦

H.

M ٨ ٨ ٧ ٦ ٥ ١ Colleges F - - - - - -

T ٨ ٨ ٧ ٦ ٥ ١ M ٦٤٨٧ ٥٩٠٢ ٤٦٧٤ ٣٨١٠ ٢٧٩٤ ١٤٧٥

Students F - - - - - - T ٦٤٨٧ ٥٩٠٢ ٤٦٧٤ ٣٨١٠ ٢٧٩٤ ١٤٧٥ M ٧٣٦ ٥٦٥ ٦٧١ ٥٨٤ ٥٥٢ ٢٨٧ Faculty Staff

F - - - - - -

T ٧٣٦ ٥٦٥ ٦٧١ ٥٨٤ ٥٥٢ ٢٨٧

KING FAISAL UNIVERSITY IN AHSÂ’ King Faisal University in Ahsâ’ was founded in ١٩٧٧. It has six colleges,

Medicine, Architectural Engineering, Rural (agricultural) Sciences,

Veterinary Science, Education and Administrative Sciences and Planning. It

has a special interest in the fields of agriculture and veterinary science, as

the Eastern Region in general, and Ahsâ’ in particular, is characterized by

agriculture especially in palm-tree cultivation. Connected with the

university are research centers such as the Center for the Research and

Study of Water, the Center of Palm-Tree Research, the Center for the

Research of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Products and the Center of

Camel Research.

Both the University hospital located in Khobar and a veterinary hospital in

Ahsâ’ are connected with King Faisal University. NUMBERS OF COLLEGES, DEPARTMENTS AND STAFF SINCE THE FOUNDATION OF

KING FAISAL UNIVERSITY TO THE END OF FIFTH FIVE-YEAR PLAN

End of


.

End of


.

End of

Third ٥-


.

End of


.

End of


.

E

nd of A

cademic

Year ١٤١٦

H.

M - ٦ ٦ ٦ ٦ ٤ Colleges F - - - - - -

T - ٦ ٦ ٦ ٦ ٤



٩٣

M - ٣٨٩١ ٣٠٨٥ ٢٤٢٤ ١٩٤٦ ٩١٠ Students F - ٣٣٢٨ ٢٨٥٩ ٢٤٢١ ١٤٠٨ ٢٤٨ T - ٧٢١٩ ٥٩٤٤ ٤٨٤٥ ٣٣٥٤ ١١٥٨ M - ٥٣٢ ٦٢٥ ٦١٥ ٦١٤ ٣٢٦ Faculty Staff

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IMAM MUHAMMAD IBN SAUD ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY IN RIYADH Imam Muhammad ibn Saud Islamic University in Riyadh was started with

the opening of two colleges, the College of Sharia and the College of

Arabic Language, in ١٩٥٣/١٩٥٤. In ١٩٧٤, approval of its by-laws was

issued. It offers worldwide education services since colleges and institutes

from outside the Kingdom as Islamic institutes in Ra’s al-Khaima,

Mauritania, Djibouti, Indonesia, Japan and the U.S.A. are affiliated with the

university. It also offers a good university education, high education in

Islamic Studies, Arabic language sciences, social studies and Islamic

history as well as translating and issuing the Islamic researches. NUMBERS OF COLLEGES, DEPARTMENTS, AND THE STAFF SINCE THE FOUNDATION OF

IMAM MUHAMMAD BIN SAUD ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY TO THE END OF THE FIFTH FIVE-YEAR –PLAN

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Students F ٢٥٢٢ ٣٩٠٢ ١٦٧٩ ١٣٧٣ ٧٢٩ ٥٤ T ٢٧٨٥٠ ٢٨٧٤٥ ١٣٩٤٨ ١١٥١٦ ٥٩١٩ ٣٣٧٠ M ١٥٦٥ ١٤٩٦ ١٠٤٩ ٥٠٧ ٢٠٤ Faculty Staff

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T ١٥٩٠ ١٥٠٢ ١٠٤٩ ٥٠٧ ٢٠٤

UMM AL-QURA UNIVERSITY IN MAKKAH Umm al-Qura University in Makkah was founded in ١٩٨١. Although it is

one of the newest universities, it has the oldest two colleges in the history of

higher education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. They are the College of

Sharia (١٩٤٩), and the College of Education (١٩٥٢). It is located in the



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most holy and scared place in the whole universe. The establishment of a

full and modern campus was recently undertaken. NUMBERS OF COLLEGES, DEPARTMENTS AND STAFF SINCE THE FOUNDATION OF

UMM AL-QURA UNIVERSITY TO THE END OF THE FIFTH FIVE-YEAR PLAN

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Students F - - ٨٥١٢ ٧٩٦٥ ٦٣٨٣ ٥٢٨٣ T - - ١٨٥١٦ ١٦٢٢٩ ١٥٣٠٣ ١١٩٩١ M - - ٩٧٧ ١٠١٦ ٢٣٥ ٩٠٦ Faculty Staff

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TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING

Agricultural, commercial and industrial development, and the need of the

development plans for manpower led in ١٩٨٠, to the setting up of the

General Foundation for Technical Education and Vocational Training. The

foundation carries out the plans and designs programs to develop the

national vocational manpower within the limits of the policies made by the

Council of Manpower. The foundation supervises many of the specialized

colleges and institutes, which are of a very high level of preparation and

qualification.

The following figure shows the growth achieved by technical education and

vocational training since they the foundation was established. TYPES OF COLLEGES AND INSTITUTES AFFILIATED WITH THE GENERAL

ORGANIZATION FOR TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING

Types of Establishments under the General Organization for Technical

Fifth Five-Year Plan ١٤٠١ - ١٤٠٠ H. / ١٤٠٥- ١٤٠٤ H.

Education and Vocational Training No. No. of Students No. of Graduates

Technical Colleges ١٩٥٤ ٨٥٥٨ ٩ Higher Secondary Commercial Institutes ١٨٩٥ ١٠،٩٩٥ ١٦ Higher Secondary Agricultural Institutes ١٥٠ ٧٣٧ ٣ Institutes for Technical Inspectors ٣٣٦ ١،٧٣٨ ٥



٩٥

OTHER KINDS OF EDUCATION

There are other kinds of education affiliated with governmental sectors.

Examples are the institutes and colleges belong to the Ministry of Post,

Telephone and Telegraph devoted to education and training in

telecommunications. There are also institutes and colleges belonging to the

Ministry of Health. They specialize in education and training in health

fields like nursing, allied medical services. Commercial education, too, is

another area. It aims at preparing trained manpower to work in commercial,

administrative and financial departments in both the private and

governmental sectors. Finally there are the military colleges that are

affiliated with the Ministry of Defense and Aviation, the National Guard

and the Interior Ministry.



٩٦

CULTURAL MOVEMENT

The cultural movement in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, is a founder of the

cultural movement in the Arab world. At the same time, it is unique because

of the local characteristics of social, geographical and humanitarian factors.

The Saudi and Arab elements are joined by an Islamic frame, by which the

cultural movement in the Kingdom gains a great deal of depth and

uniqueness as it occupies the center of the Islamic world.

These three frames have existed together and exerted their influence

beginning with the political unification achieved by King Abdulaziz. By the

unification, the distant parts of the Arabian Peninsula were linked together

to form a nation for millions of people having different social and cultural

backgrounds. All of this formed a vital cultural entity, and in sixty years

built on what had been inherited from Arab and Islamic sources as well as

from more recent cultures. This new culture has been able to interact with

the changes and events of contemporary life and pave the way for the rise

of an effective cultural movement able to influence contemporary Arab

culture.

The cultural movement, during the last few years, has been able to stress its

uniqueness on a large scale and spread widely. One aspect of this activity

makes it excel another in depth and width. All activities run steadily

towards a higher level of perfection. Scientific activities and research,

literary movement, drama, singing arts, interest in folklore, printing and

publishing and other related cultural activities continue at the present time,

to influence life in the Kingdom through several channels in presence and

effect. The folkloric heritage, with all its content of literary types and

deeply rooted artistic activities have a different influence on the theater in

its modern meaning, which is still seeking a role to play in Saudi society.

Coordinated and activating efforts in these cultural fields, on the group and

individual levels, seek to reach and realize a balance among all fields,



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through organizations, seasonal activities and channels towards an

ambitious and thriving path.

The following are surveys of the most prominent organizations, seasons,

and channels.

CULTURAL ORGANIZATIONS:

UNIVERSITIES, RESEARCH CENTERS AND PUBLISHING HOUSES: The seven universities, together with the research and publishing centers

spread in different parts of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, are pioneering

forces for the creation of a rich culture, based on a level of relatively exact

and deep knowledge. Through these organizations, a group of the most

active groups in the cultural fields are producing high quality types of work

in different scientific fields, effort marked by depth, exactness and

comprehensiveness. These works are published by academic councils,

research colleges and centers in the different universities, through

periodicals of the universities themselves, or through other Arab and

international universities where the research of professors is published. The

volume of books and other research produced by the Kingdom’s

universities is very large compared to what is published by other publishing

houses. In recent years, these scientific publications have occupied more

space. The number of Saudi faculty in the universities has increased. They

have been very active in authoring and in the translation of foreign works.

While most of it is not available to the majority of readers, it has had an

indirect effect through the graduates of these universities. The graduates are

carriers of specialized and exact scientific knowledge. The universities have

also been influential through other cultural means such as mass

communication, especially newspapers.



٩٨

LITERARY CLUBS: To understand the nature of the cultural life in the Kingdom, one should

remember that the concept of literature is still influenced by its traditional

meaning in Arab culture. It considers literature as one type of general

cultural of knowledge. Literature is represented in poetry, novels, drama,

etc. The literary clubs in the Kingdom, amounting to twelve in number,

exercise their activities under this concept. Literature as a concept, is not

limited to creative artistic works of poetry, novels and criticism, etc.,

though that it is concerned with and more focused on these works of art is

obvious. Lecture series, organized by these clubs throughout the different

regions of the Kingdom, includes other fields such as humanities, history,

sociology and mass media. Lectures also present applied and pure research.

Such a trend has made the clubs to become effective cultural channels, and

this trend is unique at the pan-Arab level. To all these activities, one can

add their organizational role in the literary and cultural movement. They

serve as associations that link all members who are engaged in the cultural

movement, the literary in particular, and serve as publishing houses and

forums for dialogues and discussions.

The literary clubs are run under the General Presidency for Youth Welfare.

It serves as one of the principle organizations responsible for cultural life in

the Kingdom. The clubs are run by independent boards attached to the

Department of Clubs at the Presidency for Youth Welfare. Each club has an

annual budget received from the Presidency based on the types of its

activities during the year. ١٩٧٥ marks the beginning of the establishment of

the literary clubs. During that year, literary clubs were established in

Makkah, Madina and Jeddah. Later, other clubs were established in Riyadh,

Jizân, Tâ’if, Abhâ, Tabûk, Hâ’il, the Eastern Province, Bâha and Qasîm.

The Presidency for the Youth Welfare has plans to establish more of

literary clubs as the need arises.



٩٩

THE SAUDI ARABIAN ASSOCIATION FOR CULTURE AND ART: The Saudi Arabian Association for Culture and Art, which was established

at the same time as the literary clubs, plays an important and vital role in

consolidating the cultural movement in the Kingdom through two types of

cultural activities, dramatic theatrical songs and painting. The first includes

songs and folk dances. The Association organizes them through formal

parties and shows. It also conducts courses and programs for amateurs. The

second activity includes individual exhibitions and group exhibitions held

within the Kingdom or abroad. The Association seeks to support cultural

and literary activities through “The Novel Club.” It encourages story

writing and creative works through meetings, publication of works of art.

One of its publications is an offering that came out at an early time under

the title of “Pamphlet on Cultural and Art Associations.” Later on, it was

published as a periodical under the title Al-Tabad.

The Association is run under the supervision of the General Presidency for

the Youth Welfare just as the other literary associations are. The

Association has a board, the members of which include a number of

scholars, literary figures and artists. The Association exercises its activities

through various branches spread all over the Kingdom according to a basic

plan prepared at the headquarters of the Association in Riyadh.

MONTHLY MAGAZINES AND PERIODICALS Monthly magazines and periodicals play a very important role in the

cultural movement of the Kingdom. For instance, the magazine al-Manhal,

which wasissued in ١٩٣٦, can be considered as the source of the history of

the cultural movement in the Kingdom. After publication of al-Manhal,

other periodicals and magazines were established. Among these are al-

Arab, al-Majalla al-‘Arabiya, al-Faisal, ‘Âlam al-Kutub, al-Dârah and al-

Tûbâd. These are monthly magazines concerned mainly with cultural

issues.



١٠٠

Toward the end of the ١٩٨٠’s and the beginning of the ١٩٩٠’s, with the

establishment of specialized periodicals, a new phase started. Among these

are ‘Usûr for history and archeology, al-Alâmât for literary criticism,

Qawâfil for literature and criticism, al-‘Imâra for architecture, al-Dirâsât

al-Amniya for security studies, and Qâfilat al-Zait (the Oil Caravans),

which ARAMCO distributes.

SEASONAL ACTIVITIES The National Festival for Culture and Heritage, known as al-Janadriya, is

among the most important and comprehensive seasonal activities in the

Kingdom and the Arab world. This activity is no longer just camel racing

and poetry competitions. Now it focuses on two types of activities:

× Public artistic activities such as traditional dances, songs, and

other items of tradition and heritage in the Kingdom.

× Lectures and symposiums conducted by intellectuals from all over

the world. Major cultural issues are dealt with in this annual winter

activity.

CONFERENCES AND OTHER SYMPOSIUMS In the Kingdom, many conferences and symposiums are organized annually

to deal with academic, scientific and technical issues. These conferences

and symposiums play a great role in encouraging and supporting the

different cultural activities. In recent years, focus of these conferences and

symposiums has been purely scientific and academic areas such as

engineering and dental medicine. However, many of these conferences and

symposiums deal with general cultural issues. Among these conferences

and symposiums have been the Conference of Saudi Men of Letters held at

King Abdulaziz University in Jeddah in ١٩٧٥ and the International

Symposium on the History of the Arabian Peninsula, which was organized

by King Saud University in Riyadh during the ١٩٧٠’s and ١٩٩٠’s.



١٠١

Normally these conferences and symposiums issue proceedings that are

considered as references in different areas.

LITERARY AND CULTURAL PRIZES:

Some institutions in the Kingdom have established certain prizes as

incentives for the encouragement and support of the cultural movement.

Some of these prizes are local, and others are international. All of these

prizes have a great role in developing the cultural movement at the local,

Arab and international levels. Among these prizes are:

THE KING FAISAL INTERNATIONAL PRIZE The King Faisal International Prize can be considered as the most important

achievement of the cultural movement in the Kingdom. In addition to

commemorating the late King Faisal, this prize has given the Kingdom, as

well as the Arab and Islamic world, a very good reputation. Many scholars

in various specializations all over the world compete for this prize, despite

the negative attitude of the Western media toward this prize.

THE AMÎN MADANÎ PRIZE The Amîn Madanî Prize was established by the sons of the Saudi historian

Amîn Madanî. It is one of the most recent prizes in the Kingdom. It focuses

on research in the history of the Arabian Peninsula, and it is supervised by

the Literary Club in Madina. A committee of specialists selects the prize

winners.

KING FAISAL CHARITABLE FOUNDATION

King Faisal Charitable Foundation was established in Riyadh based by

Royal Decree #A/١٣٤ on May ١٩٧٦ ,١٨. It commemorates the late King

Faisal and draws attention to his struggle, the values he promoted, and his

effort for the sake of the Arab and Islamic history.

The main objectives of the King Faisal Charitable Foundation are (١)

developing and financing programs in scientific and educational areas, (٢)



١٠٢

developing and financing mosques, schools, institutes, universities, Islamic

centers, and scientific research centers, and (٣) providing technical

experience, financial support and scholarships in different fields of

knowledge.

This helps Muslims to acquire knowledge and participate in the

international scientific revival. In addition, the King Faisal Charitable

Foundation provides support for hospitals, medical centers, and other social

and economic activities both inside and outside the Kingdom.

DEVELOPMENTS IN ORGANIZATION, AUTHENTICATION, AND PRESERVATION

In order to promote the cultural movement in the Kingdom, the Saudi

government has taken a number of steps for the organization, authentication

and preservation of cultural activities. In this regard, the government has

had two recent achievements, i.e. (١) the establishment of the King Fahad

National Library to preserve documents, publications and other sources of

knowledge, and (٢) the joining of the International Copyright Convention.

Thus the Kingdom has preceded many Arab and non-Arab countries in the

efforts to promote cultural activities. In conjunction with the Saudi Ministry

of Information, King Fahad National Library has been playing a major role

in the authentication of cultural products, as well as in the preservation of

copyrights. All authors and publishers in the Kingdom have to provide the

King Faisal National Library with two copies of each publication.

THE KING FAHAD NATIONAL LIBRARY

The King Fahad National Library was founded in ١٩٨٨ for the purpose of

the organization, authentication and publication of the intellectual products.

In addition, this library is concerned with the preservation of heritage

books, manuscripts, as well as Arabic and Islamic literature. It has also

made major contributions in technological, informational and human

resources pertinent to librarianship.



١٠٣

In the field of printed information, this library contains ٣٦٧،٠٠٠ items of

printed matter, as well as audio-visual materials, microfilms, local

documents and rare manuscripts and books. Since the implementation of the

international indexing system in ١٩٩٣, the library has been able to register

٢،٠٠٠ Saudi publications, in addition to ٣٠٠ current magazines and

periodicals. It also contains about ١٠٠،٠٠٠ documents related to the

Kingdom. The authentication and registration systems adopted by the

library have played a major role in improving Saudi books, as well as the

way they are publicized through indexing and the use of standard and

international numbers. The library is also concerned with equipment,

information systems and maintenance of manuscripts and rare books. In the

field of information and libraries, this library has published seventy-five

books.

THE PRINTING OF THE HOLY QUR’AN

The King Fahad Complex for Printing the Holy Qur’an is one of the most

prominent Saudi accomplishments in the service of Islam and Muslims. Its

purpose is the printing and distribution of the Holy Qur’an. Madina was

selected as the center for this complex because it is the town of the Prophet

(peace be upon him), where the Qur’an was collected and writte. The

Prophet’s Mosque is also located in Madina. King Fahad Complex for

Printing the Holy Qur’an for printing the Holy Qur’an was founded on an

area of ٢٠٦،٠٠٠ m٢. It has ٩٠٠ employees, among whom are scholars,

technicians, administrators and workers. The purpose of this project is to

print the Holy Qur’an in different languages and different sizes to help

Muslims who belong to different languages and different nationalities.

The production capacity of King Fahad Complex for Printing the Holy

Qur’an for printing the Holy Qur’an is ٧،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ copies annually, of which

٥٠٠،٠٠٠ copies are translations of the meanings of the Qur’an. In addition,

the Holy Qur’an is also recorded on cassettes by prominent reciters in the



١٠٤

Kingdom and in the Islamic world. The King Fahad Complex for Printing

the Holy Qur’an for printing the Qur’an is also a specialized scientific

center for research in the Holy Qur’an and its sciences.

CULTURAL INFORMATION

THE PRESS The Press has a great impact on the Saudi society due to the spread of

education and the concern of newspapers and magazines in meeting the

daily cultural needs of readers. Radio and television have had the same

impact. It is expected that the audio-visual media will have a greater impact

due to the utilization of satellites.

Popular literature and cultural sections in magazines and newspapers have

contributed a great deal to the cultural movement. Most daily newspapers

and weekly and monthly magazines contain cultural sections in standard

Arabic and other sections for popular literature. Thus by combining both

the formal and informal levels of language, the magazines and newspapers

help to develop both the formal culture, which is mainly implemented by

formal education, and the verbal culture, which is related to a previous

stage of the cultural life in the Kingdom. Thus at the Arab level, the

Kingdom is the most concerned with the popular culture and heritage in the

media. The National Festival for Culture and Heritage, Janadriya, is a good

case in point. Some people might think that such public cultural activities

would promote the colloquial Arabic at the expense of the standard.

However, the cultural experiment in the Kingdom has shown that these two

language levels can successfully co-exist and inter-relate to serve cultural

objectives.

RADIO AND TELEVISION The same situation of combining both the formal and informal cultures is

found in radio and television. They focus on popular heritage through the

al-Bâdiya (The Desert) Program and the songs and music related to that



١٠٥

culture. These popular cultural items are in the colloquial language, even

though the official language in radio and television the standard language.

This helps in the development of diverse scientific, literary and leisure

activities prepared by people of diverse cultural backgrounds.



١٠٦

ARCHAEOLOGY

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has a deep-rooted heritage from the ancient

cultures that thrived on the land of this good earth since the dawn of history.

These Arabian cultures have played important roles in the course of human

civilization. Detailed archeological evidence has proved that the Arabian

Peninsula in general, and the area of the Kingdom in particular, have hosted

human settlements during all periods of history.

Evidence has shown that areas of the Kingdom were inhabited during the

Lower Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), and that the inhabitants of those areas

spread into other regions of the land. Likewise it is very clear from

archeological maps that the land hosted a mosaic of cultures, including

those using pebble, Chellean and Acheulean tools. In the Middle

Paleolithic, the works of Mousterian artisans were represented by

Levalloisian and opposing and transverse knives, tools which were found to

be used mostly in internal and southern areas of the Kingdom. During the

Upper Paleolithic, denticulate, leaf-shaped tools were encountered in

different parts of the country. Archeological ruins of the Neolithic (New

Stone Age) in the South of the Kingdom, Wâdi ad-Dawâsir, Rub al-Khâli

(The Empty Quarter), as well as the Central, Eastern and Western Regions,

revealed periods of deep-rooted cultures lasting for several centuries.

Crescents, double-sided fine teeth having pressured flakes characterize

these ruins.

Archeological evidence also includes tens of stone buildings spread

throughout the Kingdom. The structures are thought to have been built at

the beginning of the third century B.C in the Chalcolithic (Copper Age).

They consist of stone circles, cairns, enclosures, tapered structures, pillars,

basins, podiums, and kites. It has been noticed that these sites are

characterized by common stability that resemble those of other sedentary



١٠٧

communities with stable economies, but they had disappeared completely

by the first half of the Middle Bronze Age (circa ١٨٥٠ BC).

Rock drawing is found in every region of the Kingdom and reveals a great

deal of information about the economic and social conditions of the peoples

of those times. These drawings and sculptures give elaborate details on

activities of their daily life, their beliefs and their religious practices.

Drawings or marks that are found on rocks, and especially on the bodies of

animals, reveal the existence of a system common to different tribes for the

telling apart of their belongings. These drawings indicate a high level of art.

This rock art was the origin of the early Arabic handwriting in which texts

were later written. Archeological evidence more particularly indicates that

writing started in the North and the Northwest of the Kingdom and did not

come from outside. It has also been noticed that the artists of pre-historic

periods, particularly in the Neolithic (New Stone Age), were more talented

and their artistic skills more developed. It was also evident that rock

drawing was a kind of communication system. The pre-historic artists seem

to have considered it a perfect means to high level aesthetics and thematic

art.

The early cultures of pottery indicate that they did not develop in the same

way or at the same time as the stone-tool cultures. The pottery findings, in

fact, reveal disparities in time and space for these cultures. Archeological

studies also revealed that the oldest pottery utensils found in the Kingdom

were collected from sites such as ‛Ayn Gannas in the Eastern Region. These

findings are believed to go back to the early era of the fourth-century-BC

slave cultures. Other sites such as Abu Khamîs, Ras Al-‛Amiya, Subkhân

Hammân east of Abqaiq, are also grounds for similar findings. Based on

decorative patterns, four different styles of pottery were distinguished: soft

non-decorated pottery, crude local pottery mixed with grass and hay and



١٠٨

glazed pottery. Dilmûn and Barbar type pottery encountered on Târût

Island.

A number of huge soapstone utensils that are believed to go back to the

third century BC have been discovered in different places including Târût

Island, Abqaiq, Khobar, Dhahrân, Thâj, the southwest of the Empty Quarter

and on the coast of the Red Sea. More evidence indicates that the raw

materials from which these utensils were manufactured were available in

the local areas and in big quantities.

Archeological evidence has confirmed that the Arabian Peninsula remained

the homeland of Semitic and Aramaean tribes, the source from which all

Arab tribes have sprung. The same archeological evidence indicates that

during pre-historic ages up until to the dawn of history, organized migration

in all directions from the desert of the Arabian Peninsula to other more

fertile regions has taken place. Historical literature about the Arabian

Peninsula as well as classical Arabic texts use the term Arabi and Arab to

refer to the inhabitants of Arabian Peninsula and to distinguish them from

inhabitants of other civilized regions.

The Ula site is located precisely in the Qurâ Valley, southeast of Harra al-

Oraifî between the east and west mountain ranges, where remains of walls

were found. In the same area, broken pottery and a chain of sculptured

petrified logs were dispersed over rocky slopes along more than a kilometer

distance across the region. Ula, or Dêdân, was inhabited by a group of Arab

tribes organized into small communities. They were believed to have lived

there between the third and the sixth centuries BC. These communities or

states were Dêdân, Lihyân, and Maîn, which fell by the hands of

Nabataeans in the North.

One of the most distinctive landmarks of Ula is a ruined temple along with

several sculpted paintings and writings in Lihyânic or Dêdânic bearing

names of kings or lords. They provide us with a great deal of information

about their makers’ social, commercial, religious and political orientation.



١٠٩

Madâ’in Sâlih, (the Cities of Salih) located fifteen kilometers away from

‘Ulâ, were mentioned in the Holy Qur’ân under the name of “Al-Hijr”.

They consist of completely built houses of the Qurâ Valley as well as of

several scattered dunes. These sand hills made it easy for the inhabitants to

build burial grounds for their dead. Many artistic styles were used in the

buildings of these burial grounds. A mixture of Pharaonic, Greek, Roman

and Arabian art made up an eclectic art style giving birth to a new school.

The oldest chain of archeological sites in this area, is a chain of sculptures

dating from the earliest years of first century BC to the first century of

Christian era. But it is almost confirmed that prehistoric human settlings

existed in these places.

Taimâ played a major role in the political and economic history of the

northern part of the Arabian Peninsula due to its location on a major trade

route between the north and south. Ancient archeological evidence indicates

that it has existed since the eighth century BC. Also, according to Assyrian

literature, the city goes back to the rule of King Tiglath-pileser III. It was

also mentioned in journeys mentioned in the Torah as an important business

and settlement center for some Arab tribes.

The famous Taimâ basket was found in Taimâ. Some Nabataean

inscriptions were engraved on one side while on its left side two pictures,

probably of a king and a magician, were painted. One of the most important

landmarks of Taimâ is Samuel Fortress (Ablaq Fortress) located in the

western part and having a square shaped perimeter enclosing a well in its

center. It is believed to have been built during the ruling period of the

Ghassânids, who shared the same time period with Samuel.

There is no doubt that Dûmat al-Jandal, currently Jawf, was one of the most

important shields against invaders from north and northeast. The Assyrians

and the Babylonians had business relations and political agreements with

them. Historic sources revealed that Dûmat al-Jandal was an important

religious center for Arab tribes at that time remained under the ruling of



١١٠

succeeding queens, namely Zabîb, Samsî and Ba’tî(Batî) Tuglukhnû, who

were referred to as the queens of the Arabian Peninsula.

One of the most important archeological landmarks of Dûmat al-Jandal is

the Fortress of Mâred, considered as a city by itself, whose inhabitants are

believed to have been the Kindah Arab tribe. Its structure hosts mainly

Nabataean sculptures. One of the famous places of worship of this city is

the Temple of “ Wud”, which belonged to the clan Banî Wabra and was put

under the custody of the clan Banî Firâfsa ibn Ahwas ibn Kalb.

The town of Faw is considered an important archeological site of the pre-

Islamic period in the southern part of the kingdom. It is located on

northwest borders of the Empty Quarter, ٧٠٠ km southwest of Riyadh. On

the other hand, it represents one of the important cities of the pre-Islamic

Arabian Peninsula. The term “qarya” or town was mentioned in the

southern Arabic literature (written in the Musnad script). According to the

same source, it was the capital city of the first Kindi kingdom (from the

middle of the first century BC to the beginning of the fourth century of the

Christian era). This city existed for about eight centuries between the fourth

century BC and the launch of the first caravan going to Yemen, south to the

Arabian Gulf, and north to Sham (Syria and neighboring countries) through

the deserts. King Saud University’s twenty-year archeological excavations

revealed important details about the city. It was found that this city was one

of the biggest contemporary caravan centers of the Arabian Peninsula and

neighboring territories. It is five kilometers long and two kilometers wide

including the agricultural perimeters.

The most important architectural landmarks of the city are the residences,

the markets, the areas for worship, the cemeteries and the industrial zones.

The residential area represents a modal image of the pre-Islamic Arabian

city. This indicates that the city appears to have gone through two

architectural phases during its flourishing period. The market, the Big Tell,



١١١

goes back to the second architectural phase as revealed by discoveries of

pottery from the area. The Big Tell holds a big rectangular building

surrounded by three consecutive continuous walls. It has three stories,

seven towers and a stone-lined, deep well in its center. On either side of its

entrance, small shops and houses were built along its interior walls.

Temples however, are distributed over several places of the site. The Ahwar

and Sin Shams temples are located in the west part of the market whereas

the Temple of “Wud” is situated in the middle of the residential area. It can

be recognized by its distinguished, complete architectural remains. They

consist of a sanctuary, a front hall followed by a back hall and then a

statute. However, no temple was found for the worshiped “Kahl”, despite

evidence of engravings and paintings that talk about it.

The cemeteries are divided into two parts. One of them is a general burial

ground for all kinds of people, and it extends outside the city from the west

edge of the valley of the gypsum zone to the north east of the city. The

other part is a special burial ground reserved for kings and lords. It extends

along the west and the southwest sides of the big hill. The industrial zone is

located to north of the residential area and to west of the market.

Faw is considered a historical site where extensive archeological findings

have been discovered. The most important of them are the writings and

engravings. These writings reveal the importance of the written expression

for Faw. Its strategic and political status imposed on it a great interest in

writing. The “South Musnad Pen” was the town’s official script. It is also

the same script used by the kingdoms of the south of the Arabian Peninsula,

i.e. Saba’, Ma‘în, Qatabân, Hadramawt, Awsân and Himyar. These writings

are found in important town sites such as the business centers and the

religious sanctuaries.

The town has a huge store of cultural artifacts. Local pottery is probably the

most significant. It consists of the local utensils and some imported ones,

particularly the glazed and the Nabataean. They both display clear link



١١٢

between its inhabitants and the north and east of the Arabian Peninsula.

Moreover, other items such as the soapstone, glassware, jewelry and

ornamental and woodcraft materials have displayed more valuable

archeological evidence on the area.

In addition to its location and strategic status as a meeting point of all the

ancient civilizations of China, India, Persia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt, the

Mediterranean and East Africa, Arabia was also honored as the birthplace

of Islam and the launching point for its spread to all parts of earth. Islam

took people from the doom and gloom of deviation and error to the bright

and light of guidance and good sense.

Archeological investigations and survey reports reveal that Islamic

archeological sites are distributed in every part of the Kingdom as cities and

seaports, where paintings, writings and the tools of the activities of daily

life are found. Just as the case was for the pre–Islamic era, trade played an

active and major role in the development of cities in the Islamic era. The

pilgrimage routes to the holy places of Makkah and Madina have played

another important role by establishing centers of Islamic culture in all areas

along these routes. One of the oldest centers in the north of the Kingdom is

the region of al-Jawf. This area has witnessed many events from the history

of Islam, from the Prophet’s (PBUH) famous campaign to Dûmat al-Jandal

in the fifth year of the Hejira, to its fall under the command of Khâlid ibn

al-Walîd during the caliphate of Abu Bakr al-Siddîq. Beside Dûmat al-

Jandal, the fortresses of Tuwair and Moweisen are two very important sites

of Islamic culture in al-Jawf. Archeological sites such as the Mârid Fortress,

the Dûmat al-Jandal old city (the Dir’ quarter), the Mosque of ‛Umar and

Qadir Fortress are also very important archeological landmarks of the area.

Among significant Islamic centers of the northern part of the country is the

town of Rabdha. It is situated southeast of Madina on the main route of

Iraqi pilgrims coming from Kufa on the Zubaida Road to Holy Makkah and

Madina. The town of Rabdha earned its importance as an Islamic city for



١١٣

three centuries from the start of early Islamic era, or even before, till the

end of Abbasid era in fourth century after the Hejira (٣١٩ H/ ٩٣١ AD. The

town is located in the heart of the Arabian Peninsula, half way between

Najd and Hijaz, and is in the middle of the famous mining areas of the

Arabian Peninsula such as the Naqra Mine in the North and the Ibn Salîm

Mine to the South. So the town has benefited from the constantly

commuting trade caravans, the yearly pilgrimage and the strength of local

mining and commerce. All made the town into one of the most important

and flourishing business centers of that time. The excavations of King Saud

University at this site produced discoveries of great importance, including

residential buildings, mosques, water installations, sculptures, writings,

coins, jewelry, ornaments and pottery, as well as stone, glass, wood and

bone tools.

Rabdha flourished, earned fame and became the main station on the path of

the Iraqi pilgrims, particularly those from Kufa and Basra, which have been

important urban centers since the dawn of Islam. Rabdah’s name was also

associated with some of the most important Islamic personalities, like

famous companions of the Prophet (PBUH) such as Abu Thir Al Ghafâri,

the leader ‛Utba Ibn Ghazwân, Salama Ibn Al Akwa‛ and Muhammad Ibn

Salama.

The northwest part of the Kingdom stores many Islamic archeological

landmarks. The pilgrimage routes from Syria and Egypt and Yemen,

seaports of Hijaz, i.e. Jeddah, Jâr (near Yanbu‛), Amlaj al-Wajh and

Dabbâ’, played an important role in the shipping and commercial activities

and contributed to the flourishing of this region during previous Islamic

periods. Successive archeological expeditions revealed writings and

sculptures consisting of Quranic verses, names of dignitaries and traditions

in the Muwailih area. Other sites near the city of Wajh, such as Zuraib,

Baybar, Qusair and Karkama, have revealed intensive sedentary community

gatherings and long standing residential buildings



١١٤

The archeological surveys around Makkah, although limited to the

pilgrimage routes, revealed a great number of finds and historical

landmarks. These landmarks and finds near Makkah mark the pilgrimage

routes from Iraq (the Zubaida Road), Syria, Egypt and Yemen. They

include tens of houses, pools and wells. There are also inscriptions along

these routes and in a number of neighboring sites, holy shrines such as

Hirmân Valley, Khalâs (Hijr Khalîfa) Umm al-Rain and Dumtum al-Batîn

and Shuarâ Mountain. In the inscribed texts, information of paramount

importance is revealed through the shapes of the letters and the varieties of

word forms. Another aspect of these writings is the content that sometimes

states the name of the writer or the one to whom the writing is intended.

Quranic verses, prayers, supplications and poems were clearly engraved on

the sides of the rocks.

In the Eastern Region, several archeological sites were discovered in Al-

Ahsâ’, Jubail, Khobar and Dammâm, etc. Some of these sites worthy of

mention are Mt. Qarîn, Jâwân, Sîhât, Jârûdea, and ‛Aqîr. They go back to

the start of the shining light of Islam. There is the Juwâthâ Mosque, which

is located twenty kilometers northeast of the city of Hufûf. It is believed

that that first mosque ever built in the eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula

goes back to the beginning of the first century after the Hejira. Several

important Islamic archeological sites were found in Ahsâ’, like Ibrahim

Castle, the Castle of the Dome, mixing military and religious architectural

styles. Inside the castle, a mosque bearing several domes and a minaret of a

unique style was built. This castle was established in several phases during

the period between ١٥٦٦ and ١٥٩١. The Castle of Khuzam Rashîd was built

in ١٨٠٥ in the era of Imam Sa‛ud ibn Abdulaziz the Great, and was used as

a military barracks during some periods of history. The ‛Aqîr site, al-‛Ujair,

represents significant archeological landmarks with the old fortress built

during the reign of the Ottomans. Then it was renovated during the reign of



١١٥

King Abdulaziz. The customs building, Abu Zahmûl tower and Barrâka

Tower are all archeological landmarks of the ‛Aqîr region.

The above information on significant landmarks and archeological sites in

the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is only a cup from the flood of the varied

cultures that our land has produced since the beginning of history.



١١٦

THE FINE ARTS

The fine arts in the Kingdom have a rather recent history in comparison

with European and some Arab countries. The beginning was in ١٩٥٧ when

the Ministry of Education announced that Art would be added general

education curriculum for boys and two years later for girls. The young

generations began, therefore, to understand and appreciate free expressive

art through drawing and other forms of artwork. They also began to

discover the importance of colors and the artistic media necessary for good

and beautiful artwork. This contributed to the gradual spread of the

understanding and appreciation of the fine arts among young Saudis. It also

aided the fast growing and comprehensive intellectual development of

Saudi society.

The sixties are considered to be the promotional years of the fine arts in the

Kingdom. During these years, many projects related to the study and

production of art at local and regional levels were implemented. The young

Saudi artist Abdulhalîm Radwî of Jeddah gave the first individual art

exhibition in ١٩٦٤. Other artists, like Mohammed al-Salîm, Safiya bint

Zaqar, Munîra Mûsilî, Abduljabbâr al-Yahyâ and Abdulaziz al-Hammâd

exhibited shortly afterwards.

In the seventies more than eighty teachers and others were sent to the

U.S.A., Italy and Egypt on scholarships for to study for undergraduate and

graduate degrees the fine arts and art education.

This period also witnessed the foundation of the Saudi Arabian Culture and

Arts Association, the inauguration of the Cultural Affairs Department and a

section on the fine arts within the Organization of Youth Welfare. Two

other departments for art education were created in King Saud University in

Riyadh and in Um al-Qura University in Makkah. As a result of these

achievements, the number of Saudi artists increased. Individual and joint

exhibitions started to appear. Moral and financial support and



١١٧

encouragement from the Cultural Affairs Department helped artists present

their works to the public in very well organized exhibitions.

Since the eighties many opportunities were made available for the spread

of formal art locally and internationally. In the kingdom, the decoration of

the buildings, government and private institutions made by Saudi artists

were very impressive. City squares, main streets and coastal sheers also

benefited from these decorations. Outside the kingdom, the Saudi Artworks

were displayed in official international exhibitions. The Kingdom started to

receive official invitations to participate to cultural artistic occasions

organized in all parts of the world.

Saudi artists drew inspiration from different sources, including:

THE LOCAL HERITAGE

Saudi artists were inspired in their works by elements of the Kingdom’s old

local culture and specially the concrete components, e.g. types of traditional

buildings, their constituents of decoration and beautification. Also inspiring

were public markets, aspects of professions and traditional handcrafts in

daily use, pictures of public life in rural areas and of holiday traditions, and

parts of ceremonies at educational and agricultural events.

(Plate No. 1.2)

THE ARAB HERITAGE

The Arab heritage includes stories, legends, poems and different Arabic

environmental settings throughout history. Also there are heroic sources

such as battles, instances of generosity and other Arab values and traditions.

The beauty of Arabic calligraphy and its different styles, now known as the

school of calligraphy, has also been a major source of inspiration for these

artists.

(Plate No. 3)



١١٨

THE ISLAMIC HERITAGE

The Islamic heritage includes the inspiration from the forms and elements

of universally famous Islamic art. It contains elements of geometry, plants

and living creatures. In addition, the alphabet of the Arabic language as

well as its different figures and styles in mosques, palaces and fortresses

have had their inspirational impact on young artists.

(Plate Nos. 4 & 5)

GENERAL HUMANITARIAN SUBJECTS AND ISSUES

These concerns include wars, peace, poverty, hunger and other disasters as

well as childhood, motherhood, old age, family and all situations in human

relationships.

(Plate No. 6)

More of the Kingdom’s artists practice their work in the field of formal

drawing than in any other field of artistic expression. For this reason, it has

became the most dominant genre of art. However many other artists work in

other fields of the fine arts, namely woodcraft, sculpture, pottery and

landscape drawing. These artists present their formal works in different

public and private exhibitions in hotels, universities, consulates and

embassies. The number of artistic shows at the present time ranges between

fifty and seventy in both Riyadh and Jeddah. These exhibitions are not only

of Saudi Artists, but also of artists from other Arab countries, Europe and

Asia.

The artistic styles revealed in the art works of Saudi artists show their

inspiration from the following different schools: realism, impressionism,

surrealism, cubism and abstractionism. Other more individual styles of an

eclectic nature bring together characteristics of two or more art schools in

one coherent style, e.g. putting in relief elements and components of

decorations and details of colors.



١١٩

Despite western stylistic influences, many artists are making good efforts

towards a more individualized style carrying the Arab conceptual identity.

One such individualized style is that of Mohamed Al-Salîm, which he refers

to as “horizonism”. This style is a result of an inspiration from the Arabian

environment, the vast desert offering exhausted view to a far-sought

horizon.

(Plate No.7)

We also find a number of artists who are trying to develop and systemize

the Arabic writing favoring the beauty and the picturesque attributes of the

Arabic calligraphy over the semantic and phonetic representations of the

letters.

(Plates Nos. 8-9)

Another style mixing elements of the traditional material heritage with

scenarios from pure nature in one contemporary work is used mainly by the

artist Munîrah Mosli. She has had very successful efforts in this direction.

(Plate No.10)

After four decades, the fine arts - as conceived in the Kingdom - are as

important as any other component of the local cultural movement, including

poetry, literature and music. They are on their way to maintaining their

natural position among these components. The active movement of the fine

arts is noticed through the many individual and group exhibitions organized

each and all year round in schools, universities and public places. These

exhibitions are accompanied by academic lectures, media coverage and

marketing campaigns to encourage and promote the young generations’

artistic appreciation and performance.

On the international level, we find the Saudi fine arts in most of the

international cultural weeks in the Kingdom as well as in the famous

exhibition that toured world capitals, “The Kingdom between Yesterday

and Today.” We also find art works by Saudi Artists displayed in most



١٢٠

museums in Arab countries as well as in Italy, Spain, Brazil and United

States.

Although the fine arts in the Kingdom are just in their fifth decade, they

have fared better than those of other Arab and neighboring countries whose

fine arts movement began way before the Kingdom’s.

The Kingdom is looking for further advancements in the near future,

especially after the introduction of Saudi fine artwork in some of the most

well known and competitive international exhibitions and art museums.



١٢١

INFORMATION

Since the reign of King Abdulaziz, official information policy in the

Kingdom has been firmly based on the pursuit of objectivity, wisdom and

neutrality in presenting facts. There has been no scope for exaggeration,

provocation or the use of information for mean purposes. This stand was

confirmed by the ١٩٨٢ amendment on information policy, which states up

front that the information process must comply in all its aspects with the

Islamic Sharia.

The information policy also mandates the full support and service of

information media to the society by basing them on the society’s Islamic

values and by maintaining its Arab customs and traditions. The policy also

entails service to the Kingdom’s political system, a system that was

designed to preserve and protect the citizen’s general interests in particular,

and those of the Arabic peoples and the Islamic nation in general. In

addition, it shows great interest in highlighting the Kingdom’s

distinguishing economic, political, social and religious features. It is

concerned as well as with strengthening the social and geographical mutual

understanding within Saudi society, by introducing and spreading factual

knowledge of the country among all members of the society in all parts of

the Kingdom. This aspect of policy is intended to make a significant

contribution to strengthening the citizen’s self-respect and love and fidelity

to his country. It also gives a great deal of importance to the role of the

family in the society by producing special family programs aiming at child

development and care through support of the role of women and the welfare

of youth. Saudi information media respect the necessity of respecting the

rights of individuals and groups, and they uphold the freedom of speech

within the framework of Islamic values and national interests.



١٢٢

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The modern Saudi information age began with the very first days of the

founding of the Kingdom. King Abdulaziz’s Government issued the first

Saudi newspaper, “Umu’l-Qura,” in Makkah in the year ١٩٢٤. The first

information law came four years later in ١٩٢٨. Radio broadcasting started

in ١٩٤٩. In ١٩٥٥, the General Directorate for Radio and Press was founded.

It represented the nucleus for the later Ministry of Information. In ١٩٦٢,

Royal Decree No. ٥٧ ordered the transformation of the General Directorate

into the Ministry of Information. This new institution became responsible

for all information media, and it now consists of three main agencies:

The Agency for Information Affairs, responsible for radio, television,

domestic information, the Saudi Press Agency and the regional information

centers.

× The Agency for Administration and Finance, responsible for all

administrative and financial matters related to the Ministry staff as well as the

technical supervision of all Ministry equipment.

× The International Information Agency, responsible for managing

international information and information centers.

RADIO The first radio broadcasting was launched on Sunday evening, October ١,

١٩٤٩. At that time, the radio depended administratively on the Ministry of

Finance and so remained until ١٩٥٢. In ١٩٥٥, it became an independent

division, called “The General Directorate of Radio,” supervised directly

from the Council of Ministers. At first, broadcasting was limited to studios

in Jeddah. But on January ١٩٦٥ ,٣, Radio Riyadh made its first broadcast.

On August ١٩٧٩ ,٢٠, a unified broadcasting was established between the

Jeddah and Riyadh stations under a common name “ Radio of the Kingdom

of Saudi Arabia from Riyadh.



١٢٣

In ١٩٨٢, there were new developments. The Riyadh Station started

broadcasting “the General Program” and the Second Program was created

for broadcast from the Jeddah Station.

The European Languages programs of the Radio of Saudi Arabia started in

١٩٦٥ with English from Jeddah, and five years later, with French. In ١٩٨٢,

both language programs were put together in one program called “The

European Program,” which was broadcast from Riyadh.

Channels of Saudi Radio presently broadcast the following programs:

Programs Number of hours

× General Program × ٢٠ hours a day

× Qur’an Radio × ٢٠ hours a day

× Islamic Call Radio × ٠٤ hours a day

× Second Program × ١٨ hours a day

× English Programs × ١٢ hours a day

× French Programs × ٠٤ hours a day

× Directed Programs × ٢٠ hours a day

The Directed Programs covering various Muslim countries in Asia and

Africa are broadcast in the following languages: Indonesian, Urdu, Farsi,

Turkish, Bengali, Swahili, Turkistani, Somali, Bambari and Malaysian.

Each program lasts one or two hours except for English and French, which

are twelve and four hours respectively. In addition to these, the Korean

Program is broadcast twice a week, and during the Hajj season, other

directed programs are broadcast intensively.

TELEVISION Television broadcasting started in both Jeddah and Riyadh Stations on July

١٩٦٥ ,١٧. The broadcasts covered only a small area of ٨٠ to ١٠٠ square

kilometers, in and around both cities. By ١٩٦٧, the Jeddah TV station’s

range took in both Makkah and Taif. In December of the same year, the

Madina Station was inaugurated, followed by Qassim’s (١٩٦٨), Dammâm’s

(١٩٦٩) and later Abhâ’s (١٩٧٧).



١٢٤

The launching of color TV broadcasting in ١٩٧٦ was a significant

development in the quality of TV reception. The expansion of the broadcast

coverage through a coaxial cable network installed by the Ministry of

Telecommunications and the use of a satellite and microwave network

covering all areas of the Kingdom have broadened the broadcast range to

cover the whole of the Kingdom and neighboring countries as well.

Saudi Arabian Channel Two started broadcasting on August ١٩٨٣ ,١٢ for

the non-Arabic speakers residing in the Kingdom. The broadcast language

is English. However, it broadcasts a daily news bulletin in French, as well

as occasional programs in other languages such as Urdu, Farsi, Swahili and

others to facilitate and explain the principles of Islamic duties during the

Hajj season.

THE SAUDI PRESS AGENCY The Saudi Press Agency (SPA) was founded in ١٩٧٠ and was the first of its

kind in the Kingdom. It is a central organization that gathers information on

both domestic and international levels. It distributes information on both

levels as well. The SPA is also considered as the official and primary

source of news in the Kingdom.

The agency has taken advantage of the wide availability of

telecommunication services across the country to better deliver its audio-

visual and printed information services locally, domestically and

internationally.

The staff of the SPA consists of more than ٥٠٠ employees, ٨١٪ of which

are Saudi nationals and is represented in all major cities of the Kingdom.

Outside the Kingdom, the Agency has offices in Cairo, Beirut, Tunis,

Washington, London and San’a. It also has correspondents in Jordan,

Islamabad, Bonn and Ankara. It is one of the founding members of the

United Arab Press Agencies, the Gulf Press Agency, the Islamic Press

Agency and the Non-Aligned Countries Press Agency.



١٢٥

THE HIGHER INFORMATION COUNCIL The Higher Information Council was formed by a royal decree in ١٩٨١ and

is directly linked to the Council of Ministers. It is responsible for setting

information policy guidelines for various information bodies to follow. The

Council is also in charge of studying information issues and taking

decisions or making recommendations accordingly. The decree nominated

his R. H. Prince Naif bin Abdulaziz, Interior Minister, as chairman of the

council and nine (later twelve) members drawn from the ranks of high-level

government officials and other information experts.

THE PRESS The Press started with the early days of the Saudi era. The Umu’l-Qura

newspaper, issued for the first time in Makkah Al-Mukarramah in ١٩٢٤,

was the first official newspaper in the Kingdom. In ١٩٢٨, the private sector

started contributing by publishing newspapers and magazines. Al-Islah (the

reform) was the first magazine to be published. Al-Haram magazine

followed two years later. In ١٩٣٢, Sawtu’l-Hijaz (the Voice of the Hijaz)

was published. It stopped during World War II but resumed in ١٩٤٦ under a

new name, Sahiifatu’l-Biladi’s-Saudiya (Newspaper of the Saudi Land).

Twenty-eight years from the first issue of Umu’l-Qura, other newspapers

were issued in other cities of the Kingdom. In ١٩٥٣, Al-Yamamah (the

Dove) magazine was published. Two years later, Akhbar-Dhahrân

(Dhahrân News) was issued. During the fifties, a number of newspapers

such as An-Nadwa (the Symposium) in Makkah, as well as al-Madina, Al-

Bilad and Ukaz in Jeddah were published.

The sixties are considered the most active period in the press history of the

Kingdom. During this period, the Press Establishment Law was issued in

١٩٦٣. It revised the ownership system from individually limited to

cooperative. Chief editors and Directors were officially nominated for all

newspapers. Then a number of newspapers such as Ar-Riyadh, Al-Jazirah

(the Peninsula) and Al-Yawm (Today) commenced publication. Magazines



١٢٦

such as Al-Yamamah, Iqra’ and Ash-Sharq were also published during that

decade. The seventies witnessed the birth of newspapers published in

English, i.e. Arab News from Jeddah in ١٩٧٥, Saudi Gazette from Jeddah

the following year, and last Riyadh Daily from Riyadh in ١٩٨٦.

The total number of daily, weekly, monthly or quarterly Arabic newspapers

reached ٣٧٢. A great number of magazines covering a wide range of

specialized subjects are also published monthly or quarterly in the

Kingdom. They are medical, scientific, technical and cultural and

commercial, such as the magazines from chambers of commerce and

industry. There are other quarterly magazines dealing with contemporary

issues. They may be cultural, such as Ad-Daara published by Daaratu’l-

Malik Abdulaziz, or research oriented, such as Aalamu’l-Kutub, Al-

Buhuuthu’l-Islamiya (Islamic Research), Al-Buhuuthu’l-Fiqhiyatu’l-

Mo’aasira (Con-temporary Islamic Law Research), Al-Idaratu’l-‘Amma

(Public Administration), Al-Majallatu’t-Tibiyatu’s-Sa’uudiya (Saudi

Medical Journal) and magazines published in the various universities of the

Kingdom.

PRINTING PRESS AND PUBLICATION The first printing house was founded in Makkah in ١٨٨٣ and three more in

١٩١٦. Despite the absence of printing experience in the Kingdom before its

unification, these printing houses played a very important role in the

printing and publication of books. They represented the beginning of a

brighter printing and publishing future. The Umu’l-Qura Printing House

was the first one during the Saudi era. The government provided it strong

financial and labor support. Then a number of printing houses followed

with development in the technologies used and an increase in the number of

printing houses across the Kingdom. There are about ١١٦ printing houses in

the Kingdom. In the past thirty-three years, they have printed ٤،٧٠٩ books.

In other words, they have produced an average of ١٤٣ books per year.



١٢٧

Riyadh itself hosts seventy of these presses, followed by Jeddah with

twenty active presses.*

*Source: Amin Saaty’s books on the birth, development and policy of information in the Kingdom.



١٢٨

TOURISM

Tourism in the Kingdom relies partly on landscape and partly on history.

Saudi Arabia covers ٨٠٪ of the Arabian Peninsula, about ٢٢٤،٠٠٠٠ km٢. Its

western coast extends along the Red Sea between the Jordanian border in

the north and the Yemeni border in the south for ١،٨٠٠ km. Its eastern coast

extends along the Arabian Gulf from Ra’s al-Mish‘âb in the north at the

Kuwaiti borders to the Qatari borders south for ٥٠٠ km.

Geologically, the Kingdom consists of a plateau of rock slightly inclining

from West to East. The Empty Quarter, which occupies most of the

southern part of the Arabian Peninsula, is considered one of the biggest

sand basins in the world at about ٤٠٠،٠٠٠ km٢. Finally, there is the Arabian

Shield, where volcanic stony areas along with peaks and relatively thin

layers cover a substantial area of land.

THE CLIMATE The Kingdom is characterized predominantly by hot and dry weather in the

summer. However, temperatures full gradually on the southwest heights.

Heat and humidity prevail in the coastal areas. In the central and northern

areas, temperature can drop below zero in the winter. Snow falls on the Asîr

heights during winter. The period from October to May is usually moderate

all over the Kingdom. Cool breezes spring up at night, and the sun shines

during most of the day. The average rainfall reaches only five inches per

year, except in the Asir region where it can reach twenty inches per year.

NATURAL FACTORS Because of special characteristics, some parts of the Kingdom have very

attractive touristic features. In the Southwest, the West Coast and the

coastal areas constitute not only an area of beautiful beaches, but contain

some very interesting touristic sites such as the city of Jeddah, Jizân,

Yanbu‘, Laith and Al-Wajh. In the Central Region, Riyadh, the capital city,



١٢٩

is attractive due to its recent building boom. The architecture reflects a

mixture of the latest construction methods and techniques along with

traditional and modern styles. The city provides wide range of services of

all kinds. On the East Coast, the cities of Dammâm, Dhahrân, Jubail and

Khobar provide very beautiful scenery. The Tihâma area is the warmest

part of the Kingdom during winter. The Red Sea coastal region is

considered a winter resort area that competes with the resorts on the Sarât

Mountains.

The southern and western regions, Hijaz, have huge areas of green

landscape and forest in the areas of Tâ’if in the center and Bâha and Asîr in

the South. These areas also provide some beautiful mountain views, wild

animals and traditional ways of life and basic means of survival in old

villages. To preserve the natural and historical features of the area, huge

touristic infrastructures have been established, including national parks of

all sizes and types. Asîr National Park, for example, covers ٤،٥٠٠ km٢.

Roads, parking and camping facilities have been built for touristic purposes.

The flora and fauna of the park are very diversified as we find varieties of

plants and animals including tigers, baboons, wolves or jackals, fennecs and

about ٣٠٠ varieties of birds and reptiles. The Ahsâ’ National Park in the

Eastern Region covers forty-five km٢, where seven million trees have been

planted, and where there are several mineral water springs and beautiful

historic sites.

The wild life protection organization has created some wild life protection

zones where rare flora and fauna are protected and preserved. Such zones

like Hurratu’l-Hurra, Tubaiq in the Northwest, Al-Wu’ûl northwest of

Riyadh, Rîdah in Asîr and many islands in the Red Sea are rich in wildlife.

Animals such as antelopes or Arabian wild cows, ibexes and many other

animal species are all cohabitants of these beautiful areas.



١٣٠

THE HISTORICAL FACTORS The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia holds paramount status throughout the

Islamic world. It is the heart of Islamic civilization. Muslims from around

the world orient themselves towards the Ka’bah in their five daily prayers.

There is also Medina, the capital of the first Islamic state and site the

Mosque of the Prophet Mohammed (PBUH). Other historical sites in the

Kingdom include the Madâ’in Sâlih, capital of the people of Thamûd, the

Nabataeans in Western historical tradition. These sites offer beautiful sights

including caves and lined, sculpted graves. Their artistic design and reliefs

indicate their existence for thousands of years. In ‘Ulâ, north of Medina, a

number of inscriptions or drawings belonging to the Dâdânî, Ma‘înî,

Lihyânî, and Thamûdî eras along with the remains of a dam ٧٥٠ m long

represent attractive and enriching historical sites. Another Islamic historical

site of the area of ‘Ulâ is the famous citadel at the top of Mt. Mûsâ that

once belonged to the famous Muslim leader Mûsâ ibn Nusair.

Taymâ’ is considered an old center of civilization. It connected the

Kingdom of Babylon to Egypt, Makkah and the Syria. It was mentioned in

the inscriptions of Tiglath-pileser III, the Babylonian Emperor (٧٢٧-٧٤٥

B.C.) The inscription of Nabonidus, the Babylonian Emperor (٥٣٨-٥٥٥

B.C.), tells the story of the Babylonian, who vainly took Taymâ’ as a refuge

against the campaigns of the Persian emperor, Cyrus.

Other important archeological areas of the Kingdom include Qarya, which

holds ruins indicating a vast surface area and a succession of several

civilizations, most of which are still unknown today. Thâj, however goes

back to the Seleucid era. In the heart of the Husmâ region, some Roman

drawings believed to date from the era of Marcus Aurelius indicate the

existence of a Nabataean/Roman temple that goes back to the second

century AD. In Târût, a small island in the Arabian Gulf, remains of an



١٣١

early people of a Mesopotamian civilization go back to ٤،٠٠٠ or ٥،٠٠٠

years ago.

Najrân, on the other hand, has ever since made the link between the North

and the South of the Peninsula. Some of the most important ruins of the

area are the Ukhdûd, ancient Qarya and sites of Jabal ‘Ajâmah. The remains

of the Ukhdûd big wall and its palaces are still standing and bear artistic

drawings and inscriptions from the Ma‘înî, Sabaean and Kûfî eras.

Jarash, located outside Khamîs Mushayt, dates back before Islam. It was

very well known for skin tanning and exports. Outside Khamîs Mushayt at

a distance of seventy-five kilometers north of Abhâ, big carved tools and

various drawings and inscriptions on Mt. Hamûma are to be found.

The milestones in old Manfûha, Riyadh such as the Birma Cave and the

٢،٤٠٠-year old Thamûdi inscriptions discovered east of Khurais Road

indicate its prosperity at that time.

Dira’iya, located on both sides of Wadi Hanîfa, is an ancient historical town

that goes back to the middle of the ٩th century of the Hejira. The most well

known part of Dira’iya is Turaif, which was the residence of the ruling

family.

Ancient Faw is located on the northwest side of the Empty Quarter and

situated ٧٠٠ km southwest of Riyadh on the meeting point of the Tuwaiq

Mountain Range and Wadi Dawâsir. In Taif, the Samlaqi Dam is located on

the upper part of Laih Valley. It is one of the oldest ancient dams and may

have been built in the period preceding the appearance of Islam. The dam

was built at that point in the valley for the purpose of collecting the water

and irrigating the fields on both sides of the valley. Another historical

landmark is the Mârid Fortress located seventy kilometers northwest of

Buraidah in Qasîm. Its construction goes back to the middle of the twelfth

century of the Hejira.

The ‘Ukaz Market, one of the biggest Arab markets before Islam, was the

battlefield of the war that took place in the year ٥٩٠ B.C. between the



١٣٢

Quraish and the Hawâzin. Some ancient buildings that go back to the

Abbassid era are still standing in ‘Ukâz. The Market itself continued to

exist until the year ١٢٩ H. The Kharâba Pool on the famous Zubaida Road

which joined Iraq with the Holy Lands. The road was built to facilitate the

pilgrim journey to Makkah by providing water and rest areas along the

road.

In the North, the city of Hâ’il, meaning “separator”, is named after the

valley separating two Shammar Range mountains, Ajâ and Salmâ. The city

is built in the middle of this valley on the slope of Mt. Ajâ. In the Jawf area,

the Sarhân Oasis located some ٢٠٠ km northwest of Jawf in the middle of a

valley which is still a very important commercial road for the Adûmî

people. Jawf itself was known under the name of Dûmat al-Jandal when it

was the seat of the rulers of the Adûmî peoples. The Assyrians used to call

the area and the people the Adûmâtû. Jawf offers many interesting

historical and geological sites. Among these is the very famous Mârid

Fortress or Al-Akîdir, near which is a mosque believed to have been built

by the Second Caliph Omar ibn Al-Khattab. In Sakâkâ, the Za‘abel

Fortress, located on the top of Mt. Za‘abel and overlooking a beautiful

oasis, is believed to have been there for at least ١٢٠ years. West of the

Zaââabel Fortress, another mountain called Barnis hosts drawings of

humans in dancing scenes near ancient Arabic inscriptions and others that

look Nabataean.



١٣٣

HUNTING

The average Arab today considers hunting one of his favorite hobbies.

However, until not too many years ago, this sportive hobby was an essential

part of his life. At first, it was a vital means of survival as it provided food

and clothing. It was only when he started exploring other food sources, that

hunting became an enjoyable occasion practiced by all kinds of people

according to their capabilities.

Hunters have gone after several large species, such as zebras, addaxes,

antelopes, ibexes, and smaller species, such as rabbits, hyraxes, jerboas,

lizards, etc. Also hunted were local birds like ostriches, bustards, pigeons,

doves, sand grouses, skylarks, and sparrows. Transients on their twice-

yearly migration have also been prey of the Arab hunters. In the autumn,

the travelers migrate from the cold areas in the north, heading south where

they can find warm areas to enjoy in the winter. Then they stop again on

their way north in the last days of spring to get away from the approaching

hot days of summer. On their ways back and forth, they cross the skies of

the Kingdom, sometimes resting in villages and fields looking for water,

and even sometimes in the country where they rest on tree and mountain

tops after long flights. The villagers take these opportunities to hunt the

birds. These migrants have been identified as cranes, ducks, bustards, bee

eaters and crows and well as varieties with the local names of abu mâlik, al-

gharânîq, al-zarâzîr, al-simqît, al-sofir, and al-‘ub‘û.

The hunting of big animals was done by pursuit on horseback, then spearing

or shooting arrows. Now with the spread of firearms, it has become very

easy to shoot the target from distance. Amateur hunters use very

sophisticated means, such as trained animals like dogs, especially the saluki

which has the best and most accurate sense of smell, the trained falcon,

tamed cheetah, which was first used by a famous Arab hunter, Kuleib

Wâ’il, in the fifth century BC. The cheetah is considered the most noble and



١٣٤

most efficient hunting animal. The female cheetah is fiercer and more

courageous than the male.

The Arab used all of means in their hunting, but when Islam came, hunting

was restricted somewhat. In a number of verses of the Qur’an, all aspects of

the killing of animals are regulated. The Arab poets have used hunting as a

physical support for their descriptive poems. There is even one classical

genre of poetry called “the poetry of the chase,” shi’ru’t-tard, extant in

hundreds of pages. The colloquial poets have also used this sport in their

poems and made their impact with the theme.

Hunting changed with the introduction of vehicles and firearms. Even

though it has been decided to limit the practice of the sport due to

environmental reasons among others, its practice has never ceased and still

practiced by its lovers using all kinds of means.

While nets, traps and snares were traditionally employed to hunt birds, their

most popular hunting method is the use of raptors and trained dogs. Arabs

have used the raptors across the centuries. Small prey have been hunted

with falcons, a bird used by the Arabs for first time by Al-Hanth ibn

Murawiyah ibn Kindah. The most popular are:

× The oqâb or eagle is a leading bird of prey that presents some of the

most singular characteristics that one bird can have. It is the biggest in size, the

fastest in flight, the longest sighted, the finest in hearing and the most cautious in

charging. It can catch the heaviest prey with a short, bent peak and the widest

and strongest maxillaries. That is why he is referred to as al-kâsir, “the breaker.”

× The bâzî or hawk falls into five categories, the goshawk, the qaymî, the

blue hawk, the sparrow hawk and the baydaq. The goshawk is considered the

best, most expensive, most beautiful, heaviest, to have biggest eyes of the softest

feather and the longest beck among the whole hawk family. He is solely

characterized by the following qualities: excessive speed in charging to the point

he was told to be faster than the arrow. The Persians were the first to tame and

train the goshawk.



١٣٥

× The shâhîns fall into three categories, the shâhîn, the aynuqi and the

quttâmî. Of all the birds of prey, the shahîn is the fastest, fiercest, most

courageous and most flexible in following the maneuvers of his prey. It is

however said to be less persistent, cannot stand hunger nor thirst or even a full

stomach and has a weaker defense system. He can also revolt easily, runs away

from his master, and can no longer be used when he has.

× The saqr is the falcon and is the Arabic word from which the English

saker (falco cherrug) is derived. The Arab used to attribute this name to all birds

of prey except the eagle. The falcon falls into three categories, the eagle, the kanj

and the yu’yu’. The falcon is variously called the ajdal, the haytham, and the

madrahî in local Arabic. It is best used in gazelle or deer hunting either alone or

with the assistance of the dog. The falcon keeps chasing the prey and striking it

with its claws on the face until it loses balance or gets disorientated. Then the

dog, which was chasing the prey, catches and bites at it from the flanks or from

the leg till it downs it, holding onto it until its master comes. When the falcon is

hunting alone, he keeps hitting the prey with his beck and wings or bursting its

eyes until he downs it. Then he perches upon it and waits for its master.

Nowadays the most popular hunting raptors are:

× As-saqru’l-hurr (the free falcon) or ash-sharqu’l-ashqar is the

peregrine. It tends to white and is ٦٠cm in height. Its wingspan is ١٤٠ cm, and it

is said to be the best bird of prey. It migrates in winter and flourishes in the

mountainous areas of Central Asia and Eastern Europe. It spends the winter in

some areas of the Arabian Peninsula, where amateurs hunt it by setting traps on

its migration route. This kind of falcon is classified by local hunters into three

levels: as-saqru’l-kâmil u’n-nâdir, the whole, rare falcon, considered to be the

best, al-mathlûth considered of a lesser quality than the former and referred to as

az-zeyz, and the third and last, at-tib‘.

× As-saqru’l-ghazâli’l-wakrî is the aerie deer falcon. It is ٥٥cm in height

and its wingspan is ١٢٥cm. Its body is covered by dark brown feathers on his

back and wings and with lighter ones on its head. Its color ranges from blond, to

red to almost black, according to the area of residence and its environment. It

falls under the same categories as the thoroughbred. These kinds of falcons build



١٣٦

their aeries on the mountaintops, where no man’s hand, they believe, can reach.

But hunters usually climb to the summits, secure themselves with ropes and

descend the mountain cliffs to where the aerie is, steal the young birds to nourish

them till they are grown. While the chicks mature, their masters train them for

hunting. Popular anecdotes related to this process have been recorded, and one

of the most famous stories is that of Maqait and Rashâ.

× The shâhîn like the peregrine falcon, is a migratory bird that usually

comes to the Kingdom during winter. It is smaller than the peregrine falcon with

a height of ٤٨cm and a wingspan of ١١٠cm. Its head and back are dark gray and

the rest of its body is light brown.

Falcons are the mostly widely employed birds of prey for hunting while the

bustards are the mostly widely hunted birds. The falcon proceeds to the

chase in the air placing himself above or in front of the bustard avoiding the

sticky liquid that these birds use as a tool of self-defense. If the falcon

places itself behind or below the bustard, he may receive a squirt of this

liquid, which will handicap his wings and make him fall. Instead, he stays

above or in front of the bustard and keeps pecking at it with its strong beak,

either striking the head or ripping off big portions of the its wings until it

falls. Once the bustard has fallen, the falcon perches on it till its master

arrives.



١٣٧

HORSEMANSHIP

Historians and horsemen disagree on the beginning of horsemanship. Some

think that it began during the Stone Age because the scientist Brown says

that the drawings in the caves of Combe-Grenal in the south of France

resemble hundreds of small horses and carry the clear characteristics of the

Arabian horse.

Another group of scientists thinks that the Arabian horse originated from

the Sahara of North Africa. However, most evidence points to the Arabian

Peninsula as the main origin of the thoroughbred Arabian horse, and from

the peninsula, its transfer through neighboring countries to the rest of the

world.

According to the Arab belief, the Arabian horse came from the wilderness

and lived in the desert before it was tamed. It owes its beauty, strength and

speed to the desert environment it developed in. The Arabs attribute all

horses to five origins: Saqlâwiyât, Kahiyât, Obiyât, Hadabât and

Hamdâniyât. The general idea that color is a factor in the classification of

horses is erroneous. There is no specific color distinguishing one family of

horses from another of a different color. The kind of the horse refers to the

family and each gained its popularity according to the conditions

surrounding it. The Arabs are famous for keeping breeding records. They

have immortalized these records through their poetry. Since ٨١٥ AD, a

team of scholars, such as Al-Asmai, Abu Ubaida ibn al-Muthanna and

others have dedicated their literary efforts to the origins and history of

Arabian horses.

In the past, the great interest that Bedouins had for the horse is reflected in

their dedication of one major part of their literature to the horse. The horse

occupies a major share of the literary volumes of Arabic prose and poetry.

The Arab developed horsemanship before Islam. For them, the racing of

horses is an old Arabian sport. Horses have always met with a great deal of



١٣٨

care and attention in the Kingdom. At the head of those distinguished for

their great interest in horses and horsemanship is his Royal Highness Prince

Abdullah Ibn Abdulaziz. His horse, Baghdad, was the first to win the ١٠٠

Pounds Gold Prize in the very first horse race ever-organized in Riyadh in

١٩٥٢, during the reign of the late King Abdulaziz. The races continued in

the period of King Saud, who was the first to create a platform at the

present racetrack, a vantage from which people could watch the race

comfortably. The races were unscheduled, until ١٩٦٥ when the Equestrian

Club and the racetrack were built in Malaz, a word meaning “place where

horses are ridden.”

On January ١٩٦٨ ,٤, the first race in the history of the club was organized.

During the rest of the same year, fifteen races were run, and a turning point

reached in the history of horsemanship in this country.

The successes of horsemanship mounted, and racing seasons developed. In

١٩٨٤, the Club and the racetrack were rebuilt on the basis of the latest

advancements in the field and international racetrack specifications were

adopted. In ١٩٩٢, King Fahd ordered a١٠٠٪ increase in the amounts of the

cash prizes for each race organized by the club. The total amount of prize

money that year was seven million Saudi Riyals, in addition to eighty-five

cups and twenty-four cars. It was not just a matter for the Club of increasing

the cash prizes or the number of cups, interest grew in insuring better

lineages and stock in the choice of breeding and cross breeding. Selections

of such stock were made not only at the local level, but also from better and

stronger racehorses in United States, England and France. This new policy

has promoted the Saudi Equestrian Club to the level of clubs in the

countries mentioned above.

The Equestrian Club holds weekly races in the summer resort of Taif during

the months of Shawwal and Dhu’l-Qadah of every year. In Riyadh,

however, races are held weekly beginning with the first of Muharram of

every year.



١٣٩

Many government agencies interested in the promotion of Arabian horses,

offer cups and cash prizes to race winners. Other private institutions and

individuals offer cars to the owners of the winning horses. The Equestrian

Club arranges official races for kings, presidents and other international

dignitaries visiting the Kingdom. In addition, the Club runs a riding school

to train young Saudi riders as professional jockeys and employs

international horsemen to teach young dependents of Club members to ride.

Finally, the Equestrian Club is a leading member of the Arab Horsemanship

Union.



١٤٠

JANADRIYA

Janadriya is a name of a group of gardens located in north of the city of

Riyadh. It is a funnel for several valleys and consists of the north, the

middle and the south gardens and used to be called the Suwais Garden. It

was mentioned by a group of historians in their writings about houses and

landmarks of Yamâma. In modern times, it was selected as the site for the

annual Camel Race festival organized by the Saudi National Guard. Today

this festival represents Saudi culture and tradition and expresses the theme

of the individual, time and place and their coexistence and continuity on the

land of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Organizers of the festival have realized that this event could be used

as a stage for cultural and traditional activities that link the present with the

ancient past and the desired future. Thus, the whole conventional village

was set up on a popular pattern in consideration of basic Arab traditions and

Islamic values and under the supervision of His Royal Highness, Prince

Abdullah bin Abdulaziz, Crown Prince, Deputy Chairman of the Council of

Ministers and Head of the National Guard. The idea developed through the

years till it became a well-designed program in pursuit of noble goals. Then

His Highness ordered a high level committee set up for supervision of the

First National Festival of Heritage and Culture under the patronage of his

Royal Highness Prince Badr bin Abdulaziz, Deputy head of the National

Guard for the Preparation of the Festival.

On Saturday ٢٣/٣/١٩٨٥, the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, King

Fahd bin Abdulaziz inaugurated the First National Festival of Heritage

and Culture. From that moment, Janadriya became a promise and a meeting

of culture and heritage for Arab and foreign scholars and intellectuals. It

became not just a Saudi festival, but also a universal one. It combined Arab

and international cultural values, and so it played an important role in



١٤١

seeking mutual cultural understanding, in deepening links between nations

and in joining the individual’s present with his past and future.

Cultural activities are considered one of the main pillars of the yearly

National Festival of Heritage and Culture. In addition to educational,

artistic and formative lectures, specialized brainstorming seminars are

organized to study cultural, economic and social affairs of the international

community. Publishers, private organizations and government institutions

as well as some states of the Gulf Cooperation Council participate in a book

exhibition. Another major component of the festival is an exhibition of

documents and pictures. A competition in the recitation of the Holy Qur’an

is held, too.

Shows and drama are considered a major part of the festival. Artistic groups

of different regions of the Kingdom come to participate and compete. They

offer a variety of morning and afternoon shows as well as a presentation at

night during all days of the festival. These artistic presentations continue

until the closing ceremony. And arts committee organizes these

presentations along with live plays, displays of handicrafts in open markets

and cultural exchanges among participants and guests.

The festival also displays models of traditional handcrafts and skills. This

activity is in a folk market that consists of shops, exhibitions, and indoor

and exhibits. It has occupied a major place in the festival and has given

visitors some of their memories of the festival. The two hundred or so

handcrafts and skills made and displayed in the open market were produced

by the common effort of more than ٢٥٠ craftsmen.

Special stands were allocated for the participation of neighboring states of

the Gulf. They were able to display cultures and civilizations that are part of

their heritage as Arabian Gulf countries. Their exhibits included

archeological items, traditional costumes and cultural displays.



١٤٢

KING ABDULAZIZ CITY FOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (KACST)

King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology is an independent

scientific organization, administratively linked to the Chairman of the

Council of Ministers. It is located in Riyadh and may establish branches in

other cities in the Kingdom. KACST was founded by Royal Decree No.

M/٦٠ dated ٢٩/١١/١٩٧٧, under the name “The National Center for Science

and Technology”. Thereafter, by the power of Royal Decree No. M/٦١

issued on ٥/٨/١٩٨٥, the name was changed and supreme board headed by

the Chairman of the Council of Ministers was formed to manage the center.

One year after the name has also been changed to “King Adulaziz City for

Science and Technology” in accordance with the Royal Decree No. M/٨

dated ٣١/١٢/١٩٨٥.

OBJECTIVES AND TASKS: KACST aims at encouraging scientific research in applied fields. It

coordinates activities of scientific research centers and corporations in the

Kingdom to fulfill the requirements of the development. It cooperates with

the concerned organizations to determine the priorities and national policies

in the fields of science and technology for the purpose of establishing a

scientific and technical base. Such base will provide services the

development in fields of agriculture, industry, mining, as well as other

fields. KACST is also entrusted with establishing a substructure for

sustaining scientific research in the Kingdom, including scholarships,

communication networks between scholars, providing research information

services and carrying out practical research.

RESEARCH INSTITUTES: The strategies of these institutes emphasize adopting plans that concentrate

on researches in certain fields, by producing primary models for products

and/or providing services or finding solutions for feasibly scientific and



١٤٣

economic project. Such researches can be adopted and generalized either by

public or by the private sectors. However, the role of KACST is limited to

the coordination between research institutes and industrial and development

centers.

Research programs, originated from these plans, have been established in

accordance with certain standards, such as meeting specific requirements or

working out solutions for existing problems. Public and private sectors have

benefited from these research programs. As a result a good economic

outcome have been achieved through developing innovative techniques.

THE RESEARCH INSTITUTES ARE THE FOLLOWING: × The Institute of Petroleum and Petrochemical Industries.

× Natural Resources and Environmental Institute.

× Energy Research Institute.

× Geophysics and Astronomy Research Institute.

× Electronics and Computers Research Institute.

× Solar Energy Research Program.

× The Saudi Remote Sensing Center.

× The Scientific Devices Center.



١٤٤

WOMEN

WOMEN IN THE ISLAMIC ERA

Islam came advocating human rights and justice for all members of society.

Islam honored and favored women by giving them rights and obligations

equal to those of men. It also determined a social and religious role of an

importance equal to that of men, with each individual tasked according to

his or her capabilities.

Alongside men, women have taken a major part in the construction and

development of society. Among the woman at the heart of Islam are Lady

Khadîja bint Khuwaylid, Lady ‘ isha bint Abî Bakr and the courageous

companion Lady Um ‘Amâra, Nasîba bint Ka'b bin Amrû bin ‘Awf Al-

Khazrajiya Al-Ansâriya. She took part in several battles (like the battle of

Uhud when she proved her outstanding courage). She was well known, too,

for her participation in the war of Al-Yamâma during the rule of Abû Bakr.

She was also at other battles including Khaybar and Hunain.

During the fifth century Hejira, (١٠١١-١٠١٩ A.D.) women scholars, such as

Karîma bint Ahmad Al-Maruziya who was the authority source of all the

traditions that constituted the book, Al-Jâmi’u’s-Sahîh of Imam Bukhârî.

She was originally from Kashmîhan, Khurâsân but migrated to Makkah and

dedicated her life to learning, so much so that scholars from around the

world came to consult the authority of Imam Bukhârî's book.

During seventh and eighth centuries (١٣٩٧-١٢١٣ A.D.), many women from

Makkah earned the title of Islamic scholar especially in the area of Hadith.

Among them were Amatu’llâh bint Ahmed ibn Abdullah Al-Abnûs, Zaynab

bint Makkî ibn Alî ibn Kâmil Al-Harâzî, Fâtima bint Sheikh Kutubu’d-Din

Abî Bakr Muhammad Al-Qastalânî and Khadîja bint Shihâbu’d-Dîn Ahmad

Al-Qa’aylî Al-Nuwayrî. Women from Makkah have also excelled in

teaching both male and female students and scholars. One was Fâtima bint

Tantâsh ibn Kamashtakîn Al-Baghdâdiya. She was the authority of most



١٤٥

hadiths transmitted by the two most distinguished hadith scholars of her era,

Kutubu’d-Dîn Al-Qastalânî and Sharafu’d-Dîn Ad-Dimyâtî. Another

woman scholar, ‘Âisha bint Ibrâhîm ibn Ahmad At-Tâ’î who lectured in

front of Al-Barzâlî, was the certifying authority for a number of hadith

scholars such as Al-Barhât ibn Ahmad Al-Ya'la Ash-Shâmî. There were a

group of Makkan women of the At-Tabarî family. They included Fâtima

bint Al-Muhib Ahmad ibn Abdu’llah Al-Tabarî, Fâtima bint Muhammad

ibn Abdi’r-Rahmân ibn Othmân At-Tabarî, Fâtima bint An-Nûr

Muhammad bin Abi Bakr At-Tabarî, Fâtima bint Al-Rida Muhammad bin

Shihâb Ahmad At-Tabarî. All were famous for their knowledge in all areas

of Islamic sciences.

During the ninth century, Fâtima bint Abdu’l-Wâhed ibn Az-Zain

Muhammad At-Tabarî and Quraish bint Abdul’-Kader At-Tabarî were also

famous for their knowledge and wisdom as well as their part in changing

the role of women in Islam.

WOMEN IN THE ARABIAN PENINSULA DURING THE MODERN ERA

During the ١٢th and ١٣th century of the Hejira (١٨٨٣-١٦٩٨), women

actively participated in various human activities. Al-Jawhara bint Abdullah

bin Mu’ammar, wife of the late Sheikh Mohamed bin Abdu’l-Wahâb, took

a major part in the reform movement led by her husband. Mudhî bint Abî

Wahtân, wife of the late Imam Muhammad ibn Saud was behind his

decision to ally himself with Sheikh Muhammad Abdu’l-Wahâb. In the area

of academic services to students of that time, Fâtima Al-Fadhîliya devoted a

huge library to students in the community and elsewhere. Some princesses

of the Saud family, such as Imam Faisal bin Turki's two sisters, Al-Jawhara

and Sara, and two daughters, Nûra and Al-Jawhara participated in the

defense of the Da'wa As-Salafiya. In supporting the fight against the

enemies of Islamic propagation, Ghâliya Al-Buqmiya played a major role



١٤٦

along with Mudhi Al-Dahlâwiya, who codified the enthusiastic poetry used

in battles to encourage fiercer fighting.

The condition of women went through many ups and downs before the

establishment of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in ١٣١٥ H. (١٩٣٢). In the

Hejaz, for example, the role of women in society was relatively prominent,

especially in Jeddah, Makkah and Medina. That was due to the

opportunities for education. Although in the Najd, the religious schools

existed, there were very few in numbers compared with the Hejaz. And in

these religious schools, were teachers who got their education from their

fathers or husbands. They either had various names all indicating the

frequency of the religious curriculum their schools. Among the very well

known religious schools of Makkah were those of Sayyida Ashiya, who at

the beginning of fourteenth century Hejira established Ash-Shâmiya for

Girls, the Sûltiya School and Al-Fâqiha Fâtima Al-Baghdâdiya School.

WOMEN'S EDUCATION

After the unification of Kingdom, semi-formal schools were established by

citizens who undertook the development of some of the religious schools as

regular schools. Among the most famous of these was Madrasatu’l-

Banâti’l-Ahaliya (The Private School for Girls). It was established in

Makkah ١٣٦٢ H (١٩٣٤) and was part of an effort made by a group of

pioneers who supervised the establishment of Dar Al-Ulûmu’d-Dîniya (The

House of Religious Sciences) in Makkah in ١٣٦٢ H (١٩٣٤). The school was

mainly primary and first followed the curriculum proposed by the regional

Office of Education. Other disciplines suitable for women, such as sewing

and childcare immediately introduced for girls. That was followed in ١٣٦٧

H (١٩٤٧) in Makkah by the appearance of Madrasatu’l-Fatât li’l-Thaqâfi

wa’t-Tadbîr (The Girl's School for Culture and Home Management). Like

the school just mentioned, grades were added to the primary level, and they

followed the curriculum of the Office of Education.



١٤٧

In ١٣٧١ H (١٩٥١), the Royal Family founded the Riyadh Model Institute as

a private school for their daughters. Then in ١٣٧٥ H (١٩٥٥), the late King

Faisal, who was Crown Prince at that time, ordered the foundation of Dâr

Al-Hanan schools in Jeddah with full financial support for all expenses. The

management and supervision of this school was done under the auspices

King Faisal's wife. It also included classes from kindergarten to high

school. In ١٣٧٨ H (١٩٥٨), the Zahra School for Girls was founded by Omar

Abdu’l-Jabâr. TABLE SHOWING PRIVATE SCHOOLS ESTABLISHED BEFORE THE FOUNDATION OF

THE GENERAL PRESIDENCY FOR GIRLS’ EDUCATION

No. Name of the School

Date of Creatio

n

Location Present Status

١ Makkah Primary School ١٩٤٣ Makkah Still active ٢ National Girl, Makkah ١٩٧٤ Makkah Still active ٣ The Riyadh Quranic School ١٩٥٠ Riyadh Still active ٤ Riyadh Model Institute ١٩٥١ Riyadh Now government ٥ The Youth Cultural Center ١٩٥١ Riyadh Still active ٦ Dar-ul-Hanan, Jeddah ١٩٥٥ Jeddah Still active ٧ Al-Naseefiah, Jeddah ١٩٥٥ Jeddah Still active ٨ Rawdhat-ul-Ma'arif, Jeddah ١٩٥٥ Jeddah Still active ٩ Al-Faisaliah, Makkah ١٩٥٥ Makkah Closed ١٠ Hadeeth-ul-Atfaal, Jeddah ١٩٥٧ Jeddah Still active ١١ Bait-ul-Atfaal, Jeddah ١٩٥٨ Jeddah Still active ١٢ Al-Zahraa', Makkah ١٩٥٨ Makkah Closed ١٣ The Model School, Dammam ١٩٥٨ Dammam Still active ١٤ The Model School, Riyadh ١٩٥٨ Riyadh Still active ١٥ The Model School, Mekkah ١٩٥٩ Makkah Still active

On ٢٠ Rabi’ul-Akhir ١٣٧٩ H (٢٢ October ١٩٥٩), a royal degree opening

girls’ schools under the supervision of an official organization and

according to criteria, laws and regulations taken from the Sharia was issued.

Fifteen primary schools of eight classes each were opened the following

year including one class for female teacher training in each school. The

number of schools increased by the beginning of the five-year plan in

(١٣٩١-١٣٩٠ H) (١٩٧١-١٩٧٠) to reach ٣٨٣ schools and institutes

constituting a total of ٣،٩٠١ classes. During the following five years,

schools proliferated quickly. The number of girls’ schools had reached

١٠،٥٧٢ according to the ١٤١٥-١٤١٤ H (١٩٩٤-١٩٩٣) census.



١٤٨

TABLES SHOWING WOMEN’S SCHOOLS IN THE KINGDOM IN 1414-1415 H (1993-1994) The Level of Education Schools

Riadh-ul-Jaamiah

Presidency Ministry of Defense

National Guard

Ministry of Labor

National Educatio

n

Total

٧٥١ ٣٤٣ ١٨٨ ١٠ ٤ ٢٠٦

General ٤،٨٧٨ ٢٨٢ ٦ ٣١ ٣١ ٤،٥٢٨ Primary Quranic

١١٩ -

٢

-

١٥

١٣٦

Intermediate General ١،٧٨٠ ١١٢ ٢ ٨ ١٨ ١،٦٤٠

Quranic ٤٠

-

-

-

٢

٤٢

Secondary General ٨٥٧ ٦١ ٢ ٦ ٩ ٧٧٩ Quranic

١٨ -

-

-

-

١٨

Female Teachers' Training

Institutes (Female Teachers)

١٤٦

-

-

-

-

١٤٦

Middle Colleges

٢٥ - - - - ٢٥

Up-graded Colleges

٧ - - - - ٧

Technical Education and Training Centers

٢٥

-

-

-

-

٢٥

Special Education ١٨ - - - - ١٨ Illiteracy and Adult Education Centers

١،٣٥٦

١٣

٥

١

-

١،٣٧٥

Grand Total ١٠،٠٥٨ ٨١٥ ١٩٩ ٦٢ ٧٥ ٨،٩٠٧

TABLE SHOWING WOMEN’S COLLEGES UNIVERSITY COLLEGES CONNECTED TO THE GENERAL PRESIDENCY FOR GIRLS'

EDUCATION College Category No. of Colleges No. of Female

Students Faculty Members

University Colleges ١،٤٧٢ ٢٩،٨٠٠ ١٤ The table above shows that, during the school year (٩٤-١٩٩٣) ١٤١٥-١٤١٤

the number of women’s colleges reached a total of forty-six colleges with a

total student population of ٥٦،٨٩٢ female students with ٣٥٣ studying

towards a master's degree and ٢٧٦ towards a doctorate. Each of the five of

the big universities in the Kingdom, King Saud University, Al-Imam

Mohamed ibn Saud Islamic University, King Abdulaziz University, Umu’l-

Qura University and King Faisal University, offer graduate degrees (except

King Faisal University) and undergraduate studies in all fields of

specialization for women.



١٤٩

WORKING WOMEN

Saudi women have always actively contributed to the realization of the

Kingdom’s development plans. This active participation is confirmed by the

statistics of Saudi women working for the public sector. These data indicate

that the number of Saudi and non-Saudi women working in the public

sector increased from ١٧٥،٦١٧ employees and workers in ٩٤-١٩٩٣ to

١٨٣،٠٧٣ in ٩٥-١٩٩٤. This increase represents ٤٪ during one year. ٦٨٪ of

this last figure are Saudi and ٣٢٪ are expatriates from various countries. A

greater number work in the educational sector. The health sector is third,

and fewer serve in other various sectors. FIGURE 1 NUMBER OF FEMALES GOVERNMENT EMPLOYEES DURING FY 1944/85 AND

1985/86

٢٠

١٥

١٠

٥

٠

٣٪

٨٪

٤٪

٣٪

٤٪

F. Saudi ١٢١١٨٢ ١٢٤٤٣٥ F.N-Saudi ٥٤٤٣٥ ٥٨٦٣٨ Total ١٧٥٦١٧ ١٨٣٠٧٣

Fiscal Year ١٩٨٤/١٩٨٥

Fiscal Year ١٩٨٥/١٩٨٦

٨٪



١٥٠

TABLE 2. SAUDIS AND NON-SAUDIS FEMALE STAFF IN THE KINGDOM ACCORDING TO THEIR PROFESSIONAL CATEGORIES FOR THE FISCAL YEAR 1994-1995G.

Saudis Non-Saudis Total Percentage Professional categories ١٦٫١ ٢٩،٢٥٦ ١٧،٢٢٥ ١٢،٠٣١ % Faculty Members ١٫٩ ٣،٥٦٤ ١،٣٤٢ ٢،٢٢٢ % Educational Levels ٦٢٫٩ ١١٥،١٩٢ ١٨،٨٩١ ٩٦،٣٠١ % Health Employees ١٤٫٧ ٢٦،٩٢٧ ٢٠،٦١٠ ٣،٦١٧ % Workers ٤٫٤ ٨،١٣٤ ٥٧٠ ٧،٥٦٤ % Total ١٠٠ ١٨٣،٠٧٣ ٥٨،٦٣٨ ١٢٤،٤٣٥ %

(Includes No. of Non-Saudi Female Staff on temporary basis amounting to ١٨،٦٥٠) TABLE 3. NO. SAUDIS AND NON-SAUDIS FEMALE UNIVERSITY TEACHING STAFF "" DISTRIBUTED ACCORDING TO THEIR ACADEMIC LEVEL FOR THE FISCAL YEAR 1415-

1416H./1994-1995G. Academic Level Saudis Non-Saudis Total Percentage Professor ٣٫١ ١٠٨ ١٠٥ ٣ % Associate Professor ٥٫٧ ٢٠٤ ١٧٩ ٢٥ % Asst. Professor ٢٦٫٨ ٩٥٥ ٦٠٠ ٣٥٥ % Lecturer ٢٦٫٩ ٩٥٩ ٢١٠ ٧٩٤ % Demonstrator ٣٧٫٥ ١،٣٣٨ ٢٤٨ ١،٠٩٠ % Total ١٠٠ ٣،٥٦٤ ١،٣٤٢ ٢،٢٢٢ %

TABLE 4. NO. OF SAUDIS AND NON-SAUDIS FEMALE HEALTH EMPLOYEES

DISTRIBUTED ACCORDING TO THEIR PROFESSIONAL CATEGORIES FOR THE FISCAL YEAR 1415-1416H. / 1994-1995G.

Health Employees Category

Saudis Non-Saudi Total Percentage

Consultant Physician ٠٫٣ ٧٨ ٣٦ ٤٢ % Specialist Physicians ٢٫٨ ٧٥٧ ٤٤٠ ٣١٧ % Resident Physicians ٨٫٩ ٢،٤٠١ ١،٢٨٥ ١،١١٦ % Pharmacist ٠٫٨ ٢١١ ٦٦ ١٤٥ % Specialists ٣٫٦ ٩٧٨ ٦١٣ ٣٦٥ % Technicians ٦١٫١ ١٦،٤٦٤ ١٢،٢٠٩ ٤،٢٥٥ % Health Assistant 'A' ١٤٫٤ ٣،٨٨٥ ٣،٨٦٣ ٢٢ % Health Assistant 'B' ٨٫١ ٢،١٥٣ ٢،٠٩٨ ٥٥ % Grand Total ١٠٠ ٢٦،٩٢٧ ٢٠،٦١٠ ٦،٣١٧ %

TABLE 5. FEMALE EMPLOYEES IN THE KINGDOM "SAUDIS AND NON-SAUDIS" DISTRIBUTED ACCORDING TO AGE CATEGORIES FOR THE FISCAL YEAR 1415-1416H. /

1994-1995G. Healthe Employees Category

Saudis Non-Saudis Total Percentage

Under ٢٠ Years ٠٫١ ١٦٠ ١٠٩ ٥١ % ٢٩ - ٢٠ years ٢٠٫٧ ٣٧،٨٣٦ ٢،٦٩٥ ٣٥،١٤١ % ٣٩ - ٣٠ years ٤٣٫٠ ٧٨،٧٤٤ ١٤،٣٩٠ ٦٤،٣٥٤ % ٤٩ - ٤٠ years ١٧٫٢ ٣١،٤٥٣ ١١،٦٨٣ ١٩،٧٧٠ % ٥٩ - ٥٠ years ٤٫٤ ٨،٠٦٤ ٤،٢١٧ ٣،٨٤٧ % ٦٠ years and above ٤٫٠ ٧،٣١٩ ٦،٣٩٢ ٩٢٧ % Undetermined ١٠٫٦ ١٩،٤٩٧ ١٩،١٥٢ ٣٤٥ % Grand Total ١٠٠ ١٨٣،٠٧٣ ٥٨،٦٣٧ ١٢٤،٤٣٥ %



١٥١

CLOTHES

People’s level of progress can be measured by the extent to which

they preserve their traditions. Saudi Arabia has a great history extending

back thousands of years, a history abundant with various elements

expressing a special taste in practicing a lifestyle that suits the environment

and springs from customs and traditions.

Clothes may be the most important of these elements. Let us consider here

the traditional costume with its distinctive rich colors, simple lines, decency

and the artistic beauty that reaches a high degree of skill and precision in

spite of primitive tools and a scarcity of resources.

MEN’S CLOTHES

Headdresses

The Tâqiya or Skullcap The tâqiya is a name given to anything put directly on the head. It has other

names such as kûfiya and hadriya. The tâqiya is usually made either of

plain white or colored fabric, or of crocheted cotton thread. It is lined with a

light layer of cotton and embroidered with white thread for adults and gold

or silver for youths and children. The Ghotra

The ghotra is a square piece of fabric, folded in the form of a triangle. It is

put on the head with the middle of the fold over the middle of the forehead.

Its drapes over the head and shoulders with the length of the right and left

sides equal. The fold over the middle of the forehead is distinctive and is

known as the ‘morzâm’. The types of ghotra are: The White Ghotra

It is made of cotton fabrics, mainly lawn. The Red Ghotra or Shimâgh

The red ghotra, or shimâgh, is one of the winter head covers made of white

cotton woven with red.



١٥٢

The Shâl The shâl is made of white or brown wool and is decorated with various

colors. It is to be worn in the winter. The ‘Oqâl

The ‘oqâl is placed over the ghotra in order to fix the ghotra on the head.

There are several kinds: The Black ‘Oqâl

Black is the color of the ‘oqâl used nowadays. It is made of thin

threads of black wool wound over a circular filler twice the length of the

circumference of the head to form two circles, one over the other. The White ‘Oqâl

The white ‘oqâl is made of white wool, to a large extent similar to the

black ‘oqâl used at present, but it is no longer used. The Brocaded ‘Oqâl (The Shatfa)

The brocaded ‘oqâl (the shatfa) is made of ten ribs, folded in two

layers to form a pentagon. Each rib consists of two thin cylinders, one over

the other, covered with golden thread, zarî, joining them together. A link in

the form of a ball of black wool joins the ribs. It is known as Faisal’s ‘Oqâl

because King Faisal was the most famous of those who wore it in his time. The ‘Imâma or Turban

The ‘Imâma or turban is a rectangular piece of white cotton fabric,

usually wound about the head, and it is used by tribal and religious leaders.

The Hijazi ‘Imâma is well known as the Alfî. The ghobâna ghotra, a ghotra

decorated with yellow threads imported from Syria, and the wool Shâl are

used as turbans in the Western Region. The ‘Usâba

The ‘usâba is made of various materials such as leather or hay and is

for the fastening of aromatic plants around the head. Men of the Southern

Region use it to decorate their heads, which are bare most of the time.

Outer Garments

These were mostly manufactured locally in homes. They were fitted, sewn,

decorated or embroidered according to the type of clothing, except for some

ready-made or imported clothes.



١٥٣

The Maqta, Dirâ‘a or Thûb The maqta is similar to the thûb used nowadays. However, it is larger and

consists of the badan or body, the akmâm or sleeves, the banâ’iq or collar,

and the takharîdh or the khashâtiq. It was generally made of white cotton,

although the character of this cotton differed from that of others with

respect to quality of fabric, brightness of color and degree of thickness. The

best known kinds were the khâm, the baft, the poplin, the dûblîn and the lâs. The Maravdan or Abu Radûn Thûb

The Maravdan is known by this name in most regions, and also

known as the mothîl or as the mofrij in the Southern Region. It is similar to

the maqta in its main lines, but broad sleeves that are triangular in shape

distinguish it. Other kinds that are similar but with a few differences are the

mobaqash thûb known in the Qasîm Region, the shakâra known in the Hail

Region and the malûsin, or Abu Alsina, with a rectangular piece possibly

added to the sides of the sleeves. The Zibûn

The zibûn is an open fronted garment made of various fabrics, mainly soft

striped polished cotton imported from Syria. The garment made of such a

fabric is called the shâmî zibûn, or the barsîm Zibûn. Another kind of zibûn

is named the tarma, with reference to the fabric of tarma. The zibûn is of

excellent white wool decorated with diverse colors and is put on over the

maqta or the thûb. If you wear a vest under it, then the suit is called a badla.

It is the garment of formal dress on ceremonial occasions and festivals. The Sâya

The sâya is similar to the zibûn but is shorter and is made of thin summer

fabric of light color. It is also a garment for ceremonial occasions. The Daqla or Bâltû

The daqla is a long open-fronted garment, similar to the zibûn. However, its

collar is higher, and it is made of various dyed wools. It spread in the ‘Âridh

Region where it became known as al-daqla al-‘ârdhiya. In the Hijaz, it is

known the bâltû.



١٥٤

The Shâya The shâya is a long open-fronted garment with long sleeves, worn over the

thûb and tied with a thin belt at the waist. It is one of the garments used in

the Hijaz by traders and religious leaders. The Kût

The kût is similar to the present-day kût and is worn by youths instead of

the shâya in the Hijaz. The Jobba

The jobba is a long, open-fronted garment with long sleeves reaching to the

wrists. In summer, those made of linen or of white calico are worn, and

those of dyed wool in winter. Its use spread in the Hijaz. It is also used in

the Najd area to a limited extent, i.e. in wintry places. The Jûkha

The jûkha is a jobba made of soft broadcloth, Mâhûd, in various colors such

as black, blue, green and red. It is decorated with gold threads and is usually

imported from India. The Dâmir

The Dâmir is similar to the jûkha, though it is shorter. It is worn on

ceremonial occasions and for folk dancing. It was originally Syrian and was

named farmaliya. The Zakhma

The zakhma is a short sleeveless garment, reaching to the waist. It is made

of broadcloth or velvet and is decorated with threads called zarî. The Sadriya or Vest

The sadriya or vest is a short sleeveless garment, open down the front. It is

usually made of wool and is worn over the maqta or the kût. The Musannaf

The musannaf is a long folded drapery covering the shoulders in winter and

used in the Western and Southern Regions. The Mashlah or Bisht

The mashlah or bisht is a cloak of wool that varies in thickness according to

the season for which it is made. Its colors also vary according to the color

of the wool of the animal from which it was taken. After it came to be made

of modern, imported raw materials, its colors multiplied. It is long, loose,

rectangular in shape, open at the front and made of double-sided fabric. It is



١٥٥

adjusted to fit a man’s height by a form of inner fold. The openings are

usually decorated with gold or silver threads. Ornaments made of these

threads hang from these openings as balls of zarî threads.

The mashlah is put on the shoulders over the ghotra. The common method

of putting on this garment is to place the right hand into the sleeves where

the left hand can catch the right side of the garment to move it to the left

side. This garment is for outdoor wear. Though much traditional clothing

has disappeared, the mashlah still remains in fashion. Moreover, it is an

important item of clothing that must be worn on by people of consequence.

It is also used for ceremonial occasions and special parties such as

weddings. Throughout the Kingdom and the Arabian Gulf one of the best

known places for wearing and decorating these garments is the Ahsâ

Region. The Barqâ’ ‘Abâ’a

The barqâ’ ‘abâ’a is a kind of cloak that is in widespread use, especially in

the northeast and the middle of the Arabian Peninsula. It is made of spun

wool. It should show black and white or brown and white lines that reflect

the color of the wool of the animals from which it was taken. The Farwa

The farwa is a large long open-fronted cloak made of lamb’s skin and

fleece. The outer surface is usually covered with a woolen fabric or dyed

broadcloth while the inner surface is covered with fleece. It is commonly

used in cold regions of the northern Arabian Peninsula. The Baidî

The Baidî is a heavy garment made of spun wool that is usually white. It is

made in the Hijaz, in the south of the Arabian Peninsula, and in regions like

Ghâmid, Zahrân and Asîr, where it is commonly used. It is used, too, in the

southern parts of Najd. The Hizâm or Belt

The hizâm or belt is made of leather or rope, and men usually wear it over

clothes to fasten or tie them up during work. It is also used for carrying

arms or money, or for decoration.



١٥٦

Underwear

The Sadriya, the Arrâqyia or the Fanîla This sadriya or undershirt is an undergarment made of white cotton and has

an opening in the front which is closed by buttons, a high collar and short

sleeves. In most regions it is known as the sadriya though it differs from the

sadriya or vest worn over underwear. In the Hijaz, it was named the

arrâqiya and was replaced with an undershirt, fanîla, made of white cotton,

which later became available in the markets. The al-Sarwâl al-Tawail or Long Pants

The al-Sarwâl al-Tawail or long pants are made of white cotton fabric.

They are tied in the middle with a fabric belt named the dikka or the rabqa,

which is strung through a sewn fold in the upper part of the trousers and

tied in the front. The Wazra or Fûta

The wazra or fûta is a rectangular piece of fabric, the open side of which is

sewn. To cover the lower half of the body, it is wrapped around the waist,

where the extra part of it can be folded. It is fastened round the waist with a

separate belt.

WOMEN’S CLOTHES

Head Coverings

Head coverings have been an essential part of women’s clothing, which

they wear continuously at home or abroad. They vary in color, material and

decoration according to the region. In the Eastern, Central and Northern

Regions, women used the shîla, ghadfa or malfa‘. All of these were

synonyms of the headscarf that is in the form of a rectangle made of a light

black cloth wrapped around the face. In the Southern Region, the head

covering was a piece of yellow or red fabric decorated with a number of

colored silk threads. A hat called the tafsha or hatfa was worn when women

were outside home. In the Western Region, because of the number of

articles of clothes placed one over another, women came to use the



١٥٧

shanbar. It is a small triangle of fabric worn under a mahrama, which is in

the form of rectangle made of white fabric. On the top of that a mudawwara

can be placed. The mudawwara is a square piece of fabric decorated with a

flower print. Another article of dress that can be used with those already

mentioned is the tarha. It is put on over the mudawwara. Other kinds

known as the bairam and the qarqûsh were common in the Tâ’if Region

and nearby villages.

Outer Clothing

The Maqta or Darâ‘a The maqta or darâ‘a is the woman’s main garment in the Northern, Eastern

and Central Regions. It is a long and loose garment with long sleeves

consisting of numerous parts, such as the body, the collar, the sleeves, the

takhârîs or the khashâ tiq, which vary in the kind of fabric and the

decoration. The Zibûn

This is an open garment from top (the neck) to toe (the foot) with buttons

fastening its upper part. Its components are similar to that of the maqta, in

addition to a high collar and openings in the two sides. It is made of various

kinds of fabrics, especially velvet, and embroidered with gold thread (zarî).

It is common in the Western Region where it is regarded as the main article

of dress. It can be a burnoose with high collar and short sleeves. The Karta

It is common in the Central, Eastern and Northern Regions and is regarded

as one of the developed stages of the maqta. There are small folds in the

lower part, named the jûnla, with a circular opening of the neck that allows

the head to enter. It is also known in the Western Region, and is more

modern than the zibûn. The bodice, the middle folds and the long sleeves

also distinguish it. The Duke’s Thûb

The duke’s thûb is worn by the Harb tribes in the Western Region. It is

distinguished by a rectangular piece of fabric as long as a foot attached to



١٥٨

the lower part of the sleeves. Its decorations and embroidery are also

distinctive. The Sûn Thûb

The sûn thûb is a narrow dress made of black cotton and embroidered by

hand with varied stitches. The prevailing colors are yellow, orange and red.

White beads are used as well. Such a kind of dress was common in Thaqîf

and Mîssân of the Tâ’if Region. The Mobaqar Thûb

The mobaqar thûb is known to the Shifâ and the Hadâ of the Tâ’if Region,

and is made of the blue and the black cotton in the form of wide rectangles.

The chest and the sleeves are decorated in zigzag lines, similar to the sadra

thûb, but made only of blue. The Mujnab or Muwarrak Dress

The Mujnab or Muwwarak dress is a favorite of Asîr women. It is given this

name because of the part beginning at the upper hips which hangs down in

wide folds. It is also distinguished by the style of the sleeves, set into the

side and going under the arm. It is decorated on the chest and sleeves with

lengthwise lines and made of various fabrics, mainly in black. This dress is

similar to the dress common in the Bâha region, but the side part is

narrower and longer. The Thûb

The Thûb is a loose garment worn over the maqta in the Central and

Eastern Regions, and over the zibûn or karta in the Western Region. (It is

unknown in the Southern Region.) It is known in the Central Region as

sahâbî, and in the eastern region as the nashil dress, formed of the same

parts as that of the maqta, however, it has a square form, and sometimes it

is loosened into the form of rectangle. When this dress is for special events,

it is made of thin fabric decorated with various materials such as sequins

and silver, gold and silk threads. It varies according to the original material,

like the qaz dress, or to the kind of embroidery, like the masrah dress, or to

the occasion, like the prayer or salât dress, or to the country of origin, like



١٥٩

the Indian or Hind dress, which is of cotton fabric, painted brown, and

embroidered on the lower bodice with the knot method called tasrîr.

The Outdoor Clothes and Headscarves:

We mean by this the articles of clothes women wear when they go out.

They vary in form and name. Such variation was clear in the Hijaz,

influenced by groups of Muslims who came from abroad and settled in this

region. The most important of these dresses are: The Malâya

The Malâya is a rectangular piece of black taffeta fabric worn over the head

so as to cover the forehead and having its sides tied on the front. It is

accompanied with a long face veil called the burqa‘ made of a sheer white

material, dirâbizûn, to cover the face. The Turkish Qan‘a or Veil

The Turkish qan‘a or veil is one of the garments brought by the Turkish

pilgrims. It is twofold, the upper part covering the head, and lower in the

form of a narrow jûnla, in addition to the bîsha, which covers the face. The Shâmî or Syrian Qan‘a

The shâmî or Syrian qan‘a is rectangular piece of thick black silk, longer

than the lady’s body so as to fall loosely on the hips and legs, fastened by a

belt at the waist. The face is covered by the bîsha. The Jâma

The Jâma was brought to the Hijaz from India, and consisted of the tâqiya,

from which a tied fabric falls round the head. It is also distinguished by the

shabkî, a sheer piece of fabric (net) over the eyes. The Kâb

The kâb is a loose dress, distinguished by a circular piece open in the front

and covering the whole body from shoulders to feet. It is sleeveless, usually

fastened or closed by a rope near the neck, and worn by girls. The ‘Abâ’a

The ‘abâ’a is an outdoor garment in the Eastern, Central, and Northern

Regions. It has become common in the Western Region after the union of

the Arab Peninsula represented by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. This cloak

is still used as an outdoor garment in the Kingdom.



١٦٠

The ‘abâ’a is described as a long, loose rectangular form, open from the

front, made of fabric to fit a woman’s body. It has a circular shape. Its

openings were decorated with golden or black silk threads or both of them.

Sometimes embroidery is added on the front, on the chest, and there are

some other ornaments dangling down.

It was made of locally spun and knotted wool. However, an important

change occurred to the fabric types in use where some machine knitted

kinds started to be used. This followed by new kinds of ‘abâ’as, such as the

habra, the natural silk ‘abâ’a, and machine-made silk ‘abâ’as as the result

of the development of textile manufacturing. The Dafa or Mâhûr ‘Abâ’a

The dafa or mâhûr ‘abâ’a is worn by brides in the Eastern Region, as well

as in the Qasîm area, and is made of black broadcloth, is without a collar,

and is decorated by golden threads. In addition to some embroidery on the

bodice, a number of golden threads come out of the front opening on both

sides.

Underclothes

The Sadîriya or Sadriya The sadîriya or sadriya are underclothes that were common in the Hijaz

and Qasîm areas. They consist of a shirt open in the front covering the

chest, have a high collar and half-sleeves and are fastened by buttons named

tarkîba, from the most famous gold pounds. The Sarwâl or Trousers

The sarwâl or trousers are long and loose in the upper part and narrow in

the lower part of the leg. They are mostly decorated or embroidered on the

lower outer parts. In some regions it was common to make decorations on a

separate piece of cloth and then attach them to the trousers. In this way it

could be removed and resewn on new trousers. Sometimes the decorated

part of the trousers might not be of the same fabric. It might be made of

colored fabric (in the Eastern and Western Regions) or made of black

cotton (in the Southern Region). The striped or more colorful cotton fabric



١٦١

was preferred for making everyday trousers. A fabric belt used to fasten the

trousers was called the dakka, darka or rabqa. The dakka was attached to

the upper part of the trousers.

Footwear

Footwear was limited, showed simple designs, and was made mostly of the

local natural resources, such as animal skins, and the straw of the palm

trees. The various kinds were named the ni‘âl, the hithyân, the zarâbîl, the

madââs, the jarâbât, the Yemeni kanâdr, talîk, qabqâb, khuf, and the bâbûj.

CHILDREN’S CLOTHING Children’s clothing was like those of adults though different in size. The

material for children’s clothes is chosen from decorated fabrics of light

beautiful colors to suit their nature. Sometimes girls’ clothes are decorated

with pieces of silk in various colors such as red, green and yellow. These

silk pieces were placed on the upper part of the back. Children’s hats

received much care and artistry. They were given several names, such as

the qaba‘, qahfiya, and killâw, and used either for warmth or for ornament

only. It is traditionally known that female children’s hair was to be shaved

in order that the hair could be strengthened and improved. So hats became

important and necessary for children to use till their hair returned to its

normal length. At the age of six or seven, girls put on dress over the maqta.

When outdoors, the girls had to wear the bakhtaq to cover the head, instead

of the ‘abâ’a, and to continue to do so till the time they were not allowed to

play with children outside the house. The bakhtaq is a rectangular piece of

sheer black fabric embroidered with designs of plants with gold thread. One

side is framed and heavily decorated, folded in two halves in the front,

closed at the lower part after leaving an opening surrounding the girl’s face.

It covers her shoulders, back, chest and the head. Its length is varied

according to wishes and traditions. It was common for girls in the Eastern,

Northern, and Central Regions. However, girls in the Qasîm Region wore



١٦٢

the dafa ‘abâ’a, which is smaller version of the bridal dafa. It is decorated

with gold thread and clusters of embroidery around the head opening,

especially for when the girl goes to school. It is also used as a special dress

when girls celebrate their learning to recite the Holy Qur’an. Girls are taken

in this dress from school to their houses when they have passed the test of

reciting the Holy Qur’an, just like the brides. Girls in the Southern Region

used headscarves before marriage and the shîla over the headscarf after

marriage.

MARRIAGE CUSTOMS

From olden times, marriage has been in man’s interest. It has been nurtured

by religions and tribes. Rules and regulations have been made, because it

represented the paramedical foundation of social unity. By marriage man

can achieve a stable life and create a family and, consequently, a united

society.

A large collection of traditions and customs has been inherited from human

societies, where each formed its own customs and traditions to create an

independent character that distinguishes it from other societies. The Gulf

and Arab Peninsula societies have their special marriage traditions.

One of the social customs is the marriage procedure, a contract between two

parties under the patronage of a lawyer with two witnesses. Customs

concerned with marriage vary from region to another.

THE MAHAR OR DOWRY The mahar or dowry is a gift for friendship given by the groom to the bride

as an expression of a true and sincere desire to marry her. It is a right

defined by the Islamic Shari‘a to be given to the bride only and not to her

parents or her guardians. It has been noted throughout history that the

dowry in all its developing stages was simple and easy, and its requirements

can be found in all places and at all times. The Bedouin grants his bride a



١٦٣

camel as her dowry, the farmer some pieces of land or some palm trees, and

the trader some money or clothes and so on.

Marriage in the Central Region

In the past, marriage proceedings were kept secret. The lady could meet the

young man she was going to marry just before her wedding ceremony. In

the contract, the dowry might be money or something else. Wedding parties

were few. It was common in all regions that a lady called the bayyâ‘a or

seller, who was a relative of the bride, went to the groom’s house and sat

with her for a while. After her departure, the groom would enter the bride’s

room.

Usually young men married at an early age, between eighteen and twenty

years old. In Riyadh, marriage was simple. It started with an engagement

followed by the marriage contract, then the purchase of the bride’s

trousseau, which was called sayyâq or daffâ‘. On the marriage night, it was

traditional for the groom’s relatives, friends, and neighbors to come over to

have coffee and tea together. Then those people went to the bride’s house,

where the groom’s father held the groom’s hand saying, “God bless you

all!” In the morning the groom had to offer the bride whatever jewelry he

had bought for her. This was called sabha or sabâhiya. A week after the

marriage, the bride had to visit the house of her parents. This was called the

zawâra or visit, and at this time the groom had to buy everything necessary

for it.

Marriage in the Southern and Western Regions

In the past, it was traditional for most of these tribes to reject proposals

marriages with outsiders. Marriages were allowed within these tribes.

Nowadays, while these customs are preserved in some areas, some tribes

apply them only to girls, and the majority have given them up altogether. In



١٦٤

any case, relations between the engaged couple before marriage are

restricted and strongly discouraged.

It was customary for the dowry to be handed over to the bride’s father prior

to the marriage contract night, presented on a white piece of fabric together

with some sweet basil and other scented plants as a good omen for the

bride. In the olden times the dowry used to be accompanied by silver riyals

or gold pounds.

It was preferable that the marriage contract be made on Thursday evenings.

It was a contract between two parties. Usually every person invited to the

wedding would bring with him a gift to the parents of both the bride and the

groom. This was called rafd, and in villages it was known as qûd.

Preferably, the gifts should be lambs.

In the Abhâ and Asîr Regions, it was common for a youth seeking marriage

to be accompanied by his parents to see the lady, and after achieving the

agreement, the engagement would follow. The members of the tribe or

village citizens would help the bride with marriage expenses. To make

things easier for the bride, part of mahar might be postponed to a later date.

On the wedding day, the ‘arda, a kind of spirited male dance accompanied

by gunfire, is performed near the bride’s house. Then the marriage contract

is made, and at the end, food is served.

Marriage in the Eastern Region

It was customary that a bride should possess certain characteristics. She

should be white with a straight nose, have large wide eyes, straight hair, and

be a good-natured lady who has learned to read the Qur’an in full. It was

also common that certain ladies were assigned to marry certain boys from

childhood, and when they grew up, they would fulfill that promise. The

grown boy might agree to marry that particular young lady even without

seeing her. In the case of an initial understanding between the two parties,



١٦٥

an amount of fresh fish had to be sent to the lady’s house and to her

neighbors in order to announce the full agreement of the engagement. Milka or Ownership

Milka or ownership is the marriage contract. A group of relatives and

friends hold a small party at which the mahar, together with some gifts, is

sent to the bride. This party is known as taslûma. The gifts include some

gold jewelry, cotton and silk clothes, as well as other things like sacks of

rice, baidân or Syrian almonds, mixed nuts and crackers (naqqâl), and

ru’ûs al-qand or sugar loaves. The Wedding Night

Three days before the marriage, the bride is taken to have a bath by her

dâya or nanny. This lady takes care of a group of girls until they grow up

and get married, washing them and combing their hair. She claims her

wages at their marriage. This lady also looks after the bride and the groom

on the wedding day. The following morning, the bride, accompanied by

singing, goes with her relatives, neighbors, friends and nanny to a well or

pool.

The nanny distributes ‘adhra (rice cooked with sugar or molasses) on street

corners and at wells for three consecutive days. A henna celebration then

starts. The bride stands before an audience of women as she puts on her full

ornaments, holding a lump of sugar on her lap. A naqât or specialist puts

some flour paste on the bride’s hands and feet to keep them the desired

white, and later has them dipped in henna. This process is repeated on the

second and the third nights consecutively, with an accompaniment of

singing and the playing of traditional musical instruments such as the drum.

Henna ceremonies start in the afternoon prior to the marriage, when the

bride in full dress and paraphernalia poses long for her female audience

while having her hands and feet dyed by the specialist with a black material

called khedâb.

In the evening just before the wedding, the bride must attend the so-called

tarmîbû ceremony, when she is covered with a large piece of silk carried by



١٦٦

four women. They move it up and down several times as they sing a

traditional song. Then at the end, the bride is brought to the groom’s room,

accompanied by her nanny and a group of her relatives.

Just a day before the wedding, the gentleman is sent to call on everybody

for dinner and breakfast, when sweets may be offered every morning of the

wedding celebrations. The groom should show generosity by spending

lavishly. In the afternoon, he goes to a pool to swim in the company of his

friends and relatives. There ‘adhra is distributed, as is the case with the

bride.

Aftern the beginning of the parties, another party called the sâmirî or fajrî

takes place. On the night of the second day, the groom is carried in

procession to the bride’s home. The nanny calls upon both, and the groom’s

right foot is placed side by side with the bride’s left foot on a Chinese dish.

Both feet should touch one another before the rose water is poured on them

as a symbol of cooperation and love. This is an old custom probably taken

from India.

The Northern Region

Marriage customs the northern region were simple and easy. The dowry

could be dates, wheat, or barley weighed by the mud or sâ‘ (about ٢٠

kilograms) or a little amount of money. This was done in accordance with

what the Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) said, “The ladies of smaller dowries

are the ladies of more blessings.” Before the speed of cars, it was customary

for the bride to be taken to the groom’s house on foot after the evening

prayer, accompanied by a group of women in straight lines carrying her

needs on their heads. Several gunshots heralded the arrival of the

congregation at the groom’s house. After the night prayer, another party

started the arda to announce the marriage. On the following morning,

visitors coming to the groom would bring with them some traditional food

where neighbors were invited. This was called the zawra.



١٦٧

Nowadays however, the dowry is handed over to the bride’s parents. The

groom should furnish the house and send food and clothes to the bride’s

house. On the wedding night, a banquet is prepared. A camel and five

lambs are slaughtered. In case a camel is not available, the banquet consists

completely of lambs.

It was customary that friends and relatives offer financial support to the

groom if they are given the opportunity to have a look at the bedroom just

before the bride steps in. Some people offer support by sending either

ready-made food or dinner invitations to the newly-married couple and to

their neighbors and friends.

WOMEN’S CHARITABLE SOCIETIES

The twenty women charitable societies play an important and active role in

various fields of social care represented by services offered to citizens in

their local environment to improve their economic and social standard. The

programs of these societies are numerous: accommodating orphans,

offering protection and care for the aged and handicapped, and providing

artificial limbs and other medical prostheses as well as special education or

learning centers for the disabled.

As to education, training and orientation, these societies have established

many programs, including development, learning, and social programs. At

the centers, the trainees acquire skills and new experience, such as

preparation to be governesses. Ladies are taught sewing, dressmaking,

typewriting, English and French. In addition, there are Arabic language

classes for non-Arabic speakers.

In the health sector, there are programs for location and improvement of

healthy accommodations, for human and social services, for visiting

patients, for holding instructive and educational seminars, and for health

education. In the educational field, women’s societies offer various



١٦٨

activities and services such as seminars, lectures, competitions, evening

poetry readings and supervision of women’s educational centers.

Charitable accommodation and housing improvements receive much

attention from these societies. Either by building housing units for the

needy families for free or symbolic rent or making building or health

improvements on the accommodation of limited-income families. In the

field of utilities and general services, the societies offer transportation for

female students, and enable women to take part in special events and

women’s weeks. They also collect and distribute extra food from banquets,

and distribute clothes and household items to the needy, support orphans,

distribute sacrificial and charity meat, provide childcare, and look after

residence guest houses supervised by these societies. There are also centers

for girls of special circumstances offering full protection and care. Twenty

charitable societies throughout the country offer these services.

HEALTH SERVICES

The health sector provides important services for the members of society.

The Health Ministry was created by Royal Decree No. (١٩٥١) ٨٦٩٧/١١/٥ to

replace the Health Office in Makka AL Moukarrama set up in ١٩٢٦ (later

named the Health Administration Department in ١٩٢٧). In ١٩٥٠, the

number of beds was no more than ١،٠٠٠, and doctors, ١١١. In ١٩٧١, the

budget of the health sector was ١٧٧،٠٩٩،٠٠٠ Saudi Riyals.

Attention is given to health care, building hospitals and clinics, providing

manpower and all health equipment, curing diseases, encouraging the

domestic sector, developing health centers in order to improve their

services, and training qualified Saudis to achieve self-sufficiency.

The Kingdom has adopted the primary health care system to provide

services to all parts of the country and to make use of all available health

resources. The Kingdom has also adopted the International Epidemic



١٦٩

Supervision system in cooperation with specialized authorities to take

measures in case of the discovery of such diseases inside the Kingdom,

especially those brought in by the expatriates during the Hajj (pilgrimage)

season. The Expand Precaution program (E.P.I) has been adopted as well,

straightforward with vaccination campaigns for adults, newborn babies, and

mature women. These precautions have made the Kingdom free from

contagious diseases such as cholera, plague and yellow fever. The death

rate of infants (under one year old) has fallen. It was sixty-four out of ١٠٠٠

babies in ١٩٨٠. In ١٩٨٩, it became thirty out of ١٠٠٠. In ١٩٩٥, it was

twenty-one out of ١٠٠٠. [A TABLE SHOWING THE HEALTH MINISTRY DEVELOPED SERVICES ACCORDING TO

THE DEVELOPING PLANS] Category ١٩٧٠-

١٩٧٥ ١٩٩٥-١٩٩١ ١٩٩٠-١٩٨٦ ١٩٨٥-١٩٨١ ١٩٨٠-١٩٧٦

Hospitals ١٧٩ ١٦٣ ١٠٥ ٩٧ ٧٠ Beds ٢٧،٠٤٨ ٢٥،٨٣٥ ٢٠،٧٩٦ ١٣،٠٦٦ ١١،٩٦٨

Health Centers

٢١٤ ٣٣٩ - - -

Clinics and Health Centers

٢٩٢

٩٣٥

١،٣٠٦

١،٦٦٨

١،٧٣٥

Quarantine Centers

٢٦ ٢٤ ٢٣ ٤٨ ٣٢

Secondary Health

Institutes

٧

٧

٢٧

٣٣

٤٤

The table shows the development health units that have been changed into

centers. Quarantines after wiping out the diseases requiring these

quarantines. In the sixth developing plan twelve medical colleges and

eighteen specialized dental centers have been erected.

The Working Power of Health Services in the Health Ministry

HEALTH SERVICES LABOR FORCE OF THE MINISTRY OF HEALTH (Physicians, Nurses, Technicians, Assistants, etc.) Categories ١٩٩٥ ١٩٩٠ ١٩٨٥ ١٩٨٠ ١٩٧٥ ١٩٧١ Physicians ١٦،٦٠٥ ١٢،٩٥٩ ٩،٢٧٥ ٤،٦١٨ ٢،٢٧٦ ٨١٧ Nursing Staff ٣٧،٣٠٣ ٢٩،١٢٤ ٢٠،٧٠٧ ٨،٨٨١ ٤،٧٢١ ٢،٢٦٨ Pharmacists

٩٧٨ ٦٣٢ ٤١٤ ٢٢١ ٧١ ٣٦ Assistant Technicians ٢١،٠٠٢ ١٤،٥٠٦ ٩،٧٤٦ ٥،٠٨٤ ٢،٨٥٣ ١،٥١٩

Grand Total ٧٦،١٣٧ ٥٧،٤١٢ ٤٠،٠٥٠ ١٨،٩٠٦ ٩،١٩٩ ٤،٦٢٧



١٧٠

Specialized Medical services:

Hospitals and specialized centers adherent to the Health Ministry have been

created. These include the Heart Center in the Armed Forces Hospital in

Riyadh, the Kidney Transplant Center in the National Guard Hospital,

Interior Ministry Hospitals, the general establishment of the water refinery,

the Royal Commission of Jubail and Yanbu, Saudi Aramco, the

universities, as well as King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center,

the King Khalid Specialist Eye Hospital, the Qasîm Specialist Hospital, and

those hospitals equipped with the most advanced health technology and

qualified manpower. Because of the services offered by these hospitals, the

Kingdom has become famous for organ transplants and delicate surgery. All

this helps to cure special disease cases inside the Kingdom and has led to a

noticeable decrease in the number of patients who seek medical treatment

abroad. [A TABLE SHOWING THE WORKING POWER OF HEALTH SERVICES IN OTHER

GOVERNMENTAL SECTORS] Category ١٩٨٥ G. ١٩٩٠ G. ١٩٩٦ G.

Physicians ٦،٧٦٠ ٤،٦٥٨ ٢،٨٧٣ Nursing Staff ١٦،٥٢٨ ١٠،٢٤٥ ٥،٦٣٠ Pharmacists ٦٩٥ ٥٨١ ٣٣٦ Assistant Technicians

٨،٧٣٨ ٦،١١٥ ٢،٧٩٧

Grand Total ٣٢،٧٢١ ٢١،٥٩٩ ١١،٦٣٦ The Domestic Medical Sector:

The private health sector has taken part in the development of health care in

the country. Its staff of doctors, nurses, pharmacists and technicians was

around ١٢،٧٤٦ in ١٩٨٠. In ١٩٩٠ they were ٢١،٠٨٤, and in ٢٦،٦٥٠ ١٩٩٦. [A TABLE SHOWING THE WORKING POWER OF HEALTH SERVICES IN THE DOMESTIC

SECTOR] Category ١٩٩٦ ١٩٩٠ ١٩٨٥

Physicians ٨،٩٠٦ ٦،٧١٤ ٤،٠٣٦ Nursing Staff ١٠،٥١٤ ٨،٦٩٧ ٥،٢٥٧ Pharmacists ٣،٥٨٨ ٢،٥٦٤ ١،٥١٨ Technicians ٣،٦٤٢ ٣،١٠٧ ١،٩٣٥ Grand Total ٢٦،٦٥٠ ٢١،٠٨٢ ١٢،٧٤٦



١٧١

The total services and manpower in the health sector in 1996:

In ١٩٩٦ the number of hospitals in the Kingdom was ١٧٩ .٢٩٦ of these are

being administered by the Health Ministry, and thirty-nine supervised by

other governmental sectors. The domestic sector possesses seventy-eight

hospitals, with a total number of beds mounting to ٤٢،٨٠٩. Out of the

٣،٥٣١ clinics and health centers, ١،٧٣٥ are directed by the Health Ministry,

٤٤٣ belong to other governmental sectors, and ١،٣٦٣ are owned by the

domestic sector. Those who work in health sector number ١٣٥،٢٥٩ and

include ٣٢،٢٧١ doctors, ٦٤،٣٤٥ nurses, ٥،٢٦١ pharmacists, and ٣٣،٣٨٢

technicians.

THE TOTAL SERVICES AND MANPOWER IN THE HEALTH SECTOR IN 1996

Sectors H

ospitals

Beds

Dispensarie /H

ealth centers / Private clinics

Doctors

Nursing Staff

Pharmacist

s

Technicians

Ministry of Health

٢١٠٠٢ ٩٧٨ ٣٧٣٠٣ ١٦٦٠٥ ١٧٣٥ ٢٧٠٤٨ ١٧٩

Other Gvt. Sectors

٨٧٣٨ ٦٩ ١٦٥٢٨ ٦٧٦٠ ٤٤٣ ٨٧٤٨ ٣٩

Domestic Sector

٣٦٤٢ ٣٥٨٨ ١٠٥١٤ ٨٩٠٦ ١٣٥٣ ٧٠١٣ ٧٨

Grand Total ٤٢٨٠ ٢٩٦٩

٣٢٢٧ ٣٥٣١١

٦٤٣٤٥

٣٣٣٨ ٥٢٦١٢

SOCIAL SERVICES

The aims and policies of the social services have been established to

contribute to the national development. Plans have been made to serve the

development strategy of the Saudi society through various aspects, such as

health and social care, to make society free from aberrations and negative

social phenomena which slow down its path of progress. Also some

handicapped (physical, mental or psychological) unemployed manpower

can be converted into productive human beings that can look after

themselves. The sixth social plan ١٩٩٥-١٩٩٤ assures the achievement of

these objectives and policies by offering social care to the needy, stepping



١٧٢

up its services to meet the increasing social demands. Also supporting free

social individual care and continuing to offer some financial help for the

needy is important, as is supporting productive projects and the activities of

social care plans directed to those who stay in temporary accommodation

establishments as well as to childhood and family care. The plan supports

general administration activities of women, increases social service

development centers, and sets up local and social development committees

and other activities. The social care plans have shown considerable

development in a short period of time. Comparatively, its results are not

less than that those achieved in a number of countries over a period of many

years. These plans can be summarized as follows:

ORPHAN CARE The child is supported to exercise all his basic rights, and grow up in a

complete social and family environment. Children who lost one of their

parents or both of them, or those whose fathers are in prison or ill or

handicapped receive adequate care through the social care establishment

which looks after them from birth till they become six. The Kingdom has

more than six social education centers where male or female students

receive full social, psychological, heath and educational care and plans for

children from the age of six until they become twelve. Girls continue living

in these houses after twelve, when they complete their training in a house

management program, while boys are moved to the formal education

institutes. Usually boys and girls receive monthly salaries and at marriage

girls receive a grant of about ٢٠،٠٠٠ Saudi Riyals each to help them to

meet the requirements of their married life. Such houses number more than

sixteen in the Kingdom (nine for boys for formal education, five for girls).

Children in these circumstances can have alternative care by being sent to

families to be looked after. Families are chosen according to certain social

criteria. A monthly salary of about ١،٢٠٠ Riyals is given to the family for



١٧٣

each foster child. An allowance of ٢،٤٠٠ Riyals (equal to two month’s pay)

is given to the wet nurses. The nursing family receives a ٥،٠٠٠ Riyals

benefit for each child who finishes the nursing period.

SOCIAL CARE FOR THE AGED Social care homes have been established to receive the aged who find it

difficult to look after themselves, and the patients who are over twenty who

have developed some physical or mental weakness but are free from

infectious diseases. Programs for looking after the aged are available either

in or outside the care homes. There are eleven care homes for the aged,

offering services for ٥،٠٠٠ individuals, ٣،٠٠٠ for males, and ٢،٠٠٠ for

females since ١٩٨٩. All of them have been receiving social and health care

as well as the physical therapy services and personal care programs for the

residents. The establishment provides opportunities for the aged to do some

arts and handicrafts to let them make use of their spare time and not to

avoid boredom. They also can enjoy listening to some entertaining

programs through the local radio available to each care home. They also can

enjoy T. V. programs, and read newspapers, magazines and books,

available at their library, and attend seminars arranged for them.

The aged, especially the ambulatory ones, can make weekly trips or visits

or daily picnics in order to keep in touch with the outside society and to

prevent loneliness. These homes receive the relatives of the aged, and

organize mutual visits with their families or relatives.

CARE OF THE HANDICAPPED With the beginning of the social and the economic development plans

twenty-three years ago, handicapped affairs were treated as a matter of

importance. Programs for the care and education of the handicapped are

two kinds - public care (institutional) or family care (private).

INSTITUTIONAL CARE



١٧٤

Institutional care offers social, career and multi-training, and daily care for

special handicapped children.

CAREER TRAINING The mentally, sensory and physically handicapped are offered training for

some work that suits their abilities, such as that of electrician, book-

binding, business, typing, computers, painting and decorating, gardening,

sewing, ladies’ work, and telephone exchange work, through five centers,

two being for females. Of ١،٦٥٠ male trainees and ٣٥٠ female trainees, it

appeared that those who finished their training got jobs.

SOCIAL TRAINING Social training homes offer care and accommodation for the severely

handicapped, those who have proven unable to do career training as a result

of their disabilities, those whose intelligence rate is below ٥٠٪, and cases of

quadriplegia, brain damage or deformity or severe atrophy. This lessens the

burden of their families. Psychological and health care is offered to those

severely handicapped and some who have the ability can be trained to look

after themselves and make use of their spare time.

COMPREHENSIVE TRAINING This unit offers services for those who have severe disabilities. It is a

complete unit in service and management. It has separate departments for

severely disabled people of both sexes and is also open to children between

three and twelve years of age, providing them with suitable services and

programs like those others offered to the handicapped.

DAYCARE This service provides care programs and training for those handicapped

under fifteen years of age during the day in order to relieve their parents or

guardians, especially those who are employed and unable to offer suitable

care for their handicapped children during the working hours. There are



١٧٥

fifteen social training centers, three for social training and twelve for full

training. They offer training to about ٢،٨٧٠ people, of which ١،٧٨٠ are

male, and ٩٩٠ are female. Nursery departments have been increased to nine

in this center, offering services to ٧٠٠ children. The daycare supervision

centers in Riyadh and Jeddah have been successful in increasing the number

of those who receive services from these centers by ٢٠٠٪.

FAMILY CARE OF THE HANDICAPPED It is better for the handicapped to live with their families in order to have

adequate natural surroundings. Extra sums of money are allotted for

specialist supervisors. These kinds of disabled cases have grown to ٣٤،٠٠٠.

There are also two establishments in the Kingdom that offer care for

paralyzed children. These two establishments are in Riyadh and Tâ’if and

offer services to ٣٠٠ cases (٤٠٪ female). But paralyzed children who live

with their families number about ١٥،٠٠٠ cases costing around ٥٥ million

Saudi Riyals since ١٩٨٩.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT The purpose of social development is to help raise the citizen’s standard of

life, improving his social and economic situation, and raising his standard

of living through the effective national cooperation principle, and

strengthening his social awareness through executing programs, activities,

and services to meet his needs. The first successful center of this kind was

opened in Dara‘iya followed by twenty- eight centers in the rural areas.

THE SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEES These are local committees that have been divided into specialized

subcommittees in different social development sectors, such as health and

education. It is a new plan aimed at increasing the social development

programs to cover the largest number of regions in the Kingdom, those

which do not reach the services of centers. There are eighty subcommittees.

Twenty-four of these subcommittees function in social service centers, and



١٧٦

fifty six of them, described as local committees, work in the areas cut off

from services of the centers. These subcommittees are divided into smaller

specialized committees that include the interested citizens as well as

specialists. The social development programs cost more than ١٠٠ million

Riyals in ١٩٨٨. The citizens’ contributions were about ٨٠٪.

Cooperative Societies

The cooperative societies received remarkable care and were introduced in

١٩٦٢ to organize and supervise the services of fifteen offices for

cooperative movements in various parts of the Kingdom. Their activities

vary according to services each group offers, including the multifold

assembly of cooperative, agricultural, consumer, and fishermen

cooperatives, career and marketing services and others. There are ١٦٥

societies with ٤٨،٠٠٠ members.

Domestic Charitable Societies

Domestic charitable societies are doing an important job in social care.

They provide services for citizens, which include children and handicapped

care, general education, various support, the collection and distribution of

extra food from big banquets and special events, orphan guardianship,

distribution of sacrificial and charity meat, and children’s amusements.

They also provide guesthouses that offer care and accommodation in

emergency cases when families find themselves suddenly without

guardians, whether due to death, accident, prison, or illness. These societies

take part in helping the youth by setting up summer camps to let them make

use of their spare time. In addition, these societies accommodate boys and

girls of special circumstances and offer them care and protection. There are

١١٠ general societies, and twenty women’s societies which had expenses of

around one billion and ٧٠٠ million Riyals in ١٩٨٨ and offered services to

around ٣ million citizens.



١٧٧

TABLE SHOWING THE KINDS OF SOCIAL SERVICES SINCE 1989 Type Of Social Services Number The Beneficiaries Home stays for the aged ٥،٠٠٠ ١١ Career training centers ٢،٠٠٠ ٥ Social training centers ٢٨،٧٠٠ ٣ Comprehensive centers ١٢ - Family Care of the Handicapped - ٣٤،٠٠٠ Social development centers ٢٨ - Service Committee ٨٠ - Cooperative societies ٤٨،٠٠٠ ١٦٥ Charitable societies ٣٫٠٠٠٫٠٠٠ ١٣٠



١٧٨

SPORTS

Spontaneous disordered football games played in public squares of city

suburbs were the beginnings of sports in the Kingdom. This period came

before the task of supervision of the sports activities was carried out by

various institutions. In ١٩٧٤ the cabinet issued a communiqué setting up a

special institution for the general administration of youth welfare.

During the formal organization period in ١٩٥٩, the need arose for an

institution to organize the club meetings. Consequently, the Saudi Union of

Football was created. The first local football competition took place in

١٩٦٠ with three regions participating: the Central Province, the Western

Province and the Eastern Province. In ١٩٦٢, it was decided to organize

three competitions: The King’s Cup, the Cup of His Royal Highness the

Crown Prince, and the Cup of the Second Class Clubs. The situation

developed and the number of competitions grew to eight a year: The

Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques Cup, His Royal Highness the Crown

Prince’s Cup, the Saudi Union Cup for Second Class Clubs, the Youth Cup

(for those under nineteen years old) and the Beginner’s Cup (for those

under sixteen years old).

The number of sports unions that supervise sports games has risen to

thirteen, in addition to a Sports Medicine Union, the Arab Triathlon

Committee (chivalry, swimming and throwing), a Sports Physical

Education Committee, and a Squash Committee. These unions and

committees supervise competitions, prepare the national trainers, and

provide international trainers from abroad.

GENERAL OBJECTIVES:

In the beginning attention was paid to the creation of laws and regulations

for the organization of sporting activities, the formation of sports unions,

the founding of sports associations, the provision of the necessary buildings

for sports activities in the big industrial cities, as well as for the creation of



١٧٩

Islamic inspiration and the promotion of sports education. Modern sports

constructions and model sports associations proliferated together with

supporting services. In addition, the level of international participation has

developed to match that of other Arab and foreign countries.

THE SPORTS UNIONS AND ASSOCIATIONS:

In the Kingdom, there are ١٥٤ sports associations practicing social,

educational and sporting activities. These associations have ٧٧،٠٠٠

members and ٨٥٠ sport trainees, ١٠٣ of whom are Saudi nationals with ٨٠٪

of their salaries provided by the government.

In ١٩٩٦-١٩٩٥, there were ٧٨،٨٣٩ players registered in the Saudi sports

unions, with various sporting activities under supervision of ١،١٣١ trainers.

Those players took part in ٥٩٥ local or national sporting events in addition

to seventy-nine international competitions, attended more than ninety sports

training camps, and achieved ٢٢٩ medals at both national and international

levels.

INTERNATIONAL SPORTS PARTICIPATION:

Achievements have been made not only on the national or local level, but

also on the regional, continental and international levels. Sporting teams

have taken part in regional as well as international competitions. For

example, the Saudi national football team won the Asian championship in

١٩٩٦. T his is the third time that the Kingdom has achieved victory in this

competition. The team also won the of Asian Nations Cup in ١٩٨٤ and in

١٩٨٨. Thus the Kingdom is the first Arab country to have made such an

achievement.

The Saudi participation that drew the most world attention was that of the

Saudi Football team’s qualification for the World Cup finals in ١٩٩٤ which

took place in the United States of America. Even though this was its first

participation in the World Cup finals, the Saudi team was able to reach the



١٨٠

second round of playoffs, after passing the first round contrary to all

expectations preceding the championship.

The Saudi youth team won the Palestine Cup competition that took place in

Algeria in ١٩٨٥. They also obtained the championship of the twenty- fifth

Asian Youth Cup, which the Kingdom hosted and organized in Riyadh in

١٩٨٦. The team qualified for the Youth World Cup finals in Moscow, the

World Cup finals in Australia in ١٩٩٣, the World Cup Finals in Canada,

and the World Cup finals for beginners in al-A’in City. The team’s

achievements led it to win the third World Cup for beginners in Scotland in

١٩٨٨.

very two years the Kingdom hosts the Continental Championship for the

Cup of the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, King Fahd bin Abdulaziz

to ensure the role of the Kingdom in supporting sports activities and

strengthening friendship and love among the youth of the world. The

Kingdom also hosts the International Friendship Tournament, in which the

Saudi team as well as teams from Egypt, Algeria, Italy, Austria and Turkey

have taken part.

SPORTS FACILITIES: Sport centers have been established in all regions of the country to provide

a healthy environment suitable for youth activities. These centers have been

supplied with all necessary sports equipment in addition to the necessary

auxiliary services that provide recreation for the players, administrators and

the public.

[



١٨١

TABLE SHOWING THE SPORTS CITIES] Name of the Sports City Location Area in Square

Meters Seating Capacity King Abdulaziz Sports City Makkah ٠٠٠ ٤٨ ٤٠٥،٠٠٠ Prince Mohammed bin Abdulaziz Sports City Madina ٠٠٠ ٣٠ ١٦٠،٠٠٠ King Fahad Sports City Taif ٠٠٠ ٢٠ ٢٠٠،٠٠٠ Prince Abdullah bin Abdulaziz Sports City Qaseem - Buraida ٠٠٠ ١٥ ١٦٠،٠٠٠ Prince Sultan bin Abdulaziz Sports City Abha ٠٠٠ ٢٠ ٢٥،٠٠٠ Prince Abdullah bin Jalwi Sports City

Al-Ahsaa' - Al-Hufoof ٠٠٠ ٢٠ ٢٦٠،٠٠٠

Prince Abdulaziz bin Musa'ad bin Jalwi Sports City

Hail ٠٠٠ ٢٠ ٢٥،٠٠٠

Prince Saud bin Jalwi Sports City Al-Khobar ٠٠٠ ١٠ ٣٦٠،٠٠٠

King Fahd International Stadium:

Located in Riyadh and covering an area of about ٥٠٠،٠٠٠ m٢, the King

Fahd Stadium has an oval design that ensures the audience a good view of

the competitions. It provides all facilities and space for an audience of

around ٥٧،٤٠٠, including ٣،٠٠٠ seats for high-ranking visitors. Eight

entrances surround the stadium and it has forty-six doors leading to the

audience seats. The oval stadium, built on twenty-four columns, is

constructed in the shape of a tent. It is equipped with the latest technology

and provides all necessary services meeting international standards.

The Summer Centers:

Each of the summer centers in Tabûk, Jizân, Baha, Graeit, Majma, and

Khafjî contains a football stadium with a capacity of ٢٠٠ ,٢٠،٠٠٠-bed

youth housing units, auditoriums and swimming pools, outdoor playing

grounds, car parks, medical units, a public library, a mosque

accommodating ٤٠٠ worshippers, and other general services.

Association Facilities:

Sports facilities have been established for many sports associations in

various parts of the country. The designs take into consideration a number

of factors such as the location of the association and its various activities as



١٨٢

well as other factors that determine the size of each association.

Accordingly, the associations can be divided into three categories, A, B and

C.

THE COASTAL CITIES: There are two coastal sports cities: King Fahd City on the Hamra Coast,

Jeddah, and King Fahd City in Khobar on the Gulf Coast. Each city

contains all kinds of modern recreational and rest facilities according to the

most up-to-date systems. A covered gymnasium for practicing basketball,

volleyball, tennis along with other services and utilities are found in each

city. Moreover, each city contains a theater seating ٤٦٠ persons, a hall for

table tennis, closed squash courts, and an outdoor swimming pool.

The association facilities also include observation towers and family cabins

on the coasts. Regulations have been issued allowing all youth to obtain

memberships in these cities so that they may participate in all their hobbies

and activities for only a nominal fee.



١٨٣

CHAPTER ٣: THE CIVILIZATION

TThhee HHoollyy PPllaacceess

The Holy Ka‘ba is the first home for human beings, as God said،“Verily,

the first House (of worship) appointed for mankind was that at Bakka

(Makkah), full of blessing, and a guidance for all beings” (Sura ٣:٩٦). God

also said، “Allah has made the Ka‘ba, the Sacred House, an asylum of

security and Hajj and ‘Umra (Pilgrimage) for mankind...” (Sura ٥:٩٧). God

added، “And (remember) when We made the House a place of resort for

mankind and a place of safety. And take you (people) the Maqam of

Abraham as a place of prayer, and We commanded Abraham and Ishmael

that they should purify My House for those who are circumambulating it, or

staying or bowing or prostrating” (Sura ٢:١٢٥). And Allah said، “I (Muhammad) have been commanded only to worship the Lord of this city

(Makkah), Him who has sanctified it and His is everything. And I am

commanded to be from among the Muslims (those who submit to Allah in

Islam)” (Sura ٢٧:٩١). Allah Also said،“ And (remember) when Abraham

and (his son) Ishmael were raising the foundations of the House (the Ka‘ba

at Makkah), (saying) “Our Lord! Accept (this service) from us. Verily! You

are the All-Hearer, the All-Knower” (Sura ٢:١٢٧), and said “ ... a fair land

and an Oft-Forgiving Lord” (Sura ٣٤:١٥), and “(remember) when We

showed Abraham the site of the (Sacred) House (the Ka‘ba at Makkah)

(saying)، ‘Associate not anything (in worship) with Me” (Sura ٢٢:٢٥). And

Allah said، “And circumambulate the Ancient House” (Sura ٢٢:٢٩).

The Holy Ka‘ba is the direction which Muslims face in prayer, and to

which their attention is paid and their devotion and hearty love is offered.

Every Thursday people gather around the Ka‘ba, in addition to the daily

processions of ‘Umra performers.



١٨٤

About the name of Ka‘ba, Mujâhid narrated that it is the Ka‘ba because it

has a cubic form, detached from other buildings. It is also said that it is

named so because of its height from land. This home was built by Abraham,

may God bless him, four thousand years ago.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE HOLY KA‘BA

Many attempts have been made to destroy the Ka‘ba. The most prominent

one was by Abraha al-Ashram, the King of Ethiopia.

The Ka‘ba was rebuilt more than twelve times:

١. by the angels,

٢. by Adam, may God bless him,

٣. by Shîth, the son of Adam,

٤. by Abraham, may God bless him,

٥. by Amalekites,

٦. by Jerhim,

٧. by Qusayy,

٨. by Abdulmutallib,

٩. by Quraish, when the prophet was aged ٣٥ years,

١٠. by Abdullah ibn Zubair,

١١. by Hajjâj al-Thaqafî, the Shami, and

١٢. by the Ottomon Sultan Murâd Khan.

MAKKAH, UMM AL-QURÂ

Makkah is the direction of the Muslim prayers and where the Holy Ka‘ba

was built, and our Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) was born, and to which

Muslims make pilgrimage every year. Makkah is the place of the Hirâ’

mountain cave, where the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) was worshipping

God. Makkah is the place of the Thur Mountains which contain the cave

(al-Ghar) where our Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and his friend, Abu



١٨٥

Baker al-Sadîq, may God bless him, retreated in order to avoid being killed

by the Quraish tribes.

Makkah is referred to as Umm al-Qurâ, in addition to many names and

linguistic interpretations that have been attached to it by Arab historians and

linguists, inspired from the position and the holiness of the Ka‘ba for the

Arabs. Yâkût said in his dictionary it was named Makkah because Arabs in

the pre-Islamic period used to say that our Hajj is not complete unless we

come to the place of the Ka‘ba and whistle there, like the people of

Makkah, round the Ka‘ba. Walking round the Ka‘ba, people used to whistle

and applaud. Many other names are given to Makkah, such as Umm al-

Qurâ (mother of villages) al-Balad, al-Ameen (the safe country), Umm

Rahîm (mother of mercy), al-Basa, al-Nasa and many others. Makkah is

also mentioned in the old Roman and Greek sources. It is also mentioned by

Batlimous Iskandary as “Makoraba”. It is said that the Qur‘an named the

place “ Baka “, which is a valley, where Makkah is another derivation like

“Balbak”, to mean camel valley, and this is the closest to the meaning of

Makkah because Makkah is mentioned as a place empty of plants.

ABRAHAM’S SEAT

God’s willingness kept this great ruin safe for more than four thousand

years. It was not mentioned that Arabs in the pre-Islamic era worshiped the

Black Stone or Abraham’s Seat. Islam came to glorify the Black Stone and

prayers made behind the Seat. Abraham’s Maqam is the stony seat that

Abraham used when he built the Ka‘ba. This seat was cared for by many

caliphs. The first was the Commander of the Believers, Muhammad Muhdî

al-Abbâsî, who sent one thousand dinars to enclose the Seat. Then Caliph

Harûn al-Rashîd made repairs on the silver encasement. Caliph al-

Mutawaqqil enlarged the encasement of the Seat. Allah’s order to make

Abraham’s Seat a place for prayers has been of great importance, as Allah

said، “And take you (people), the Maqam (Seat) of Abraham as a place of



١٨٦

prayer” (Sura ٢:١٢٥). Before ١٩٦٧, the Seat was placed inside a box of

brass measuring three by six meters over which a dome was built. This

dome was so large that it constricted the movement around the Ka‘ba. After

various discussions by Muslim scholars, the Islamic World Assembly

Council decided in ١٩٦٤, to remove the unnecessary constructions around

the seat, and replace them with a box of thick strong glass with an

appropriate height to allow easy movement and to make the seat visible to

all visitors. A cover of glass with a base of marble was constructed and a

brass base was set up around the seat with an area of ١٨٠ x ١٣٠ cm,

seventy-five centimeters high. This was done in ١٩٦٧. The cover was lifted,

in a great ceremony, by King Faisal ibn Abdulaziz, may God bless him, in

١٩٦٧.

THE ZAMZAM WELL

Zamzam is a water well located thirty-eight cubits from the Ka‘ba. It was

named Zamzam for the abundance of its water. Zamzam has many names

and attributes:

(١) Taiba, (٢) Barat, (٣) Madnûna, (٤) God made it a drink for Ishmael, (٥)

Baraka, (٦) Hafierat Abdul Motalib, (٧) Ta‘âm, ta‘m, shifâ saqim (Drink to

grow and drink to recover).

Many traditions are narrated concerning Zamzam: Prophet

Muhammad(PBUH) said،“The best water on earth is Zamzam water,” and

on another occasion,” It is nutritious food and a cure for the ill.”

Zamzam has been the subject of many writings, such as The Message of the

Jewel Set in Zamzam’s Characteristics, and another book on this subject by

ibn Hajer al-Asklani. It was agreed by high Muslim legislators that every

pilgrim or ‘Umra performer should drink from Zamzam water, because

Prophet Muhammad(PBUH) drank from it. And when Muslims narrated

that Zamzam is “a tasty food,” Abu Dawood al-Telasy added،“cures for

patients.” It is also said that visitors should drink from it to satisfaction.



١٨٧

THE BLACK STONE

This is an oval black stone, set in the south-east corner of the Ka‘ba, usually

touched by able pilgrims and ‘Umra makers. Omar ibn al-Khatab kissed the

stone and said،“I saw the Prophet touching and kissing it.” It is narrated

that the Prophet’s companions used to embrace and kiss it, and the

Prophet(PBUH) did that with them. If the Prophet(PBUH) could not hold

the stone and touch it, he used to face it from a distance and use his hand as

if touching it. Then he kissed it, as he was glorifying God. This is what ibn

‘Abbâs, may God bless him, narrated.

THE ANCIENT ISLAMIC MONUMENTS IN MAKKAH

Makkah is a place for ancient Islamic monuments, including mosques that

are associated with certain Islamic events. O f these mosques are the

following: (١) al- Râya, (٢) Khaif, (٣) al-Ijâba, (٤) Kawthar, in which the

Qur‘anic Sura al-Kawthar was sent, (٥) Jinn, in which Sura al-Jinn was

sent.

Many other ancient houses that witnessed important historical Islamic

events can be found in Jeddah, of these are the following:

THE HOME OF THE PROPHET (PBUH)

Previously this was owned by Mohammed ibn Yusif al-Thaqafi, and came

to be known as ibn Hashim’s Gate. It is regarded as the most ancient place

in Makkah. Now it houses the Makkah library.

AL-ARKAM AL-MAKZUMÎ’S HOME

This was a meeting place for Muslims during the rise of Islam.

THE HUJRA HOME

This is Abu Baker al-Sadîq’s home, located behind Abraham Street. Now it

is a mosque.



١٨٨

ABÛ SUFYÂN’S HOME

This is the house where Prophet Muhammad(PBUH) ordered people to

enter when he conquered Makkah “ Those who enter Abû Sufyân’s home

are safe ,”he said.

DAR AL-NADWA

Al-Bastani narrated that Dar al-Nadwa, built by Kosea ibn Kelab, was the

first home built after the Holy Mosque in Makkah. However, the Islamic

Encyclopedia says that Dar al-Nadwa was close to the Ka‘ba. It is inferred

from what Al Wakedy narrated about the raid (ghazwa) that camels brought

by Abû Sufiyân from al-Sham at the Badr raid were stored in Dar al-Nadwa

and that this Dar had a large backyard sometimes used as a station for

caravans.

In that home the Quraish used to meet and make preparations if they wanted

to go out for war. That place also was a station for departing or arriving

caravans, and used for marriage ceremonies or parties that all people

belonging to the Quraish used to go to.

Dar al-Nadwa was owned in the Islamic era by Qusayy’s eldest son, Abed

al-Dar, and then the property went to Akrama ibn Heithem Abed al-Dar,

and later to Mauwia ibn Abû Sufyân for one hundred thousand dirhams, to

be made a palace for Makkah. By the passing of time the Dar was disused

and mostly destroyed. Then Caliph Mutad gave orders to destroy it to

enlarge the Holy Mosque. That was the last expansion of the Holy mosque,

and since then no other expansion has taken place until the time of King

Abdulaziz Al-Saud. This means that the next expansion took place after one

thousand and seventy years.

HIRÂ‘ MOUNTAIN:

This is the mountain where Hirâ‘ cave is located and where the

Prophet(PBUH) used to make his night worship until Gabriel came down to

hand him the first Sura of the Holy Qur‘an, named “Al-’alaq”.



١٨٩

NÛR MOUNTAIN

The highest in Makkah, Nûr Mountain is located northeast of Makkah for

those people going to Mina, and left for those going to Arafat. After the last

expansion, the mountain became inside the boundaries of Makkah. Hirâ‘

Cave is a narrow place big enough for three sleeping people and with the

height of a standing man. At its end there is a tower or a building twenty

meters high overlooking the area of Makkah. Our prophet Muhammad

(PBUH) used to see the Ka‘ba from it clearly.

THÛR MOUNTAIN

One of the many mountains surrounding Makkah, Thûr is six miles south of

Makkah. Historically, it is important because Prophet Muhammad(PBUH)

took shelter in the cave close to its top with his friend Abû Baker al-Sadiq

when they immigrated to Madina, and stayed there three days. On this

occasion, Allah said ،“Allah granted him victory when he was dismissed by

the non-Muslims, when he was in the cave saying to his friend, ‘Do not

worry. Allah is with us,’ Allah secured him and supported him with unseen

soldiers so that the word of Allah passed and his enemy was defeated.”

MINA VALLEY

Seven kilometers from Makkah, Mina Valley is where pilgrims stay

overnight on al-Tarwiya Day before going to Arafat the following day.

Then they return to it on ‘îd to throw stones after they spend their night in

Muzdalifa on the ١٠th of Dhul Hijja.

ARAFAT

Arafat is a mountain twenty-five kilometers southeast of Makkah, ٧٥٠ feet

above sea level. Pilgrims should reach it on the ninth day of Dhul Hijja to

perform Hajj rituals.



١٩٠

AL-TANA‘‘UM:

This is a place with two mountains. Na‘em East and Ne‘im West separated

by a valley named Na‘man.

AL-JU‘RÂNÎ

This place is named after a woman from the Quraish called Rita bint Ka‘b

who was a fool. God said in the Qur‘an, “Do not be like the one who

destroyed her knitting after strength” She was knitting and she spins or

folds it. Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) made his ritual consecration from al-

Ju‘rânî, which was a well of fresh water.

AL-HUDAIBIYA

This is where the Prophet(PBUH) sat when he left Makkah in a state of

ritual consecration, being chased by disbelievers from Makkah.

MAHSIR VALLEY

This valley, between Mina and Muzdalifa, is where pilgrims should pass

through quickly as Prophet Muhammad did.

Makkah is also a place for many valleys such as Na‘man, Fâtima, ‘Arna,

Our Master Abraham, ibn Zaubeida, Ein al-Za‘farâna, Ein al-‘Ashar, and

Ein al-Humaija.

THE KA‘BA COVERING

Al-Hafez Bin Hajer said that Abraham ibn Abi Rabî‘a narrated:

The Ka‘ba in the pre-Islamic era was clothed with al-Antâ‘, a Yemeni kind

of cloth. The Prophet(PBUH) clothed it also with Yemeni cloth. Omar and

Othmân clothed it with qabâtî, and al-Hajjaj with dîbâj, a silk garment.

It is narrated that the Ka‘ba used to be clothed once every two years and

later every three years. The rich, princes, kings, and rulers everywhere in

the world used to send cloth to the Ka‘ba. New coverings were to be kept

inside to replace the old ones later.



١٩١

The orthodox caliphs usually clothed the Ka‘ba. Abu Baker al-Sadîq

clothed it with qabâtî, and so did Omar ibn al-Khatab. Omar decreed that

the Ka‘ba coverings should be financed from Muslim funds.

From that time on the Ka‘ba has had to be clothed by Muslim funds, except

for some years it was clothed by rich Muslims or rulers of some Islamic

countries.

Caliph Omar wrote and asked the Egyptian governor at the time Egypt

embraced Islam to weave the Ka‘ba covering cloth in Egypt and send it to

Makkah. So did his successor Othmân ibn Afan. The Ka‘ba cloth knitted in

Egypt was called al-qabâtî and financed by Islamic funds. Othmân was the

first who clothed the Ka‘ba twice a year, the first, made of silk, on Tarwiya

Day, the eighth day of Dhul Hijja, and the second, made of qabâtî, on the

twenty-seventh of Ramadan. Omar ibn al-Khatab used to clothe the Ka‘ba

at his own expense, from his own money. The Umayyid caliphs used to

clothe the Ka‘ba with silk every year. It started when Abed al-Malik ibn

Marwan ordered al-Hajjaj to clothe it. Also the Abbasid caliphs clothed the

Ka‘ba with the best fabric found in the city of Tnees in Egypt, which had

been producing the most precious fabrics. When Abu al-‘Abâs Ahmad the

Abbasid Caliph, al-Naser Din Allah (supporter of Allah’s religion) took

power in ٥٧٥H., he clothed the Ka‘ba with the black silk which is still used

today.

Egypt had been the main source of the Ka‘ba cloth covering up to the time

when King Abdulaziz ibn Saud ordered the construction of a factory in

Makkah especially for that purpose in ١٩٢٧. In ١٩٢٦ King Abdulaziz for

the first time clothed the Ka‘ba.

The Ka‘ba cloth consists of the cover of the door and the belt of the Ka‘ba,

as well as the internal cover. All of them are made in the factory in Makkah,

woven with a high level of precision and skill, completely by Saudis.



١٩٢

THE CUSTODIAN OF THE TWO HOLY MOSQUES, KING FAHAD IBN ABDULAZIZ, EXPANSION OF THE HOLY MOSQUE IN MAKKAH.

Throughout human history, Makkah has had a remarkable place, mostly

because of the Ka‘ba, the first home located for worshipping God. At the

dawn of Islam the Ka‘ba was more glorified by Muslims.

With the increasing number of Muslims, the expansion by the Custodian of

the Two Holy Mosques was badly needed. It is noteworthy that the first

expansion of the Holy Mosque was made in the reign of Omar ibn al-

Khatab, the second orthodox caliph. The second expansion to the mosque

took place in the reign of the Umayyid Caliph al-Walid ibn Abed al-Malik,

again in the reign of the Abbasid Caliph Abû Jaffar al-Mansûr, and then

Caliph Mahdi in ٧٧٦H.

Extra areas were added to the Holy Mosque during the reign of the Caliph

Montaser Ba Allah, Caliph Moktader Ba Allah during the second Abbasid

era in ٩١٨ A.D. It remained that size until the reign of al-Saud. It should

also be noted that the mosque was not expanded during the reign of the

Fatimids, the Ayoubis, the Mamluks and the Ottomans except for some

repair work of or maintenance.

THE FIRST EXPANSION OF THE HOLY MOSQUE

With the influx of Muslims to the holy places from all parts of the world,

King Saud ibn Abdulaziz issued his orders in ١٩٥٥ to make a large-scale

expansion to the mosque. With this three-stage expansion the mosque

became ١٩٣ m٢. After that it was increased to ٢٩،١٢٧ m٢. This made a

space for ٤٠٠،٠٠٠ worshippers. The expansion also included repairing the

Ka‘ba and expanding the worshipping area round the mosque.

THE KING FAHAD IBN ABDULAZIZ PROJECT FOR CONSTRUCTION AND EXPANSION OF

THE TWO HOLY MOSQUES

THE FIRST HOLY MOSQUE



١٩٣

King Fahad ibn Abdulaziz laid the foundation stone for the expansion of the

mosque in ١٩٨٨. Construction started in Jumada II of the same year, and

ended in ١٩٩١.

The expansion includes extra parts annexed to the mosque westward. The

area of the expanded floors is ٥٧،٠٠٠ m٢, including the ground floor and

the first as well as the basement. The area of the expanded roof is ١٩،٠٠٠

m٢. Thus the expansion in general was ٧٦،٠٠٠ m٢. The area of the mosque

now covers ٣٢٨،٠٠٠ m٢ with the capacity of ٧٣٠،٠٠٠ worshippers on

normal days, and more than a million at Hajj and ‘Umra times.

The expanded building includes a new main entrance and eighteen normal

doors in addition to the three previous main entrances and twenty-seven

doors. The design considered construction of two new entrances for the

ground floor in addition to the previously expanded ground entrances. The

expanded building also includes two new minarets eighty-nine meters high

similar in design to the previous minarets.

To ease the movement of worshippers towards the expanded roof in the

high seasons, two moving ladders (escalators) were added, one north of the

expansion, and the other south of it. Each made up an area of ٣٧٥ m٢

containing two groups of moving ladders, accommodating ١٥،٠٠٠ persons

per hour for each group. Two other groups of moving ladders are inside the

building of the main entrance. There are also eight fixed stairs. Thus,

buildings located for the moving ladders are seven, located throughout the

mosque and the expansion of the first floor, aimed at facilitating the

movement of worshippers, especially the aged.

The outer expansion is ٩٦ .٢٠ m high, decorated and covered on the inside

with marble. ٤٩٢ marble-covered pillars were constructed on each floor.

The construction work for this expansion used about ١١١،٧٥٠ m٢ of stone

tile, and ٢١،٧٠٠ tons of reinforced concrete. The walls are made of either

industrial stone or marble. Other decorations are made of industrial stone.



١٩٤

Circular pillars are faced with mosaic and squared pillars with marble. The

floor is covered with circles of white marble.

The outer doors for the expansion are made of metal inlaid with brass

ornaments. Windows are made of yellow aluminum. It was taken into

consideration that the design of the new decoration should be similar to the

decoration made during the first Saudi expansion.

The project also includes installing internal radio systems and T.V. stations

supplied with T.V. cameras that monitor the whole area of the Holy

Mosque. Also, the telephone services have been increased and new and

modern air conditioning systems provided.

THE EXPANSION OF THE PROPHET’S HOLY MOSQUE In ١٩٥٠ King Abdulaziz ordered the expansion of the Prophet’s Mosque. It

is noticeable that this expansion was the first after the one carried out by the

Ottoman Sultan in ١٨٦١. This new expansion was carried out in ١٩٥٥.

In ١٩٨٤ the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques laid the foundation stone

for the expansion of the Prophet’s Mosque. It was the biggest expansion in

the history of the mosque. It included construction of a new building

annexed to the old one, surrounding the old building from the west, north

and east, an area of about ٨٢،٠٠٠ m٢, and capable of housing ١٦٧،٠٠٠

worshippers. Also, the upper roof offered an area of about ٧٦،٠٠٠ m٢,

enough for ٩٠،٠٠٠ worshippers. Thus the total area of the mosque,

including the recent expansion reached ١٦٥،٥٠٠ m٢. In addition, the

enlargement of prayer areas was extended to ٢٣٥،٠٠٠ m٢. So the total area

of the mosque, including the courtyard, became ٤٠٠،٥٠٠ m٢, with a

capacity to accommodate ٦٥٠،٠٠٠ worshippers. This figure can go up to

one million worshippers in the high seasons.

The expansion includes the basement, the same size as the first floor, for

housing the air conditioning machines. Also, the expansion includes the

construction of seven doors and two entrances of two doors each. These are



١٩٥

in addition to six doors added to the eight doors of the moving ladders used

to reach the roof provided for prayer, close to the inner stairs, as well as

service stairs.

After the expansion the number of minarets went up to ten, six of them

new, each ninety-nine meters high, and topped with a crescent. The total

height of each minaret is ١٠٥ m with an increase of thirty-three meters.

Before the expansion. Twenty-seven domes were constructed in the

mosque, with electric devices to open and close them as required for natural

ventilation.

The new decorations included in the recent expansion were designed to be

similar to those already existing in order to blend in with the art of the

Islamic architecture. The expansion also includes the electric power system,

loudspeakers, a fire alarm system and an alternative source of power for

emergency cases, and a T.V. system covering the whole area of the mosque.

The court surrounding the mosque covers ٢٣٥،٠٠٠ m٢, paved with marble

for comfortable prayers on Fridays and in the high seasons. The prayer area

is about ١٢٥،٠٠٠ m٢ with a capacity of ٢٥٦،٠٠٠ worshippers, or a million

worshipers in the high seasons.

Other areas include places for ablution and rest for visitors and an adjacent

car park of about ٣٩٠،٠٠٠ m٢, enough for ٤،٠٠٠ cars. The expansion also

includes the setting up of ٢٩٠ water containers and installing more than

١٥،٠٠٠ automatic water sprayers. Automatic surveillance equipment has

also been installed.



١٩٦

UURRBBAANNIIZZAATTIIOONN

ARCHITECTURE

Settlements in various parts of the Kingdom are separated by large areas of

desert, that is the home of the Bedouins, who roam with their tents and

animals in search of grazing land. Due to the geographical expansion of the

Kingdom, its characteristic climatic zones, topography and environment,

and the variety of building materials available, distinguishing traditional

types of architecture have existed in the Najd Region, the Western Region,

the Southern Region, and the Eastern Region. These types have established

their validity, reliability and practicality as designs suiting the environment

and meeting the social, educational and economic requirements of the

residents. Through the experience of a number of successive generations of

local building masters, traditional architecture has made great developments

in the quality of design, the techniques and the use of available building

materials.

TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE OF THE NAJD REGION

Due to its location in the middle of the Arabian Peninsula, Najd’s

traditional architecture has not been greatly influenced by that of other

regions. The hot and dry desert environment as well as the available

building materials has influenced the architectural designs of the region.

The traditional designs are distinguished by the narrow roads and

interwoven blocks.

Settlements in Najd were located in agricultural oases on either side of the

main valleys such as Rama, Hanîfa, and Dawâser. These settlements are

distinguished by spontaneity, narrow zigzag streets, generally for sheltering

the pedestrians from the hot sun and lessening the effect of sandy winds and

storms. There were also streets without outlets and adjacent houses

designed to reduce the number of walls exposed directly to the sun. These

houses were designed with small windows, but large courtyards provide



١٩٧

ventilation and sufficient natural light. They were distinguished by small

simple decorations, especially the outer frontages.

In Najd areas houses were built of molded brick (clay mixed with straw and

water left for a while in the sun to dry). Walls were sixty centimeters thick

to provide enough insulation from the outer heat. The use of clay as a

building material is regarded as one good example of environmental

adaptation for its low capacity of heat conduction. Limestone was used in

the foundations of buildings to provide protection against the rainwater.

Roofs were made of branches of tamarisk trees or of palm tree roots

covered by palm tree branches arranged closely, covered again by straw

made of palm tree leaves, and then by a thick layer of clay placed over all.

The roof was usually surrounded by a wall higher than the height of human

beings to provide shelter and privacy. Doors, windows, and doorsteps were

made of locally available wood, decorated with geometrical forms of

various colors.

Najdi houses are built on one or two levels and, in rare cases, on three

levels, round a courtyard and have a few small windows designed to keep

privacy. Openings can be found in the upper levels, while smaller openings

on the ground levels are used for ventilation. Courtyards are spaces for

family use and for regulating the temperature: Being open, they hold the

night’s cold air for the long hours of daylight heat. Almost each house has

two doors, one for women and family and the other for men and guests. A

little wall is erected just in front of the outer door to keep the people passing

in the street at bay.

The outer walls are decorated with triangular forms and lengthwise

openings defining the various levels of the house. The upper part of the roof

wall has graded edges that help to keep rain water off the walls. The inner

walls are decorated with gypsum shelves near the fireplace for placement of

coffee - making tools.



١٩٨

TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE OF THE WESTERN REGION

In the Western Region there are large civilized centers such as Makkah,

Madina, Jeddah, and Tâ’if. Pilgrims who come here from many different

places in the Islamic world have influenced this region. Throughout a long

period of time, those people conveyed to the region building plans and

technology that make the traditional building plans of this region distinct

from that of the other regions.

The Western Region is distinguished by the crowded and connected blocks

perpetrated by roads and narrow zigzag avenues which provide pedestrians

with shade and cool air. The traditional houses are distinguished by their

height and numerous levels, and the abundance of outer openings covered

with lattices and oriels decorated with beautiful wooden carvings.

Housing design should take into consideration two basic factors: privacy

and ventilation. The traditional architecture in the Western Region is

distinguished by numerous decorations of gypsum and wooden lattices and

doors surrounded by pointed or circled forms. Houses are integrated or

arranged so each of them offers shade to the other, in order to reduce the

waves of heat.

Houses are made of two kinds of stone: limestone in the residential

complexes such as Jeddah and Yanbu‘, and mountain stone in the mountain

residential areas such as Makkah and Tâ’if. In Jeddah, for example, there

are six-story houses made of limestone and clay or limestone with modern

supports or wooden horizontal barriers on walls. Each is about one meter

from the other to prevent cracking of walls resulting from weakness of earth

and the increase in the level of surface water.

As to roofs, they are made of wooden sheets fixed on wooden pillars. A

layer of limestone is placed on them, followed by another layer of sand. The

outer walls are covered with a layer of melted limestone to protect the stone

from erosion as a result of relatively high moisture. Then white or bright



١٩٩

colors such as light blue are used to paint lattices and wooden curtains or

the openings of the house and around the roof wall.

Lattices help to reduce the intensity of the sunlight during the day, and

allow cool air coming from the direction of the sea to penetrate the

building. They also provide privacy for the members of the family,

especially for the women, who can have a chance to observe what is going

on in the street without being noticed by the pedestrians.

TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE OF THE SOUTHERN REGION

The small agricultural residential areas in the Southern Region are scattered

on the mountaintops and valleys in the Tihâma plains. Due to its abundance

of rain and agricultural areas, this region has the highest density of

population in the Kingdom. The diversity of the environment and

topography from the mountaintops to the Red Sea coast resulted in diversity

of architectural types, building materials and methods of building. Different

architectural styles are found in the south from the upland region of Najrân

to Sarawât (Heights) of Abhâ, the Isdâr region of the Faifâ Mountain

region, and Tihâma of Jizân.

The environment varies from one area to another according to the location

and the altitude above sea level. The environment of the internal region,

which is located on the eastern side of the Sarawât mountain range, is a

desert environment. It is hot and dry in summer, and with little rain in

winter, while the mountain regions facing the Red Sea are distinguished by

moderate temperatures in the summer and rain as well as cold weather in

the winter.

The coastal regions have very hot weather with high humidity in summer,

while in winter they have moderate weather. So there were a great number

of building materials to fit the environment. Clay is used in Najrân, clay

mixed with stone (raqf) in the regions of Abhâ and Sarât ‘Obaida, and

stones in Faifa, Bâha and many mountain areas. Branches of trees and dry



٢٠٠

grass with ropes are used to make houses in Jizan and other residential areas

on the Tihâma coast.

Architecture in the Najrân areas that are distinguished by flat land and a

desert environment use bricks of clay, so it is similar to that used in the

Central Region. However, in Najrân, houses are made of clay mixed with

water and straw. Each brick forty to sixty centimeters long is placed one

over the other.

Settlements can be found in the hill region, while in the region of Isdâr,

there are small blocks of buildings and separate farms on the hilltops and in

mountain valleys. Architecture is affected the geology of the land. Houses

are built on high areas to provide protection against enemies or floods in the

valleys. High watchtowers are regarded as the most important

characteristics of the region.

Houses in the hilly areas like Abhâ, Sarât ‘Obaida have stone foundations,

and then clay with stones is used to complete the building. Walls are made

of clay mixed with straw and water, from forty to fifty centimeters thick,

protruding outside to protect other clay walls from heavy rain. It is

noticeable that the house narrows, as the walls become higher so as to make

a form similar to that of an incomplete pyramid. This form has its own

merits by making the building more stable. Clay is used to refurbish the

walls from outside and frontages are painted to make the building beautiful.

Interiors, especially the frames of doors, windows and roofs, as well as the

lower part of walls, are decorated with geometrical forms in bright colors of

yellow, red, blue and green.

The Isdar region of the Faifa Mountains is characterized by its heavy rain

and buildings are made in the form of cylindrical towers of four levels, built

close to one another near other buildings of rectangular or square forms.

The cylindrical forms are designed to protect people from raids and to

observe the surrounding area and reduce the need for long wooden planks



٢٠١

used to roof the house, and also to protect against cold and heavy rains.

Houses are built of mountain stones of different sizes, placed side by side

without any other supporting substances, except the remaining gaps

between stones can be filled with small pieces of stone. Glinting white flint

is used to decorate the outside of doors and windows and can be placed

between black stones.

The architecture of areas on the Red Sea, which are very hot and have high

humidity, is distinguished by detached separate rooms or blocks. Usually

houses or buildings are built in the form of circular blocks with conical

roofs, influenced by African architecture. The building is made of trees,

branches and dry grass as well as coiled ropes, covered on the inside with a

thin layer of clay or gypsum. This design helps hot air and fireplace smoke

to ascend to the top of the cone and then pass outside of the structure

through the branches and the dried grass so that the building is ventilated.

In this way it is kept cool inside the structure, so that windows are not

needed. The piled grass and branches help to keep the internal layer of clay

cool or to protect it from direct sunlight. The interiors are decorated with

bright colors of red, yellow or green, and sometimes with dishes of various

colors. Usually each place of residence consists of groups of structures with

a courtyard surrounded by branches of trees or dried grass. The courtyard is

regarded as part of the house where housework can be done.

TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE OF THE EASTERN REGION

Dwellings in the Eastern Region are of two kinds: those of coastal

communities depending on fishing and commerce and those of inland

communities depending on agriculture. Architecture in this region has some

of the characteristics of the designs of the Râfidain region, Iran and India.

Houses in the coastal areas are made of clay and stone with a courtyard,

decorated on the sides with geometrical forms. Openings are made in a way

to keep privacy and provide natural ventilation.



٢٠٢

The house walls, made of clay and limestone, are about one meter thick,

and the roofs are made from branches of trees. Clay mixed with straw and

gypsum made of limestone is used as a layer to protect the house from

rainwater. Because of the dry and hot weather in the inland regions, outside

openings are rare. The upper parts of doors and windows are decorated with

circular arches of gypsum.

MODERN ARCHITECTURE

It was noted previously that the diversity of the environment, geography,

and building materials has affected the traditional architecture in the

Kingdom. However, these different forms of buildings joined together to

create beauty and designs that meet the demands of the users and suit the

surrounding environment. This situation enabled these forms to last for a

long time. But with the introduction of new building ingredients, such as

cement and reinforced concrete, in the late fifties of this century, new

architectural forms of buildings were made of concrete, with modern air

conditioning systems. This shows the gradual decline of the traditional

building forms where prosperous Saudi villages and cities achieved a

standard distinguished by development in a short amount of time.

Government support through grant programs and loan funds resulted in the

development of cities and villages throughout the Kingdom. The land

development fund, since its foundation in ١٩٧٥ until the end of the financial

year ٤-١٩٩٣ offered ٤٢٥،٣٠٦ loans at a total value of ١١١،٧٠١،٢٠٤،٩٩٩

Saudi Riyals, making ٥٠٥،٧١٨ housing units. The fund also offered, since

the beginning of distribution of the commercial investment loans in ٧-١٩٧٦,

until the end of the financial year in ٢،٤٨٢ ,٤-١٩٩٣ loans at a total value of

٥،١٦٨،٧٧١،٨٩٥ Riyals. ١٥،٠٢٦ housing units distributed in the cities of

Riyadh, Jeddah, Makkakh, Buraida, Dammâm, Ahsâ’, Qatîf and Khobar.

The development of building activities in the Kingdom reached the summit

at the end of the last century. In that period many unprecedented



٢٠٣

architectural projects have been achieved. Experienced architects were

commissioned from all over the world together with the best quality

building materials and technology. During this activity, many distinguished

government projects have been constructed, including the modern industrial

and military cities like the Jubail buildings and complexes, and airport and

housing projects. The expansion of the Two Holy Mosques in Makkah and

Madina was one of the greatest achievements. The private sector has also

contributed to the erection of many buildings, offices, commercial centers,

industrial complexes and the accommodation buildings with modern

designs.

The architecture in the Kingdom has been greatly influenced by the

architectural forms of the world, because the Kingdom has employed many

architects from different parts of the world during this construction and

building period. Today all building projects are to be designed by Saudi

architects and Saudi advisory offices and carried out by Saudi contracting

companies. This was the result of the architectural education in the

Kingdom that started thirty years ago, when the architecture department

was opened in King Saud University. Architectural education has been

developed. Many colleges and departments for learning the sciences of

architecture and construction planning have been created in five Saudi

universities. The Kingdom now has many building advisory offices.

Graduates of these colleges have started to create distinguished modern

building designs.

Construction of cities is not confined to the distribution of land and the

erection of buildings, but rather it is a civilized process with many

dimensions and characteristics. So, with the beginnings of the development

of Saudi cities, the Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs is highly

concerned about complete and large scale planning studies for cities,

including road networks, land use, and defining the building range for each



٢٠٤

stage of the expected development. This has led to placing building

development on the right track.

URBAN AREAS AND CITIES

DEVELOPMENT OF URBANIZATION

Until the ١٩٣٠’s, most of the inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula lived in

difficult economic and social circumstances, and, in general, led simple

lives. The population consisted mostly of nomadic Bedouins, and urban

dwellers were few.

The economic and social development resulting from the discovery of oil

was reflected in the dramatic development of urbanization. It is fair to say

that the Kingdom spared no effort in settling the Bedouins through specially

designed programs. Even before the discovery of oil, King Abdulaziz

showed great concern for this matter. In ١٩١٢, Artâwiya was established as

the first enterprise for the settlement of Bedouins, and it has now become a

modern city.

The number of cities was limited, and they were small in size. Before the

establishment of the Saudi State, there were no cities other than Makkah

and Medina, in addition to ancient cities such as Dûmat al-Jandal, Shaqrâ’

and ‘Ulâ.

The discovery of oil led to the establishment of urban centers concerned

with the oil industries, oil refinement and oil exportation. This, in turn, led

to economic and urban development, as well as to the establishment of new

cities. The establishment of a transportation network has made a

contribution in this regard. Due to all the developments in economics and

transportation, the number of urban inhabitants has increased at a rapid rate.

This rate was ٢٠٪ in ٢٤ ,١٩٣٢٪ in ٤٦ ,١٩٦٢٪ in ٧٦ ,١٩٧٤٪ in ١٩٩٢, and in

١٩٩٦ the rate had reached around ٧٩٪.



٢٠٥

Thus urbanization in the Kingdom has gone through a number of stages,

which can be summarized as follows:

THE STAGE OF LIMITED TRADITIONAL URBANIZATION BEFORE THE UNIFICATION OF

THE KINGDOM.

The stage of limited traditional urbanization goes back to the period before

the unification of the Kingdom. Some people have pointed out that around

١٠٠٠ BC, the Arabian Peninsula was known as the “Urban Centers”.

According to Assyrian records, the Arabs used to defend themselves against

Assyrian invasions of the cities of Adûmâtû (Dûmat al-Jandal) and Taimâ’,

which are located in the north of the Arabian Peninsula. There are also

many cities in the Kingdom whose history goes back to the pre-Islamic era,

such as ‘Ulâ, Khaibar, Amlaj, Yanbu‘, Shaqrâ’ and Khulais. Most of the

urban concentrations or developments of that time were located where the

water necessary for agriculture and drinking and places for natural

protection from raids and wars were available. Thus, cities that go back to

that time were so small that the total population of each did not exceed

١٥،٠٠٠. For example, the population of the city of Riyadh at that time did

not exceed ٧،٥٠٠ in ١٩٨٢. It looked like a little bend in a wadi because it

was almost circular in shape, and its area did not exceed one half square

kilometer. In the middle of the city there was Safât Hill, and beside it the

palace, the mosque and the markets. There were also four streets, each one

ending in a fortified gate. (See Al-Sharîf ١٤٠٨ AH/١١.) Cities were

surrounded by castles for security. Streets were narrow, and houses with

small windows were very close to one another. Inhabited areas usually had

a mosque in the middle of a large open space, which was used for economic

activities, particularly for the buying, selling and exchange of goods.

THE STAGE OF SLOW AND GRADUAL URBANIZATION: ١٩٧٠-١٩٣٠

The stage of slow and gradual urbanization covers the period including the

unification of the Kingdom by King Abdulaziz, the discovery of oil, and the



٢٠٦

political and security settlement and extends to the beginning of the ١٩٧٠’s.

In ١٩٣٢, the population of the Kingdom was between one and a half and

two million, with urbanites constituting ٢٠٪. During this stage, people

began to use cars. The sale of the first car was in Jeddah in١٩٢٦. However,

there were cars before that time, since cars were introduced to the country

during the era of Fakhru’d-dîn Pasha, the ruler of Medina. Later, cars were

introduced to Makkah at the beginning of the time of Husain, the Sharîf of

Makkah.

Road construction and city planning started also at this stage. This

development facilitated the use of cars. During this period, many people

migrated from the countryside and the desert to the cities so that they could

participate in the development projects executed by the government. In fact,

some cities that belong to this time are still preserved in sections of Riyadh,

Makkah, Jeddah and Medina.

THE STAGE OF RAPID URBANIZATION: ١٩٩٠-١٩٧٠

The state of rapid urbanization extends from the beginning of the ١٩٧٠’s to

the end of the ١٩٨٠’s. At this stage, cities witnessed a great deal of

development and progress. Governmental financial support was also strong

and was designated for planning and urbanization projects in most Saudi

cities. Thus, many roads and other public services were established. These

efforts were also accompanied by the immigration of Saudis to the cities, as

well as the importation of foreign labor from all over the world to support

the execution of these projects and the construction of cities. Some old

cities were also modified by expansion, although some urban expansion

was at random due to the fast pace of these projects. In brief, the factors

that led to rapid urban development can be summarized as follows:

× Oil income, which was reflected in the general budget of the country,

rose sharply.

× The birthrate increased, and the death rate decreased due to better

standards of living.



٢٠٧

× There was great immigration to cities. For instance, it was estimated

that ٨٥٪ of Riyadh’s population was born outside Riyadh, and ٧٥٪ of its annual

population growth is due to immigration. Also, ٨٠٪ of the population in

Dammâm and Khobar are immigrants.

Foreign labor came in large numbers from both Arab and non-Arab

countries, particularly from Southeast Asia. It was estimated that in ١٩٦٩,

there were ١٥،٠٠٠ workers. This increased to ٥٠،٠٠٠ in ١٩٧٥. (See Table

٢.)

The Real Estate Fund provided massive financial assistance through loans

for urbanization projects.

All these factors led to a big increase in the traffic inside the cities, which

meant that new roads and bridges were built to cope with it. These

developments also led to an increase in the cost of basic public services in

cities.

THE STAGE OF URBAN STABILITY (١٩٩٠- PRESENT)

The stage of urban stability begins from the early ١٩٩٠’s, when many cities

had reached a stage of stability with respect to urban expansion. Land that

was not absorbed by urban projects in cities was utilized in various

investment projects. Urban projects are now carried out according to more

realistic urban plans, so that these projects will contribute to the protection

and development of the urban environment.

LEVELS OF URBANIZATION IN ADMINISTRATIVE REGIONS

There has been a dramatic change in the rates of urbanization in all

administrative regions, as can be seen from Table # ١. This is no doubt a

reflection of what happened in the administrative regions. For instance in

the Riyadh Region, this rate was ٥٩٪ in ١٩٧٤, but in ١٩٩٢, it rose to ٨٣٪.

Similarly in the Eastern Region, the rate was ٦٧٪, and it rose to ٨٦٪. In

Jawf, the rate was ٣٣٪ and then shot up ٧٨٪. In the Tabûk Region, it was

٤٤٪ and then nearly doubled to ٨٢٪. As for Medina, the rate stood at ٤٢٪



٢٠٨

and then went to ٧٤٪. In the Eastern Border Region, the rate was at ٢٩٪ and

then jumped to ٧٧٪. The acceleration in urbanization is due to the

settlement of the Bedouins, who constitute a relatively high rate of the

population in that region. Most of those Bedouins preferred to settle in the

cities because of the lack of small villages and traditional farms. It was also

because they did not want to practice farming. As to the Tabûk Region, this

change is due to its importance as a military city.

Re

According to the ١٩٧٤ Census. According to the ١٩٩٢

Census.

gion

No. of

Cities

Total

Population

Percent of

Urban

Population

No. of

Cities

Total

Population

Percent of

Urban

Population

Riyadh ٨٧٫٦٢ ٣٣٦،١٧٧ ٣٢ ٥٨٫٨٥ ٧٤١،٠١٠ ٨ Makkah ٧٣٫١٨ ٣٧١٦،٠٦٥ ١٩ ٦٤٫٩٠ ١١٤٢،٤٦٣ ٦

Gizan ٢٦٫١٥ ٢٢٧،٢٧٧ ١٥ ١٧٫٥٨ ٧١،٧٧٨ ٥ Eastern

Province ٨٨٫٧٧ ٢٢٨٦،٦٧٥ ٥١ ٦٧٫٠٤ ٥١٠،٨٤١ ١٤

Asseer ٣٦٫٦٤ ٤٩٠،٩٧٥ ١٤ ١٣٫٦٤ ٩٢،٥٩١ ٣

Quaseem ٦٢٫٠٦ ٤٦٦،٠٧٩ ٨ ٣٧٫٧٨ ١٢٢،٩٠٩ ٥

Hail ٤٥٫٠١ ١٨٥،١٢٧ ٢ ١٥٫٦٤ ٤٠،٥٠٢ ١ Madina ٧٤٫٤٣ ٨٠٧،٥٥٧ ٩ ٤٢٫٤٨ ٢١٩،٤٨٤ ٤

Al-Baha ١٤٫٢٧ ٤٧،٤٠٤ ٥ ٢٫٧٣ ٥،٠٧٣ ١ Northern

Borders ٧٧٫١٣ ١٧٦،٦٦٣ ٤ ٢٩٫١٨ ٣٧،٢٢٤ ٣

Tabuk ٨١٫٧٦ ٣٩٦،٧٠٩ ٧ ٤٤٫٤٢ ٨٦،٤٢٣ ٣

Najran ٤٦٫٤٦ ١٣٩،٨٣٤ ٤ ٣٣٫٤١ ٤٨،١٣٨ ٢

Al-Jouf ٧٨٫٠٩ ٢١٠،٢١٣ ٧ ٣٣٫١١ ٣٢،٩٧٦ ٣

Kingdom 58 3151,412 46.0 % 177 12,510,755 76.47 %



٢٠٩

On the other hand, these rates are still relatively low in some administrative

regions despite the dramatic changes in urban population rates. For

example, in Bâha, Asîr, Jâzân, Najrân and Hâ’il, these rates have changed

from about ٣٪ to ١٤ ,٪١٤٪ to ١٨ ,٪٣٧٪ to ٣٣ ,٪٢٦٪ to ٤٦٪ and ١٥٪ to ٤٥٪

respectively. The urbanization rates are relative low compared to other

regions. The reason for this is because the big urban centers in these regions

are few, and also because most people immigrate to big cities like Riyadh,

Jeddah and Dammâm. As for the Qasîm Region, the rates fall in the middle

between the two groups for the urbanization rate changed from ٣٨٪ to ٦٢٪.

It is worth mentioning that in ١٩٩٢, the interior of the Kingdom, which

includes the Regions of Makkah, Riyadh and the Eastern Region, attracted

about ٧٥٪ of the urban population of the Kingdom. This is not very

different from ١٩٩٤, since the rate that year for those areas was ٧٦٪ of the

urban population.

THE NUMBER AND SIZE OF THE CITIES It has been seen that the Kingdom has undergone vast urban change in the

second half of this century. When the Kingdom was unified by King

Abdulaziz, there were just a few, small cities. After the unification, cities

became larger in number and bigger in size. For instance, in ١٩٧٤, there

were fifty-eight cities in the Kingdom with populations of ٥،٠٠٠ or more.

In ١٩٩٢, the number of such cities rose to ١٧٧. (See Table # ٢.) The total

population in the cities was ٣١٥،٤١٢ in ١٩٧٤. In ١٩٩٢, this figure had

rocketed to ١،٢٥١،٧٥٥. This means that the increase was ٣٩٧٪. This was

not the case of just certain cities, but most cities underwent the same change

with some variations.

Population

Volume

According to the ١٩٧٤ Census. According to the ١٩٩٢

Census.



٢١٠

Category

No. of

Cities

Total

Population

Percentage

No. of

Cities

Total

Population

Percentage

٣٫٨٦ ٤٨٣٠٥٧ ٧١ ٤٫١٢ ١٢٩٧٣٥ ٢٠ ٩-٥

٥٫٣٦ ٦٧٠٦١٢ ٤٧ ٧٫٠٤ ٢٣٧٧٢٣ ١٧ ١٩-١٠

٧٫٠٧ ٨٨٤٥٠٩ ٢٩ ١٠٫٢٠ ٢٢١٤٨٨ ١٠ ٤٩-٢٠

٦٫٠٧ ٧٥٧٨٩٣ ١٠ ٨٫٤٨ ٢٦٧٢٧٨ ٤ ٩٩-٥٠

٩٫٧١ ١٢١٤٩٧٢ ٩ ١٩٫١٩ ٦٠٤٦٤٧ ٤ ١٩٩-١٠٠

٩٫٦٢ ١٢٠٤٠٣١ ٥ ١١٫٦٣ ٣٦٦٥٠٩ ١ ٣٩٩-٢٠٠

٤٠٠ and

above

٥٨٫٣١ ٧٢٩٤٧٨١ ٦ ٣٨٫٨٤ ١٢٢٤٠٣٢ ٢

Total ١٠٠ ١٢٥١٠٧٥٥ ١٧٧ ١٠٠ ٣١٥١٤١٢ ٥٨

It is to be noted that in ١٩٧٤, the number of cities whose population was

٤٠٠،٠٠٠ was just two, Riyadh and Jeddah. In ١٩٩٢, this number rose to six,

Riyadh, Jeddah, Makkah, Dammâm, Medina and Tâ’if. Changes occurred

in industry, economy, developmental policies and five-year budgets. For

example, industrial cities of Jubail and Yanbu‘ have attracted thousands of

Saudis and foreign laborers. Also, the achievements of the tourism industry,

in Hawiya by way of example, have led to a remarkable change.



٢١١

EEccoonnoommyy aanndd DDeevveellooppmmeenntt

TRADITIONAL FOLK PROFESSIONS AND CRAFTS

Traditional folk professions and crafts were numerous in Saudi Arabia due

to its geographical diversity. They varied from one region to another. Some

cities and villages become famous for some crafts such as woolen garments

from the Dhahrân area, saddles from Hâ’il, and doors and shutters from

Qasîm.

These professions and crafts have been given much attention and

encouragement at the Janadriya Festival and by the Public Culture of Arts

and Education Society. The most common professions and crafts centered

on herding, agriculture, trade, smithery, painting, tanning, building works,

weaving and so on.

POTTERY

Pottery is a traditional profession and craft, depending on clay as its main

material. The potter makes various pots of different forms and sizes, and

decorates them by hand, then has them baked to become solid and ready for

use. These crafts can be found in the Ahsâ’, Madîna, Makkah, and other

regions. This pottery is made on a device called a dulâb (wheel) turned by

the potter’s feet. He keeps a wooden comb in his hand to help him in the

decoration process. Then these pots are exposed to sunlight before being

sent to a furnace to be fired. These products include tanûr (bread ovens),

jars of all kinds, and zîr (large storage vessels) in various sizes, such as

sharba, barma, munash and kâlia.

CALLIGRAPHY

Artists and calligraphers in Arab cities decorated walls of mosques and

houses with aesthetic works and many written panels using calligraphy.



٢١٢

THE KHÛS (PALM LEAF CRAFTS)

This is a craft common in the agricultural regions and depends on the use of

palm-tree branches as well as the leaves of other plants. The tools used are

simple and they include knives, anvils, and hammers. The craftsmen make

boxes for preserving and storing dates and fruits, manz for children,

brooms, ropes, baskets and hand fans (mahfaf), mats, grain sieves,

winnows, shoes, lamp oil and vessels made of branches.

CARPENTRY

The craft of carpentry depends on tamarisk wood, date-tree branches, and

some imported woods. Tools used by the carpenter are the hammer and

saw. The carpenter makes various wooden forms such as doors, shutters,

windows, and roofs of houses, and some common toys such as tops,

spindles and ba‘a. He makes all these things in a very artistic and creative

manner.

He also makes mâshia (walking sticks) for children who are late in learning

to walk, and also wooden dishes, buckets and spoons.

SMITHERY

The people of the Arabian Peninsula mined all the available minerals and

manufactured metal tools and utensils of good specification after producing

the alloys. These metals include steel, iron and bronze. A bellows and dafûr

are necessary for making plates, and coffeepots. Tools used in this craft are

the hammer, shears, and a chisel to polish the vessels and mend them. The

craftsman depends on the dafûr for soldering coffemaking utensils such as

shovels, roasters, iron coffeepots and tongs.

WEAVING CRAFTS (SADÛ)

Sadû uses raw materials of camel hair, lambs wool and goat hair. The tools

used in this craft are spinner needles and wooden shuttles, and it is

practiced by both men and women, though woman show more creativity



٢١٣

and efficiency than men. Some other materials such as hair in addition to

wool are used for more perfection and finer quality. Tents with all their

accessories can also be made including tharâ’, fuljân and sayâh. Sacks,

provision bags and various saddlebags are also made, as well as cloth,

woven wool, baidî, cushions, mattresses and mazwiya and some other wool

fabrics.

LEATHERWORK

Leatherwork depends on the skins of camels, goats, lambs, and cows. The

tools used include a piercer, scissors, a printer to color the leather belts and

knives.

The leather is tanned to remove hair and wool and other things attached to it

such as flesh, fat or oil. These leathers should be clean and ready for

manufacturing different items, including shoes, socks, aka, mukhlâ,

dawayra‘, mezbâ, sûra, jâ‘id, khathel, ârûk, sa‘n, and thukâl. This craft has

developed using modernized tools and imported raw materials and has

become one of the basic industries and a symbol for industrial and civilized

development.

GOLDSMITHERY

This is one of the most popular crafts known in the Kingdom, especially in

Mecca, and later throughout most cities. Gold and silver are manufactured

to make various geometrical forms and shapes, are decorated with precious

stones, jewels, colored glass, and beads for women’s ornaments. Goldsmith

tools include the hammer, chisel and fire. For festivals and marriages gold

and silver are forged into hâma, hujûl, bânajir, qerdâla, qalâ’id, kharaz and

also into zamâm, khamâkhin, rishrash, zinât, murtahash, shamâyil, matâwî,

‘udhûd, and kaf. Also, swords and arms are decorated with gold.



٢١٤

EXAMPLES OF SOME TRADITIONAL FOLK CRAFT PRODUCTS

THE ‘ARZÂLA The ‘arzâla is named qafas, morfâ‘a or mallâla and is used to store liquids

and food. It is like the refrigerators used nowadays. The ‘arzâla used to be

attached to a rope and kept in a special place in the old traditional houses

called quba, a cool place away from the heat of the sun, to keep food such

as meat, yogurt, and fat fresh and safe. It is made of palm-trees branches

that allow air in while keeping insects out.

THE SUMÎL The sumîl is a leather vessel like the saqâ’ used as a water container. It is

smaller in size than saqâ’, and used by a traveler and can be carried with his

luggage. It is sometimes used to keep laban (yogurt) in.

THE QURBA The Qurba is a leather vessel like the sumîl, but it is bigger in size

and is made of tanned lamb or goatskins. In the past, it was considered a

cooling device. It is a sack with a mouth in the middle and small openings

on the sides that close and open when necessary.

THE MUZWIYA The muzwiya is an ‘abaya similar to that of the silk bisht. It is made from

woven threads of camel hair, and is decorated with silk and other colored

thread and is worn in winter.

THE QURD AL-HEYL The qurd al-heyl is a kind of dress made of silk fabric that contains nubs

that are like cardamom seeds, worn for ornament.

THE HÂMA The hâma are decorated thin sheets of gold, fastened to golden chains.

Sometimes gold coins are used instead of the thin gold leaves. Sometimes

precious stones are used and hang down from a girl’s head as an ornament.



٢١٥

THE RISHRASH The rishrash is a compound necklace of various branches of gold. Each

branch consists of a golden chain attached to gold circles or balls like

prayer beads and it is worn around the neck.

THE MURTAHASH The murtahash is a necklace like the rishrash, but longer. It is more than a

meter and a half long, made of gold and decorated with colored precious

stones.

THE ZABLÂN (BASKETS) The singular of zablân is zanbîl. They are baskets of many different kinds,

and they are usually used for carrying or storing. One kind is called

marâhîl, and some can hold fifty kilos of dates.

THE MAHÂF The singular of mahaf is mahfa. It is a hand fan made of soft white palm

fronds, decorated with woven designs. It is square in shape with a thin

handle, and is used to fan oneself.

THE MAKÂNIS Al-makânis are brooms made of palm-tree branches. Some other kinds are

made of palm-tree fibers.

THE SAYÂH The sayâh are carpets made of camel hair and lambs wool, decorated with

threads of colored wool. They are used to furnish the living rooms.

THE KHARJ AL-MUTIYA The kharj al-mutiya is a saddlebag distinguished by its bright colors and

beautiful inscriptions, and is for a horse. Pieces of the same color and fabric

hang down the sides. It is used for carrying light luggage.

THE MUZWADA



٢١٦

The muzwada is smaller than the kharj, but is also a saddlebag for a horse.

It is brightly colored and is used to carry the traveler’s food and personal

luggage.

THE QATF The Qatf is a vessel made of leather and is used to store coffee and

cardamom.

THE JARÂB The jarâb is a leather purse used during travel for the safekeeping of

personal things such as money and coffee.

THE DAWAYRA‘ The dawayra‘, which is made of leather, is for ornament and use as light

luggage.

THE MAZBÂ The mazbâ is a small cradle of leather for the carrying of children during

travel. It is decorated with hanging pieces of ornament.

THE NAT‘ The nat‘ is a covering of soft tanned leather and is draped over camels

during travel. It is also used for coffee during a rest stop.

THE JÂ‘ID The jâ‘id is made of soft tanned leather and is used as a mattress or for a

horse’s back.

THE ASHIDA The ashida are varied. Some, special for horses’ backs, are long and

beautiful with wide decorations called masâma, and are used for riding and

carrying luggage and for other things.

THE AQTÂB



٢١٧

The aqtâb is similar to the masâma but smaller in size and is used for litters

(hawâdaj) with long flags fastened to carved branches of beech in a formal

dome fastened by slices of twigs. It is one and a half meters high and is

regarded as the principal transportation for woman of the higher class.

These include the hawâdaj (pl. hadûj), the gabît and the natla.

THE DARAJA The darâja is a wooden cylinder between twenty and thirty centimeters in

diameter and fifty centimeters long. Two thick nails of about sixteen

centimeters are fastened on the sides. The darâja is fastened with columns

tied to the axle, which the darâja can role on.

THE MASHIYA The mâshiya or walker is a wooden device with wheels used to help little

children learn to walk. It is still in use, but it is now made of plastic.

HERDING

The people in the western Arabian Peninsula began to breed more animals

to use in their agricultural work, for this region is distinguished by its fertile

soil and heavy rain which help to create agricultural and herding areas on

the hills. This region is also quite hilly. The northern region of the Arabian

Peninsula between the Nufûd desert and the middle of the Syrian desert has

been famous for its grazing areas since ancient times. It is still one of the

most fertile grazing lands in the Arabian Peninsula, especially in the spring

after the rainfall. The central region of the Arabian Peninsula is

distinguished by its wide expanses, and due to this is considered one of the

most varied regions for grazing, despite its scarcity of water. Oases and

grazing vegetation are spread over the eastern region of the Peninsula.

Some Arabs made herding and horse breeding a career.



٢١٨

MODERN INDUSTRIES

Modern industrial activity started in ١٩٥٤, when the appliance repair

workshops, tools, kitchens and cars had made their appearance. In the late

١٩٦٠’s, a resolution was made to allocate specific places in most of the

main Saudi cities as industrial areas, where the basic equipment had been

set up. In ١٩٧٤ regulations were introduced defining the main principles of

industry, and encouraging the expansion of light industries, dependent on

agriculture, as well as free enterprise.

THE INDUSTRIAL CITIES

The establishment of the industrial cities is regarded as a phase of support

and encouragement, because it lessened the burden of factory construction

and industrial planning and regulation. Two industrial cities have been

built, one in Jubail and the other in Yanbu by the Royal Commission to

create principal industries out of oil and petrochemical products and metals,

as well as to create secondary industries. The basic equipment has been set

up in Jubail, covering an area of around ١،٠٣٠ km٢, including sixteen basic

industry complexes which depend altogether on the exploitation of the

natural gas which had been wasted without any economic value.

The industrial city of Yanbu was set up on an area of eighty square

kilometers to create principal as well as secondary industries. To achieve

the objectives of a balanced regional development, and to encourage the

industrial sector, six industrial cities have been set up in Riyadh, Jeddah,

Dammâm, Makkah, Qasîm, and Ahsâ’.



٢١٩

[A TABLE POINTING OUT THE INDUSTRIAL CITIES WITH REGARD TO AREA, COST AND THE NUMBER OF FACTORIES]

Industrial City Area (Thousand Square meters)

Cost of Project (Million Riyals) No. of Factories

Riyadh ٥١٩ ٥٨٨ ٢٢،٢٣٧

Jeddah ٢٣٠ ٤٠٩ ١٢،٧٧٨

Damman ٢١٠ ٥٥٩ ١٨،٥٩٠

Al-Ahsaa' ١٨ ٩٤ ١،٥٠٠

Quaseem ٢٦ ١٣٩ ١،٥٠٠

Makkah ١٧ ٤٥ ٧٥٨

THE GENERAL STOCK COMPANIES OF THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY SECTOR

Five Saudi stock companies work in the field of drilling and refining oil,

with a capital valued at ٧٢٤ million Riyals and a shareholders’ capital of

١٤٤٦ million Riyals. All these companies have good reserves. The capital

of the Saudi Arabian Oil Refinery Company is ٤٠ million Riyals, twenty-

four million having been paid, at a rate of ٦٠٪. The whole capital belongs to

the private sector, ٩٠٫٨٪ for individuals, and ٩٫٢٪ for companies. The

capital of the national gas and manufacturing company is ٥٠٠ million

Riyals, fully paid, ٨٤،٥٪ for the private sector, ١٥،٥٪ for the government.

The capital of the oil and lubricating company (Petromen) is ١١٠ million

Riyals, fully paid, ٧١٪ for government, and ٢٠٪ for American shareholders.

The capital of Arab Al-Hafer Company is twenty million Riyals, fully paid,

٥١٪ for the government and ٤٩٪ for French shareholders. The capital of the

Jeddah Oil Refinery is ١٥٠ million Riyals, seventy million Riyals paid, ٢٥٪

for companies, ٧٥٪ for the government sector.



٢٢٠

[TABLE SHOWING THE STOCK COMPANIES OF THE INDUSTRIAL PETROLEUM SECTOR] Company PPeerrcceennttaaggee aanndd ccllaassssiiffiiccaattiioonn ooff sshhaarreess ppeerr ccoommppaannyy No. of registered Shares

name Capital Individual Companies Government Foreign Regist’ed No. of ShareHolders

Saudi Arabian Refineries

٩٨٠ ٤٠٠،٠٠٠ - - % ٩٫٢ % ٩٠٫٨ ٤٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠

National Gas & Industrialization

٦،٩٤٢ ٥،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ - % ١٥٫٥ % ٢٫٨٤ % ٨١٫٦٦ ٥٠٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠

Petromine Lubricating

Oils

٢٩٫٠ % ٧١٫٠ - - ١١٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ % American

٢ ٠٠٠ ,١،١٠٠

Al-Hafr Al-Arabia

٤٩٫٠ % ٥١٫٠ - - ٢،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ % French

٢ ٢٠٠،٠٠٠

Jeddah Oil Refinery

٢ ٧٠٠،٠٠٠ - % -٧٥٫٠ % ٢٥٫٠ - ١٥٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠

THE LIGHT INDUSTRIES

The government was interested in developing the light industries through

efforts to vary the foundation of economy and to reduce the principal

reliance on the export of crude oil. In this field (the light industries) there

are seventeen industrial stock companies with a capital of ١٣٫٧٧٠٤ billion

Riyals. Most of these companies have made an improvement in their

financial management valued at ١٢٫٥ billion Riyals, with Sabic representing

٨٠٫٣٪.

[TABLE POINTING OUT THE ACTIVITY OF SEVENTEEN COMPANIES OUT OF THE TOTAL LIGHT INDUSTRY COMPANIES]

Name of the

Approved Percentage of Share Capital and Its Types

No. of Shares registered and Share Holders

Project Capital Individuals Companies Govt. Foreign Regis’d No. of Share-

Holders Saudi Basic Industries

Ten billion ٧٠٫٠ - % ٣٠٫٠ %

- ١٠٠ million

٧٥،٠٠٠

Saudi Arabian

Fertilizers

٤٣٫٠ - % ٥٧٫٠ ٥٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ %

- ٥،٠٠٠،٠٠٠

٤،٤٨٣

Safola Co. ٧٫٤٤ % ١٠٫٤ % ٨٢٫١٦ ٣٠٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ %

- ٣،٠٠٠،٠٠٠

١٩٨،٣٢٢

National Industries ٦٠٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠

Private Sector ١٢ - - % ١٠٠٫٠

million

-



٢٢١

Pharmaceutical

Industry

٢٥٫٠ - % ٧٥٫٠ ٦٠٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ %

- ٦ million ١٦،٥٠٠

Saudi Cables

٦ - - % ٤٦٫٠ % ٥٠٫٠ ٣٠٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ million ١٦،٥٠٠

Glass Fiber Industry ٥٠٫٠ ٥٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ %

٥٠٪ - G.C.C. Nationals - ٣٠ ٥٠٠،٠٠٠

Saudi Advanced Industries

Co.

١٠٨،٠٠٠،٠٠٠

Private Sector

١٠٠٫٠ %

-

-

١،٠٨٠, ٠٠٠

١٥٤

Food Products

Co.

١،٠٠٠٫٠٠ - - % ٦٩٫٠ % ٣١٫٠ ٢٠٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠٠

٢٣

National Glass

Industries Co.

٢٠٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠

٣١٫٠ %

٦٩٫٠ %

-

-

٤،٠٠٠٫٠٠

٠

٥٠

National Metals

Foundary & Industries

Co.

١٠٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠

٣٦٫٧٣ %

٦٣٫٣٧ %

-

-

١،٠٠٠،٠٠

٠

٢٣

Packaging Material

Industries Co.

٦٨،٧٥٠،٠٠٠

١٠٠٫٠ %

-

-

-

٦،٨٧٥،٠٠

٠

١٤

Arabian Pipes Co.

١٤ ٧٠٠،٠٠٠ - - - % ١٠٠٫٠ ٧٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠

Al-Lujjain Co.

١،٧٣٠،٠٠ - - - % ١٠٠٫٠ ١٧٣،٠٠٠،٠٠٠٠

٢٢٦

Arabian Industrial Devel’ent

Co.

٢٥٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠

-

-

-

-

٢،٥٠٠،٠٠

٠

٣٣٩

National Leather

Tanning & Manuf’ring

Co.

٢٥،٦٠٠،٠٠٠

-

-

-

-

٢٥٦،٠٠٠

Finance

d

Saudi Industrial

Develop.Co

٤٠٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠

١٠٠٫٠ % -

-

-

٤،٠٠،٠٠٠

٢١٥،٠٠

٠



٢٢٢

THE MINERAL AND PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRIES (SABIC) Sabic has made considerable development, with power productivity

mounting to more than twenty million metric tons a year. This is due to the

development of local as well as international markets. It has an expansion

program to keep the development of marketing parallel with that of the

production. Most of its projects are set up according to the system of joint

projects, with a number of selected pioneering international technology

companies. Sabic affirms the quality of its products and advanced services.

This company set up its industrial complex for development and research,

which was officially opened on December ٦٥ .١٩٩٤٪ of Sabic staff are

Saudis.

Sabic Main Sectors

Petrochemicals and their derivatives make up the biggest sector of Sabic,

with a total production of millions of tons contributing to the development

of thelight industry sector.

Fertilizers Sabic has taken part in achieving a full agricultural increase during the last

decades through production of fertilizers which carry the Sabic mark.

Iron and Steel The Saudi Iron and Steel Company (Hadeed) owned by Sabic is regarded as

the biggest producer of iron and steel in the world. It employs the direct

reduction method (the electric bow furnace) and its total production (steel

bars, beams, wire coils and sections) was more than ٩٫٦ million tons.

The Supporting Industries

The National Gas Industry Company (Ghaz) produces oxygen and nitrogen

to support the production process of the Jubail industrial institutions. Last

year Ghaz completed the third stage expansion program to increase the

annual production of oxygen to ٩٧٦ thousand tons, and nitrogen to ٤٨٩



٢٢٣

thousand tons. This expansion was meant to complement Sabic production

programs and expansion projects. Cement and the Construction Materials

There are ten stock companies for cement and building materials. The most

recent company established was that of Tabuk, with a capital of ٦٫٤ billion

Riyals. The capital of the Saudi Cement Company, the biggest cement

company, was ٢،٠٤٠ million Riyals.

This company has good reserves, and has continued to improve its

production for several years in succession, which has resulted in the

achievement of its total profits.

Industrial A

ctivity

Riyadh

Qasim

Makkah

Madina

Eastern Province

Jizan

Najran

'Asir

Baha

Ha’il

Tabuk

Northern

Borders

Al-Jaw

f

Grand

Total

Food Products and

Drinks Industries ٣٤ ٢ ٠ ٧ ٦ ٢ ٧ ١ ٥ ٦٩ ٢٢ ١١٠ ٢١ ٩٤

٦ Textiles, Ready-

made Garments,

Leather Products,

Industries

٣٧

٠

١٩

٨

١٦

٠

٠

٠

٠

٠

٠

٠

١

٨١

Wood, Wooden

Products, and

Furniture Industries ١٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٣٠ ٥ ١٧ ٤ ٤٢

٠ Paper, Printing and

Publication

Industries

١٤ ١ ٠ ٠ ٢ ٣ ١ ٠ ١ ٣٠ ١ ٤٨ ٢ ٥٩

٨

Chemicals and

Plastic Products

Industries ١١

٤

٤٣ ٢ ٣٠ ٤ ٥ ٥ ٢٦ ٩ ١١ ١١٠ ٢٢ ٧٩ ١٩

٩ Building Materials,

Sanitary wares, and

Glass Industries ١٤

٤

٤٣ ٢ ٣ ٤ ٥ ٥ ٢٦ ٩ ١١ ١١٠ ٢٢ ٧٩ ١٩

٩ Basic Metals

Industries ١٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٢ ٠ ٥ ٠ ٣



٢٢٤

Metals, Factory and

Machinery Products

Industries ٢٤

٧

١٧ ٢٦

٠

٦٢ ٢ ١ ٢ ٥ ٠ ١٠ ٢ ٣ ١٥٦ ٩

٣ Other Miscellaneous

Industries ٥٧ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٩ ٤ ٢٠ ٣ ١٢

Transportation

and Storage /

Warehousing

٢١ ٠ ٠ ١ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ١ ٤ ٣ ٥ ٣ ٤

Grand Total ٧٦

٥

٥٨ ٩١

٦

٢٢٣ ١١ ٥ ١٨ ٢١ ١١ ٤٦ ١٤ ٢٢ ٥٥٦ ٨٨

٤

AGRICULTURE

Agriculture depends on three main factors: agricultural lands, water

availability, and work power. All of these factors are available in various

areas in the Arabian Peninsula. This made agriculture an important

economic source. Ancient remnants and ruins show that the peninsular

civilizations were dependent on agriculture. Agriculture is considered to be

one of the main resources for living. Oases are considered the most

important agricultural areas, due to their fertile land and water. The Arabs

of the Peninsula have many valleys such as Qura, Ramma, Hanîfa, Dawâsir

and others where agricultural settlements appeared on their slopes. Trading

stations were set up close to these fertile oases, distinguished by greenery

and abundant water. The slopes and valleys such as the flat basins of the

Sarât mountain range were used for agriculture. A terraced land system was

introduced into the agriculture of the southwestern regions. This terracing

system attracted the European travellers in the past.

TRADE

Two basic elements made trade in the Arabian Peninsula popular. First, its

location as a sea and land crossroad and second, the availability of some

necessary materials such as balsam, frankincense and myrrh. Trade does not



٢٢٥

only include exporting Saudi-made products, but also some products

imported from Eastern countries such as China, Sri Lanka, India and East

Africa. So the Red Sea harbor played an important role in international

trade.

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT: PRESENT AND FUTURE

Food security is the main factor underlying the process of agricultural

development in all world countries due to its great importance in the social

and economic development process. Achieving food security has become

an obsession, determining the nature and form of agricultural development

in the Kingdom during the past five development plans (١٩٧٠-١٩٩٥).

Agriculture before this period consisted of unplanned areas of traditional

crops among diverged water streams able to supply only a small part of the

increasing food needs.

The adoption of the large-scale five-year development plan shows the

extent of the government’s concern for the development of this vital sector.

Achieving food security to accompany the rapid advancement in the

modernization of this sector, it is necessary that it not become an obstacle to

other developmental objectives in the future.

The advancements of the agriculture sector in the Kingdom have not

resulted from sudden social or economic circumstances but from a gradual

but ambitious development. The progress in this sector has been carried out

through rapid and reasonable steps establishing the structure of the sector.

The development of the agriculture sector in the Kingdom can be shown

through three stages: the traditional, the large scale, and the specialized and

the balanced.

THE TRADITIONAL STAGE (BEFORE ١٩٧٠)

The traditional stage covers the period prior to the first five-year plan

(before ١٩٧٠) when agriculture covered but a disordered primitive area of

about a million dûnams (١ dûnam = ١،٠٠٠ m٢). During these years, the



٢٢٦

ambition of changing the dry desert land into productive land was a just a

hope for a miracle, especially if we take into consideration the existing

development rates of that period. Between ١٩٦٥ and ١٩٦٩, the total annual

local agriculture output was about an average of ٣٫٥ billion Saudi Riyals,

while food needs were taken from imports amounting to about a billion

Riyals in ١٩٦٩, compared with the low rates of the primitive agricultural

exports of ١٠ million Riyals.

During this period, there had been no long-run plans, and food plans had to

be dependent on short-objective plans. These were able to identify the

development suitable to the circumstances of the Kingdom, and to be

familiar with the size and capacity of the future resources in making a plan

for the future of this sector. This period is distinguished by varied and

scattered crops that depended on traditional methods of production and on

some financial bonuses.

THE LARGE-SCALE STAGE (١٩٨٥-١٩٧٠)

The large-scale stage, represented by the three five-year development plans

(١٩٨٥-١٩٧٠), saw great progress in the agriculture sector. It basically

changed the features of this vital sector. Some small streams were

converted into modern irrigation canals, and traditional agricultural plots

were changed into projects of huge agriculture companies with large-scale

production. The planners intended to meet the requirements of local as well

as foreign markets.

Table No. ١ shows some agricultural development features during this

stage. We can see that the total local agricultural output increased from ٤٫٣

billion Riyals in the beginning of the first five-year development plan to

about ١٣ billion Riyals in ١٩٨٤, in spite of the fall in the relative

contribution of this sector to the total national revenue.



٢٢٧

TABLE 1 THE AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT INDEX (1970-1995)

Index ١٩٧٠ ١٩٩٥ ١٩٩٠ ١٩٨٥ ١٩٨٠ ١٩٧٥ Total agricultural revenue (billion Riyals)

٢٥ ٢٢٫٤ ١٣٫٧ ٧٫١ ٥٫١ ٤٫٣

The local agricultural share of national revenue (percent)

٠٫٠٥ ٠٫٠٥ ٠٫٠٤ ٠٫٠٢ ٠٫٠٢ ٠٫٠٣

The standard figure to local revenue (١٠٠ = ١٩٨٤)

٢٠١٫٩ ٥ .١٩٢ ١١٥ ٦١ ٤٢٫٦ ٣٦٫٥

Agricultural loans (in millions of Riyals) ٦٩٠٫٦ ٨٥٤٫٣ ٢٣٢١٫٨ ١١٢٨٫٧ ١٤٥٫٥ ١٦٫٦

Agricultural exports ٢٠٠٠ ١٣٤٧ ٣٩٩ ١٦١ ١٤١ ١٢ Agricultural income ١٢٠٠ ١٢٦١٧ ١٨٧٣٩ ١٠٤٣٢ ٢٠٢٢ ١٠١١

During this period, especially at the beginning of the encouraging policies

and programs of the ١٩٨٠’s with all their various forms, this sector

advanced to a colossal stage, where food could be available and the relative

or accompanied industries modernized. For example, loans provided by the

Saudi Arab Agriculture Bank increased from ١٦٫٦ million Riyals in ١٩٧٠ to

٢٫٣ billion Riyals in ١٩٨٥. These non-interest loans together with various

aids carried the agriculture products a step forward to unprecedented rates

as is shown in the table, especially in wheat production, which had an

increasing production rate, a degree higher than the self-sufficient level in

the ١٩٨٠’s. Wheat production between ١٩٧٠ and ١٩٨٥ went up to about

٦٫٨, twice as much as it was in the beginning of the first five-year plan

(١٩٧٠) and it is still increasing.

Vegetable production had its own story in agriculture development

Vegetable products rose from ٢٧٠ thousand tons in ١٩٧٠ to ١،٣١٣ thousand

tons in ١٩٨٥, about a five--fold increase for the period. Also, meat of all

kinds, and fruit production went up by ٢٫١ ,٦٫٧ times in a row.

TABLE TWO

AGRICULTURE PRODUCT INDEX (1970-1995) (THOUSAND TONS) Food Products

١٩٧٠

١٩٩٥ ١٩٩٠ ١٩٨٥ ١٩٨٠ ١٩٧٥

Meat ٦٠٠ ٤٥٢ ٢٨٧ ١٢٠ ٨٧ ٤٣ Wheat ٤٩٠٩ ٣٩٣٥ ١٤٤٤ ٣٤٠ ٢٩٩ ٢١٣ Vegetables ٢٦٠٠ ١٨٩٣ ١٣١٣ ٧٠٥ ٦٧٤ ٢٧٠ Fruit ٩٨٨ ٨٤٨ ٦٥٨ ٥٢٥ ٤٣٤ ٣٠٧



٢٢٨

The large-scale stage (١٩٨٥-١٩٧٠) with its developing index helped, not

only to transform the agriculture sector from the traditional stage to the

advanced stage by increasing the agricultural areas, product rates and food

self-sufficiency rate, but also benefitted from contemporary economic

development in related or supplemented sectors. In these sectors,

specialized farms and food factories prevailed. This period also helped to

activate the agricultural capital markets and their requirements.

THE BALANCED AND SPECIALIZED STAGE (١٩٩٥-١٩٨٥)

This stage includes the fourth and the fifth five-year development plans

(١٩٩٥-١٩٨٥). In spite of its integration with the previous large-scale stage,

this stage made some changes in directing agricultural development to keep

up balance and preserve the achievements of this sector and to secure its

continuing progress.

The overlap between this stage and the preceding one can be noticed in

Tables One and Two, where the total national agricultural revenue has

increased to ٢٥ billion Riyals in ١٩٩٥. Similarly the agricultural exports

increased by ٢،٠٠٠ million Riyals, five times as much as ١٩٨٥ exports. On

the other hand, there was a balance between agricultural product direction

and method of support. This helped loans provided by the agriculture bank

to fall to ٦٩٠٫٦ million Riyals in ١٩٩٥, followed by a decrease in food

imports reaching ١٢،٠٠٠ million Riyals in the same year.

In spite of the international economic changes accompanying the balanced

and specialized policies in production and support for this period, the large-

scale transformation during the previous stage supported the agriculture

production rates in the Kingdom. These continue with a balanced rise where

wheat production rates have risen to ٤،٩٠٩ thousand tons in ٢٣ ,١٩٩٥ times

as much as the production in ١٩٧٠, and ٣٫٤ times that of ١٩٨٥.



٢٢٩

The increasing production rate, not only applied to wheat, but also to meat,

which rose to ٦٠٠ thousand tons in ١٩٩٥, and to vegetables which from

١،٣١٣ thousand tons in ١٩٨٥ rose to ٢،٦٠٠ thousand tons in ١٩٩٥. Fruits

production rose dramatically by the end of the fifth five-year plan, to ٩٨٨

thousand tons. It is noteworthy that the increasing production rates during

the last period were the result of the financial production expansion in the

specialized projects. These were financed to fit the developing nature of

agriculture in the balanced and specialization stage and to preserve the

available natural water resources. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia’s

aspiration is to continue the balanced development in this sector in a

manner that suits the supplies of other economic resources.

The second evidence in the agricultural development process during this

period indicates that the agriculture sector in the Kingdom is proceeding to

achieve self- sufficiency in all agriculture products, although some goods

have entered the specialized export stage, which exceeds the primary

objectives of this stage.

EVIDENCE OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT AND SELF-SUFFICIENCY

During the advancement of agriculture development in the Kingdom,

especially with the start of the first five-year plan (١٩٧٠) until the end of

the fifth five-year plan (١٩٩٥), the environmental and economic

circumstances had not been fully ready for such ambitious development.

However, determination to exploit free resources has transformed desert to

green land, especially during the last two stages. The increasing rates of

agricultural production can be regarded as existing proof of these

achievements.

The distinguished evidence of the agricultural development sector was

apparent from the high production rates of cereal products, especially

wheat, which became a standard product in ١٩٩٢. In comparison with

products between ١٩٨١ and ١٩٧٩, the latter reached ٢،٠٧٣٫١, as is referred



٢٣٠

to in Table Three. Increase in animal and food products was very high

compared with that of other countries.

TABLE 3. INDICES OF PER-CAPITA FOOD PRODUCES IN THE WORLD IN THE YEAR

(1992 G) (1979-1981 = 100)

Countries Food Products Animal Products Crops

Saudi Arabia ٢،٠٧٣٫١ ٢٨٥٫٦ ٣٤٦٫٦ Industrial Countries ١١٢٫٨ ١٠٦٫٩ ٩٩٫٥ European Countries ١٠٦٫٣ ١٠١٫٣ ١٠٠٫٨ Developing Countries ١٣٧٫٧ ١٦٥٫٩ ١١٤٫٥

The increasing rates of cereal (wheat) production were a result of the

subsidy program. It had to be reduced by the beginning of the five-year

scheme of ١٩٩٠ to return to a more balanced stage of self-sufficiency on the

one hand, and on the other hand, to conserve water resources. During both

the second and the third stages the crops and storage foundations received

٢٫٦ million tons of wheat from farmers, at a cost of ٤٫٩ billion Riyals in

١٩٩٥. It was ١٧٫٥ thousand metric tons at a cost of ٦٫١ million Riyals in

١٩٨٠. It is noteworthy that the highest rate of wheat purchase from farmers

was in ٣٫٩ ,١٩٩٢ million tons with a total cost of about ٧٫٢ billion Riyals.

The main evidence of the Kingdom’s support of farmers in this period was

apparent through the constant rise of wheat production from one year to

another during the five-year plan of ١٩٩٥-١٩٨٠. In that period farmers

handed over an amount of ٣٠٫٧million metric tons at a cost of ٦٠٫٥ billion

Riyals to the foundation.

The high production rate of many agricultural goods in the specialization

stage had increased the ambition of farmers, especially in the specialized

farms, to start the exporting stage regarding some commodities such as

dates, eggs, poultry, and other animal products. Consequently, agricultural

imports fell from ٣١٫٦٪ of the total imports in ١٩٧٠ to ١٢٫٨ % in ١٩٩٥.

This indicates annual development in the agricultural crops. For example,



٢٣١

the annual development estimated between ١٩٧٠ and ١٩٩٥ for dates,

poultry and eggs was ٢٠٫٨ ,٪٤٪ and ١٦٫٥٪ successively.

Reaching the stage of self-sufficiency can be easy for the Kingdom in the

very near future considering the rising production rates of agricultural

commodities. It will also be very easy due to the availability of some

natural resources such as water. As a result, the Kingdom possesses the

biggest water desalinization installations in the world to ease pressure on

groundwater. Between ١٩٧٠ and ١٩٩٥, water desalinization production

rates went up to ٥٠٨٫٣ million gallons a day in ١٩٩٥, while in ١٩٧٠ it was

٥٫١٢ million gallons a day. This indicated how the Kingdom could invest

the financial resources in the ١٩٨٠’s, establishing the bases of this

development to make its management easy and to have its fruits in the

future. Even someone who had been very optimistic about the huge

agricultural rise in the Kingdom could not have imagined such a production

rate as high as it is at present, especially as the Kingdom is known as a dry

hot desert region, lacking rivers in the agricultural areas. So the government

of the Kingdom has started building many dams in order to benefit from the

seasonal rainwater.

In spite of the big rise in the population and the increasing demands for

food and agricultural commodities, the recent five-year plans assure that the

Kingdom is going forward in its large - scale development programs to

achieve self-sufficiency. On the other hand, statistics indicate that results

and rates exceeded the plan objectives regarding some commodities.

Exporting stages went even farther, especially for wheat and eggs, whose

rate of self-sufficiency in ١٩٩٠ reached ١٧٠٫٩٪ and ١٠٤٫١٪ respectively.

Moreover, the animal and agricultural commodities in the beginning of the

fifth five - year plan of ١٩٩٠ reached ambitious rates of self-sufficiency in

spite of the increasing demand and price reduction of agricultural

commodities.



٢٣٢

In spite of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia’s current policies, opening its

markets for other products, the self-sufficiency rate in ١٩٩٠ was in

vegetables ٧٣٫٥٪, fruits ٥١٫٤٪ and meat ٥٧٪. On the other hand, these rates

continued to rise in ١٩٩٥ to reach a stage close to self-sufficiency,

especially for vegetables and white meat.

The future prospect indicates a constant rise in the annual development

rates for all agricultural crops and animal products as well as the expansion

of agricultural areas and increasing demand. In addition to animal and

agricultural projects approved or under study, the Saudi government has

promised its constant support in the future and protection for this vital

sector, as well as its commitment to solving marketing and product

problems which may be encountered by the development of this sector.

Finally, it is noteworthy that the existing foundation and infrastructure

established by the government of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia since ١٩٨٠

ensures the solution of problems and future changes, and also ensures future

management for this sector in order to continue to raise production rates

and, consequently, to achieve a balanced and large-scale agricultural

development.

THE ARABIAN PALM (PHOENIX DACTYFIFERA)

The Arabian Palm or Phoenix Dactyfifera is mentioned in ٣٠ different

verses of the Holy Qur’an, in many of the traditions of the Prophet

Muhammad (peace be upon him), and in the sayings of the orthodox caliphs

(Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali). One hundred and sixty poets

mentioned it in more than ٦٠٠ lines of their poetry, which expressed their

affections and love for it. It is used in thirty-eight of the Arab sayings

(proverbs). Even the popular folk literature did not forget to mention it, for

it appears in ١٣٠ of them. More than seventy poets chanted its beauty in

more than ٢٦٠ lines of their poetry. The historical references agree that the

original place of the Phoenix Dactyfifera was the northeastern Arabian



٢٣٣

Peninsula in Tarût Island, or Harqân Island in the Arabian Gulf. From that

place it was transferred to Iraq by the early Arab migrations that went out

from the Arab Peninsula in ancient times. From Iraq it was transferred to

what is present-day Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Palestine, then to Egypt

with the waves of the Hiksous invaders in the ١٨th century BC and from

Egypt to the north of Africa.

Many sources differ in estimating the age of the Phoenix Dactyfifera,

though every source has some evidence. Some say that it appeared in about

٩٠٠٠ BC, while others say that it was ٣٠٠٠ BC. One of these indicated that

people in the city of Arido, which is located near Ur in the south of Iraq,

had used the trunks of the palm tree in the ceilings of their temples, which

were founded about ٣٠٠٠ BC. Another one indicated that there were four

articles in the laws of Hammurabi, the Assyrian king, which mentioned the

palm tree. These articles were fifty-nine, sixty, sixty-four and sixty-five.

They were connected with planting, watering and collecting dates. Palaces,

temples and thrones of the Sumerians and Babylonians were decorated with

leaves and branches of palm trees. The Arabian Gulf region is considered

the best place in the whole world for growing palm trees.

Among fifteen different kinds of palm distributed and grown in different

places all over the world, Phoenix Dactyfifera has a very rich nutritional

value. It is the only productive tree in the Arabian Peninsula, except for the

palm oil tree, which produces oil. Do all productive palm trees belong to

one class or to more than one class? Statistics show that there are more than

١٥٠ kinds of productive palm trees in the Kingdom, grown in twelve main

districts, spread throughout more than ١٠٠٠ cities, villages and natural

mountain forests. These kinds can be classified as follows: excellent, which

represent ١٥٪, good ٣٠٪, medium ٥٠٪, and bad (poor) ٥٪. There are eighty

well-known kinds of palm trees in the entire Arab World.

Statistics taken in ١٩٦٧ show that there are about ٩٦،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ -

١٠٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ palm trees in the whole world. Undoubtedly these numbers



٢٣٤

will be increased within the next twenty years, especially in Saudi Arabia,

where the cultivation of palm trees has been increasing at an attractive rate

in the last few years. A palm tree produces approximately ٣٠٠-٦٠

kilograms of fruit, and in some fertile lands, it produces ٤٠٠-٦٠ kilograms.

According to the statistics which are mentioned above there are ١٢،٠٠٠،٠٠٠

trees in the Kingdom and ٨،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ of them are productive. They produce

about ٥٠٠،٠٠٠ tons a year. In other Arab countries, Iraq takes the first place

with ٢٢،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ palm trees, next, Algeria with ٧،٥٠٠،٠٠٠ trees, Egypt

with ٧،٠٠٠،٠٠٠, Morocco ٥،٠٠٠،٠٠٠, Libya ٤،٦٠٠،٠٠٠, Yemen

٢،٢٥٠،٠٠٠, Oman ٢،٠٠٠،٠٠٠, and Sudan ٠٠٠ ١،٩٠٠. Other countries like

Iran have ٢،٠٠٠،٠٠٠, Pakistan ١،٧٠٠،٠٠٠, USA ٢٥٠،٠٠٠, Spain ٢٢٠،٠٠٠,

and finally Mexico with ١٥٠،٠٠٠ palm trees. Some other countries

altogether have ١،٢٦٠،٠٠٠.

Among the food substances, dates are an essential food, for they contain

different nutrients, such as carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, acids, etc.

Dates are the most available food source for the human body. Most of

inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula, in towns, cities , villages and deserts,

consider dates as the main essential food element. As a food, they have

totally depended on it as their only available food for a very long time.

According to the statistics of the World Organization of Food and

Agriculture in ٤-١٩٧٢, Saudi Arabia had the first place in date

consumption, with the average person’s consumption of dates at forty

kilograms. Saudi exports are about ١٠٪ of the products of Asia and about

٨٫٦ % of the total of international products.

THERE ARE SOME SMALL INDUSTRIES THAT DEPEND ON THE PALM-TREE. THE DATE TREES’ LEAVES AND BRANCHES ARE

USED FOR TEXTILES AND FURNITURE AS WELL AS FOR PACKING AND PRESERVING DATES. THE KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA HAS

TAKEN A PICTURE OF THE PALM TREE AS PART OF THE NATIONAL SYMBOL. PEOPLE OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA CALL

THE PALM TREE “THE LADY OF ALL TREES” BECAUSE OF ITS HIGH RANK AND PORTION



٢٣٥

OIL The main oil concession agreement for drilling was signed with the

Standard Oil Company of California (SOCAL in the past, Chevron at

present) on ٢٩/٥/١٩٣٣. In the same year SOCAL changed the oil

concession to the Standard Oil Company of California and Arabia, which

changed its name to Aramco.

Through negotiation, modifications were made on the agreement several

times. In ١٩٧٣ the Kingdom’s share in the company was ٢٥٪. In the

following year it rose to ٦٠٪. And in ١٩٨٠, the Kingdom’s share rose to

١٠٠٪.

In ١٩٨٨ the name of the company was changed to Saudi Arabian Oil

Company (Saudi Aramco), and at the beginning of ١٩٩٣ all refineries and

oil distributors merged with Saudi Aramco.

In March ١٩٣٨, the first crude oil with commercial quantities field was

discovered in Dhahrân. Oil was exported in the same year by ship to the

refinery of the Bahrain Oil Company in Bahrain. Ra’s Tanûra, seventy-

seven kilometers north of Dhahrân, was chosen to be the first harbor for oil

shipping. On ١/٥/١٩٣٩, the first load of crude oil was shipped by one of the

carriers.

A number of remarkable achievements have followed, including the first oil

refinery for the company in Ra’s Tanûra and construction of an oil pipeline

١،٧٢٠ km long connecting the oil fields in the Eastern Region with the

Mediterranean coast. In ١٩٥٠, the main network for gas and oil and

engineering research centers were set up.

EXPLORATION FOR OIL

Up until today, seventy oil fields and five gas fields have been discovered

in the country including the distributed and the neutral regions and the Red

Sea coast.



٢٣٦

In ١٩٩٥, successful research in the west, north and middle of the Riyadh

area resulted in the discovery of seventeen new oil fields. Twelve out of the

thirteen oil fields that were discovered south of Riyadh contain light oil.

Thus, there were two oil discoveries in Barma and Abu Rakiz. Light and

dense gas have also been discovered in Jouf in the Eastern Region. So the

oil reserves that can be pumped from these fields amount to ٢٥٩ billion

barrels. This reserve and the reserve found in regions distributed between

the Kingdom and Kuwait, make up a quarter of the world’s reserves. The

Kingdom’s gas reserves, including the liquidated, collateral and non-

collateral are ١٩٢ trillion standard cubic feet.

OIL PIPELINES

In ١٩٩٤ a pipeline network for crude oil ١،٢٠٠ km long was set up to carry

the Arabian light oil from the east to the west of the Kingdom. Thus, the

pipeline network capacity has risen from ٣٫٢ million barrels a day to five

million at maximum. Oil exports from Yanbu‘ seaport have been increased

by ٦٠٪ to ٤٫٢ million barrels a day. In ١٩٩٥, a pipeline ١٣٧ km long was

set up to send ٤٠٠ million cubic feet of accompanied gas a day to a gas

factory in Al-Bary to keep high gas supplies for the industrial city of Jubail.

Refineries

There are five refineries in Yanbu‘, Râbigh, Jeddah, Riyadh and Ra’s

Tanûra with a total capacity of about a million barrels a day. On ١١/٦/١٩٩٣,

these refineries became part of Saudi Aramco. So Saudi Aramco took the

responsibility of administrating these refineries together with the

distribution of the Refined Oil Company which offers services to millions

of people inside the Kingdom. Also Saudi Aramco took the responsibility to

administer the oil harbors in Jîzân, Râbigh, Dhabâ’, Jeddah and Yanbu’ on

the Red Sea coast and Ra’s Tanûra and Ja‘îma on the Gulf coast. These

harbors take the responsibility of receiving and delivering loads of crude oil

and the natural gas liquids, as well as refined products.



٢٣٧

JOINT INTERNATIONAL PROJECTS

One of the objectives of the oil policy depends on the increase of oil

marketing through joint international projects which help in finding larger

markets and higher non-fixed prices to achieve extra revenue through

refining and marketing oil abroad. For these reasons Saudi Aramco set up

the following projects:

THE STAR ENTERPRISE This joint project, which has equal shares with Texaco in the USA, started

working in ١٩٨٩ to market about ٦٠٠،٠٠٠ barrels a day of Saudi crude oil.

This project was reinforced by the construction of three refineries in Texas,

Louisiana and Delaware, with a total capacity of about ٦١٥،٠٠٠ barrels a

day and ٩،٤٠٠ service stations carrying the Texaco commercial trademark.

SANG YONG OIL REFINING COMPANY LIMITED In ١٩٩١, Saudi Aramco signed a contract with the Sang Yong Oil Refining

Company Limited, a Korean company, to establish a joint project for

refining and marketing oil in Korea, with thirty-five shares for the Saudis

and sixty-five shares for Korea. In ١٩٩٥, the Sang Yong Company began

two advanced projects to improve the refined products and a third project to

refine the crude oil. So the capacity of the refineries in Onsan in South

Korea increased to ٥٢٥،٠٠٠ barrels a day. Saudi Aramco supplies ٧٠٪ of

the crude oil.

THE PETRON COMPANY In ١٩٩٤, Saudi Aramco reinforced its position in the Far East by acquiring

٤٠٪ of the Petron Company, the biggest company for refining and

marketing oil in the Philippines. The Petron Company was part of the

National Oil Company known as BNOK, from which Saudis bought that

share while BNOK kept ٤٠٪ of the Petron shares, and ٢٠٪ was sold out to

the public. Petron owns a refinery with a capacity of ١٦٥،٠٠٠ barrels a day



٢٣٨

in Limai in the Paton Peninsula. The Saudis supply the company with ٩٠٪

of its crude oil.

MOTOR OIL (HILAS) AND AFINOL In ١٩٩٦ Saudi Aramco possessed ٥٠٪ of the Greek oil refining and

marketing companies, Motor Oil (Hilas), Cornith, and other associated

companies called Aveni Industrial and Maritime Oil. The Motor Oil

Company owns a refinery with a capacity of ١٠٠،٠٠٠ barrels a day, and

Saudi Aramco supplies most of the crude oil.

INTERNATIONAL TRANSPORTATION AND MARKETING In ١٩٩٥, Saudi Aramco continued the responsibility of marketing all refined

products, natural gas and sulfur dioxide, except the products of the

distributed and neutral area. In ١٩٩٥, the company marketed ٥٠٠،٠٠٠

barrels a day liquid petrol gases such as propane and butane, ١٥٥،٠٠٠

barrels a day of natural petrol, and ٤،٥٠٠ tons a day of sulfur dioxide and

all other extra refined products.

In ١٩٩٥, ships owned or hired by the International Company Limited

(Vila), merged with Saudi Aramco, transported ٦٢٢ million barrels of Saudi

crude oil to the markets of North America, Europe, and the Far East. Vila

also transported the crude oil and oil production for local consumption to

the refineries, oil storage tanks and oil distribution points in the Kingdom,

as well as the liquid oil gas to Turkey.

By ١٩٩٥, Vila had achieved its goal in building fifteen giant oil carriers,

constructed in four shipyards. The Vila program for building oil carriers

was the largest in the last two decades. This program started in ١٩٩١ and by

the end of ١٩٩٥ the company had succeeded in building a fleet of four giant

oil carriers, nineteen extra-large carriers, and four other carriers for

transporting oil products.



٢٣٩

GAS ACCUMULATION PROGRAM

A commitment was made to make use of the natural gas, produced with oil

in the Eastern Region, in refining water, generating energy, and providing

energy for oil production. The fuel and liquid natural gases are used to

support the manufacture of petrochemicals in Jubail and Yanbu‘. Also, the

liquid petrol gas and sulfur dioxide designed for export can be extracted

from the natural gas.

Large amounts of propane, butane, and natural benzene, which are

components of natural gas liquids, are converted by the petrochemical

industries in the Kingdom to make them suitable for the export market.

During ١٩٩٥, Saudi Aramco produced ١٢٠ million barrels of propane,

seventy-one million barrels of butane, and seventy-six million barrels of

natural benzene.

The company designed and constructed the main gas network with a

capacity of treating about ١٣٠ million cubic meters (٤٫٥ billion cubic feet)

of crude natural gas a day. The company accumulates the gas produced in

the crude oil fields existing on land or sea, as well as the gas produced in

deep places in the Southern Region.

The main gas network includes about sixty factories for extracting gas from

oil, three factories for gas processing, and four other factories for

processing the natural gas liquids in Yanbu‘, Ja‘ima, Baqîq, and Ra’s

Tanûra. The natural gas liquids east-west pipeline, which is ١،١٧٠ km (٧٢٦

miles) long, starts from Shadqum and goes parallel to the east-west oil

pipeline to reach Yanbu‘. This line transports ٢٩٠،٠٠٠ barrels of natural gas

liquids.

This program helps at the present time to accumulate and process about

four billion standard cubic feet of accompanied gas a day from the oil

fields. It produces ٢٫٨ billion cubic feet a day of mostly fuel gas (mainly

methane) to supply water purification plants and electricity generating

stations, and is used as energy and fuel in SABIC projects in the Eastern



٢٤٠

Region. ٣٩٠ million cubic feet of ethane a day is used as charge in the

petrochemical industries in Jubail and Yanbu‘, ٧٣٠،٠٠٠ barrels of natural

gas liquids is especially for export and ٤،٥٠٠ tons of sulfur dioxide a day

for export.

THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE OIL SECTOR TO THE TOTAL LOCAL PRODUCTION

The relative contribution of the oil sector has risen in the total local output

from ٦٧٫٩٪ in ١٩٩٦ to ٧٥٫٣٪ in ١٩٧٤. Then, it went down to ٥٠٫٢٪.

At the beginning of the third development plan in ١٩٨٠, the oil market

witnessed circumstances that had their relative results on the total local

output of the oil sector in the Kingdom. This consequently reduced the

output from ٢٨٧٫٦ billion riyals in ١٩٧٩ to ١٣٢٫٥ billion riyals in ١٩٨٤, so

that its contribution to the total local production went down to ١٢٩٫٥ billion

riyals in ١٩٨٧. Its relative contribution to the total local output had also

gone down to ٣٧٫١٪. This was due to the big reduction in the international

prices of oil. However, the total local production started to rise again until it

reached ٢٦٢ billion riyals in ١٩٩٥, which led to once again increasing its

relative contribution to the total local output by ٥٠٫٢٪. TABLE SHOWING PETROLIUM PRODUCTS (IN MILLIONS OF BARRELS)

Y

ear

Fuel O

il

D

iesel O

il

G

aso- line

Liquid

Petroleum

Gas

Jetliner

Fuel

K

ero-sene

Other

Products Including A

sphalt

T

otal

١٩٧٠G. ١٢٦٫٨

٢٢٥٫ ١٫٦ ٦٫٩ ١٣٫٨ ١٧ ٣٧٫٦ ٢١٫٦٣

١٩٧٤G. ١٠٦٫٤

٢٣٧٫ ٢ ٧٫٤ ٧٫٨ ٣٨ ٤٧٫٥ ٢٨٫١٢

١٩٧٩G. ٣٠٤٫ ٩٫٥ ٩٫٩ ٠٫٢ ٧٩٫٥ ٧٢٫٦ ٣٥ ٩٨٫٠٧

١٩٨٤G. ٣٤٩٫ ٢٨٫٤ ٩٫٥ ٤٫٦ ٥١٫٢ ٦١٫٦ ٩٦٫١ ٩٨٫٠٤

١٩٨٥G. ١٢٢٫١

٤١٥٫ ١٧٫٦ ١٤٫٢ ٩٫٩ ٥١٫٢ ٨٩٫٦ ١١٠٫٦٢

١٩٨٦G. ١٤٠٫٤

٤٤٤ ٧ ٣٠٫١ ٠٫٨ ٢٤٫٩ ١٠٩٫٠ ١٣١٫٨

١٩٨٧G. ١٥٣٫٦

٥٢١٫ ٦ ٤٨٫١ ١٫٢ ٣٥ ١٢٧٫٧ ١٤٩٫٨٤

١٩٨٨G. ١٦٤٫٣

٥٢٥٫ ١١٫٧ ٣٠٫٩ ١٥٫٨ ٩٫٦ ١٣١٫٩ ١٦١٫٦٨



٢٤١

١٩٨٩G. ١٤٨٫٤

٤٨٧٫ ١٣٫٤ ٢٩٫٩ ١٨٫٢ ٧٫٩ ١٢٤٫١ ١٤٥٫٧٦

١٩٩٠G. ١٧٦٫٨

٥٥٧٫ ١٦٫٥ ٢٨ ٣٢٫٠ ٥٫٢ ١٣٧٫١ ١٦١٫٧٣

١٩٩١G. ١٦١٫٧

٥١٧٫ ٢٢٫٥ ٢٢٫٧ ٣٥٫٩ ٨٫٤ ١٢٨٫٦ ١٤٧٫٤٢

١٩٩٢G. ١٧١٫٧

٥٤١٫ ١٠٫٥ ٢٦٫٢ ٣٠٫٠ ١١٫١ ١٣٢٫٢ ١٥٩٫٢٥

١٩٩٣G. ١٧٧٫٦

٥٤٨٫ ٩٫٣ ٢٧٫١ ٣٠٫٩ ٩٫٩ ١٣٢٫٨ ١٦١٫٢٨

١٩٩٤G. ١٥٦٫٦

٥٥١٫ ٢٠ ٢٧٫٣ ٣١٫١ ٨٫٢ ١٣٨٫٥ ١٦٩٫٩٦

١٩٩٥G. ١٥٩٫١

٥٢٩٫ ٤٫٤ ٢٦٫٦ ٣٠٫٤ ١٢٫٧ ١٢٩٫٢ ١٦٦٫٨٢



٢٤٢

TRADE IN THE PAST

God singled out the people of the Arabian Peninsula in two regards – first,

by locating the country in the middle of a world which regarded the Arabian

Peninsula as the crossroads for sea and land, and second, by making

available the materials badly needed abroad, such as frankincense, myrrh

and balsam. Trade in the Arabian Peninsula was not confined only to the

export of local goods but also extended to cover all merchandise imported

from the Eastern countries such as China, Ceylon, India and East Africa.

The Arab merchants contributed greatly to the activity of trade in that part

of the world. The Red Sea port played a principal role in the international

trade. The Muslim traders in the Abbasid era formed a union of their own

which was to be the first union in the histories of humanity. The union’s

task was to monitor trade transactions to prevent cheating, and had its head

elected from among efficient members known for their good reputation. He

was named the leader of traders and the members of the union were called

unionists.

Through land roads and sea roots, the Arabs took their merchandise to the

Mediterranean countries and the westward islands, the country of the

Râfidîn countries eastward and the Middle East and Asia. They established

trading colonies alongside these routes, like on Delos in the Mediterranean.

It was mentioned that the Arabs of the south established trading colonies

inside India. Moreover, the presence of the Arabs along the East African

coast was very common. This presence was established especially for trade

expansion. On Kharj Island in the Gulf Cape, traders of Palmyra established

a community to look after their merchandise coming from India.

ONLAND TRADE

Domestic trade in the Arabian Peninsula was very dependent on the

overland trade and was to make up a considerable part of the foreign trade,

especially with regions such as the Râfidîn, Syria, and Egypt. Breeding



٢٤٣

camels helped land trade to prosper. Camels with the ability to walk long

distances in the desert became the means of transportation. Employing

caravan systems established progress in trade and communication between

the parts of the Arabian Peninsula on one hand, and the neighboring regions

on the other. Again, this system helped to make easy and direct roads better

than before, and to locate some oases with fresh water and greenery where

trading colonies could be set up along the roads. These trading colonies

were established to supply the crossing trade caravans with water and food

and also became centers for transactions between the people of the colonies

and the passing traders. Here traders gave some of their goods or some

money to those people and in return the latter would provide food and

drink. These colonies became prosperous, and some of them were able to

expand at the expense of the neighboring cities, villages and agricultural

land. Consequently, they developed a system of free countries. Treaties and

agreements were signed between the colonies and the trading caravans to

secure the safe passage of these caravans against the attacks of Bedouins

and enemies, and supply them with necessary supplies to continue their

journeys. The Arab caravans were enormous, with about two thousand

camels. They were compared to a giant army. So, because of this huge

number of camels, arrangements were made to protect them. Caravans were

accompanied by a path-finding division walking in front, and individuals

with road experience were drafted for this job. Since the caravans had to

pass through several regions to reach their destinations, every time they

would cross a region, they had to be accompanied with a group made of the

tribes of the concerned region for protection and safety. All groups were

paid. Caravan stations had been built along the roads to replace the

exhausted camels. Camel replacement at the caravan stations used to take

place every ten days or three weeks, especially on long journeys, by hiring

some camels from the region they passed through.



٢٤٤

Aspects reflecting the interest in land trade were the provision of safe and

easy roads for caravans. So roads were built, and mountain passages were

established to shorten the distance especially, in hilly regions or any others

with geographical obstacles that forced caravans to change ways or to go

round them. This was also a means to have control over the passing

caravans and to have them pay taxes to the local government. Roads were

paved, and some valleys used by caravans were enclosed and entrances

made for organizing the passage of the caravans and tax collection. Also,

their sizes were recorded, perhaps to protect caravans from enemy attacks.

The amount of money paid on these roads may serve as evidence of the

authorities’ interest in the land trade.

THE LAND ROUTES Land routes are represented by the main roads inside the Arabian Peninsula,

which for the most part extend beyond the Peninsula to connect it with the

trading countries. Also side roads connect the regions with main roads or

with the roads of small communities or transport goods from seaports to the

storage places erected alongside the roads.

Construction of land roads depends on a number of factors, mainly the

geography of the region. This defines the direction of roads, leading away

from desert regions difficult to be crossed, or away from the uncultivated

mountainous areas, even if it required going around these natural obstacles

through long and indirect roads. Some caravans preferred particular roads to

others due to security and political circumstances. The most important roads

in the south of the Kingdom were those which connected Shabwa with

Najrân. The diversity of roads in this region was due to the political

situation. For example, when there was an improvement in relations

between Hadramut and Qutbân, the road would go from Shabwa via

Tamna‘a, Ma’rab and then to Najrân.



٢٤٥

After Najrân, the road, known as the “Bakhûr” Road, forks in two

directions. The first continues northward to Dîdân via Bîsha, Turba, and

Yathrib. The second connects Najrân with Basra via Tathlîth, the Dawâsir

valley, Faw, Kharj, and then southward to Riyadh (now) and then again

eastward to Hofûf, and along the Gulf coast to Basra. Another road,

connecting the east and the south of the Peninsula goes from the east shore

of the Peninsula and eastward via the Buraimî and Yabrîn Oases, along the

coast to Muscat, inward to Nazwa and ‘Abray and then to Dhofâr.

THE LAND TRADING CENTERS

Najrân

Najrân is located on the crossroads coming from the south and then to the

north and east. It was an important trading and industrial center.

Faw Village

The name of this city was mentioned in Arabic inscriptions and it was an

important trading station on the trade route directed to the Arabian Gulf.

Archeological studies show the great role this city played in the

international trade.

Thâj

This city was located in the east of the Arabian Peninsula, ١٠٠ km from the

Jubail seaport and about ١٥٠ km from Dahrân. It was very prosperous

because of its geographical position as a crossing point of three main trade

routes. The first is directed towards the middle of the Peninsula, and the

second goes south towards the Buraimî Oasis and then along the coast of

Oman and finally to the south of the Peninsula. The third goes north

towards the Rafidîn region. Thâj was a civilized center known as Ahsâ’î

and attributed to the Ahsâ’ region.



٢٤٦

Qatîf and Hofûf

These two cities were famous for the fertility of their land and the abundant

water. They have been populated since ancient times. Though intensive

agriculture in the region has not helped new archeological studies, what has

been found up till now proves that these two cities were important trading

stations. They were especially important for their connections with the Gulf

and their position on the crossroads of trade going north towards Oman, and

west towards the middle of the Peninsula.

Makkah

This city has been regarded in the past as an important trading center along

with its religious role. Most of the markets were located along the northwest

wall of the Holy Mosque. Dar al-Nadwa, part of the market located in the

northeast, was abundant with merchandise from east and west, such as

jewelry, precious stones, rubies, perfume, camphor, ambergris, Indian

medicines and much more.

Medina

Medina was a place for many markets located on the bridge of Bani

Qaynuqâ‘, with another in Yathrib, a third in Safâsif, and the fourth in the

locality of Raqâq ibn Huyain. However, prophet Muhammad(PBUH)

decided that there should be only one complete market (sûq) called Sûq Al

Madina located on the road leading to the Qiyâshîn homes, near Talha’s

homes. This sûq remained as it was for a long time, where it was used to

keep all goods found in Makkah. Close to Madina, just three miles away,

there was another market (sûq) called Sa‘ada, designed to meet the needs of

that region.

Tâ’if

In the pre-Islamic era there was a market in Tâ’if called Sûq ûkâd (ûkâd

market) alongside some other smaller markets like the Hajj road market.



٢٤٧

LAND MERCHANDISE Goods transported by land were divided into locally produced commodities

and those imported from the east of Asia, Africa and from the

Mediterranean by land or sea trading centers. These goods included

perfume materials, which were on the top of the trading list for the Arabs

inside and outside of the Peninsula. Such products were specific to some

regions whose nature suits the growing of such plants that acquired a

position in the Old World. These include frankincense, myrrh, balsam,

ginger and grains of all kinds and some minerals such as precious stones,

dyes and pottery.

THE SEA TRADE

The Arabian Peninsula overlooks three seas, the Red Sea from the west, the

Arabian Gulf and Oman Gulf from the east and southeast and the Arabian

Sea from the north. Arabia was connected with the countries that are

located on the other side of these seas by a network of sea routes.

These sea routes originate from the Cape of the Aqaba Gulf on the Red Sea

passing southward through a number of Arabian seaports and crossing Bâb

al-Mandab strait west towards the East African coast. Here Arabs

established colonies for themselves from early times. Routes also went east

towards the Arabian seacoast and its islands such as Socotra and Musîra

and then across the ocean towards the Indian and the Ceylon coasts. This

route meets the other route coming from the Arabian Gulf. Sea routes

around the Peninsula were used from a very early period in history.

The Arabs’ accurate knowledge of the system of seasonal winds helped

them in their sea journeys. These winds were exploited in sailing in all

directions. The Arabs kept this knowledge, which they discovered before

the West did, a secret, unknown to the Greeks and the Romans. Foreign

ships used to anchor in the north of the Red Sea, and were not allowed to

cross the Bâb al Mandab strait northward or westward. Navigation in the



٢٤٨

Indian Ocean was in the hands of the Arabs as well as the Indians.

However, the Indian traders did not cross Bâb al Mandab northward and did

not reach the Mediterranean directly.

It is noted that the sea routes connecting the Arab Peninsula with the east of

Asia and Africa have been used in all periods of history, while the sea

routes in the Gulf and the Red Sea faced periods of rise and fall, prosperity

and decline. This was due to the development of land routes on one hand

and foreign competition on the other.

THE SEA ROUTES In the Red Sea, a route starts from Lawikîkûmâ, or one of the Egyptian

seaports on the other side of the coast, such as Mûsa, Harmûs and Bîrnîk

and heads south towards the south coasts of the Peninsula passing through a

number of Arabian seaports on the Red Sea.

THE ARABIAN SEAPORTS A number of harbors and seaports have grown alongside the Arabian coasts.

Some of these seaports became prosperous and became markets for

receiving many kinds of foreign goods, and exporting other goods from

amongst the products of the Peninsula.

These seaports include Lawikîkûmâ on the East Coast of the Red Sea,

which was very famous during the Nabatian era, when it was the main

seaport. Also included are Ijrâ seaport, located south of Lawikîkûmâ, Mûzâ

seaport, one of the important seaports southwest of the Peninsula on the

Red Sea Coast, and ûklîz, a seaport on the far south of the Red Sea near

Bâb al Mandab strait. The most famous Hijâzi seaport in early times was

Jeddah seaport, which was regarded as the Makkah harbor, and located

forty miles west of Makkah. Jeddah received the trade caravans as well as

pilgrims who used to come from Cairo. Another Hijaz seaport which had

connections with the Egyptian and Yemeni seaports was Jar seaport on the



٢٤٩

Red Sea, facing Medina and considered as its harbor. Jar used to receive

ships coming from Egypt, Aden, Ethiopia, France, China, and India.

The seaports of the Arabian Sea include Aden, an important seaport on the

south coast of the Peninsula. It was the first seaport for ships coming from

the Red Sea after crossing Bâb al-Mandab strait. Qatâ seaport, east of Aden,

regarded as the seaport of Hadramut, was also a trading center on the

Arabian Sea and the main outlet of the Hadramut country. Ra’s Frank, a

local seaport specialized in transporting frankincense, and containing stores

for storing frankincense crops until time for transportation to Qînâ.

Mûshî seaport on the Qamar Gulf (Moon Gulf) was in the past called

Dhofâr. It specialized in transporting frankincense and was a harbor for

ships coming from the west of the Peninsula.

The seaports of the Uman Gulf include Muscat, meaning “the hidden”

because of the large stones that set it apart from the sea. It was one of the

important seaports at the entrance of the Oman Gulf.

Qalhât; a seaport for ships going to India, was a trading and marketing

center.

‘Ammânâ is a seaport of distinctive trading activity with the neighboring

regions, such as the west and southwest Indian seaports. Its prosperity was

achieved because it was at a juncture of land routes between the south and

east of the Peninsula.

The coast of the Arabian Gulf contained a number of seaports serving the

centers of civilization. As it was said previously, this region was

internationally famous for sea trade in the past.

Its seaports include Khârâkis al Muhammara on the Gulf cape at the

crossing of the Arabian coast (Shat al-Arab) with the river Qârûn. It had

trading relations with China, Egypt, Palmyra and others. Due to the

prosperity of this city, its government erected another seaport on the

Euphrates River named Firât. The Abla is a seaport on the cape of the Gulf,



٢٥٠

whose distinguished position created an opportunity to play an important

role in the Arab trade. Although it was an old seaport, it was called ‘Atîq.

Arabs of the Peninsula dealt with many international seaports outside the

borders of the Arabian Peninsula along the sea routes the Arabs used to

cross during their sea journeys. They include the western coast of the Red

Sea, the East Coast of Africa, the coast of the Arabian Gulf, and the coasts

of India and Ceylon.

MERCHANDISE TRANSPORTED THROUGH SEA ROUTES The Peninsula used to export a lot of merchandise by sea and land, and

import a lot of eastern goods. A considerable part of these goods was

transported by sea and land to the Mediterranean countries. The prosperity

of trade in the Peninsula was due to the position of the country between two

important regions. The first was the east of Asia and India, a productive

region of the first class. The second was the Mediterranean world, a

consuming region of the first class. The Arabs of the Peninsula succeeded

in making use of this position to be trade mediators between these two

regions. The local goods including frankincense and myrrh were exported

to India.

Tortoise shell was in great demand, especially the good kind used for

making vessels and some tools and ornaments. And it was used in the

construction of furniture and by the metal and glass industries for such

things as swords, knives, and axes exported to East Africa. Other kinds of

glass manufacturing required precious stones for manufacturing vessels for

perfume, boxes for mercury, dates and wheat. These things were exported

to the east of Africa and India. The imported merchandise was wood from

India and the east of Africa such as teak, ebony and sandalwood. Ivory

imported from east Africa and India was used in local industry. Rice was

imported from the coasts of India and then exported to east Africa and the

Mediterranean. Sesame oil was imported for exportation and not for local



٢٥١

use. Textiles of all kinds and the ready-made cloth and silk was imported by

land from East Asia to Syria via Persia, and by sea to the coasts of the

Peninsula in the Arabian Gulf or to the south of the Peninsula. Attars such

as kaset, a wood substance burnt as incense, aloe wood burnt as incense and

used in the manufacturing of medicines and perfumes, ginger, pepper,

cinnamon, acasia, nard, cardamom and small amounts of frankincense and

myrrh from East Africa, and clay vessels.

MODERN TRADE

The kingdom of Saudi Arabia has made quick steps in the field of economic

development. Four development plans have resulted in great achievements

today, which have become prosperous economic pillars where the basic

facilities have been constructed, such as roads, seaports, airports and means

of communication and information. Complete facilities for related

education and social services have also been provided for. Policies call for

diversity of the economic foundation and expansion of the national product

outside the circle of oil and derivatives. The success of the private sector

and the importance of its actual contribution in raising and expanding the

foundation of the economic production was shown when the index of the

non oil sectors in the total local revenue at the beginning of the fourth plan

rose to about ٦٧٪, while it was ٢٠٪ at the end of the first plan.

The concerned government offices made regulations for the economic

product polices regarding the open market. The strict level of measurement

and quality control has made production very competitive at high levels in

the foreign markets.

FINANCE PROGRAMS AND INSURANCE OF TRADE

The Kingdom has taken part in a number of programs for finance and

insurance of exports, which had been adopted by the Islamic Development

Bank, the Arab Foundation of Investment Assurance and the Arab

Monetary Fund. These programs of finance and trade insurance facilitate



٢٥٢

the task of exporters and importers and encourage the trade exchange

among the Arab and Islamic countries. These include the Islamic

Development Bank, especially for financing the modified exports and

imports. The program finances the trading packages partially by about ٣٠٪

to ٤٠٪ of package value, to be repaid over periods from sixty to eighty

months. The process of the program in the participating countries is done

through national agencies helped by the country members.

The Portfolio of the Islamic Banks was assembled from twenty-one Islamic

banks, is administered by the Islamic Development Bank, and finances the

trade of the Islamic countries, especially the trading process of the private

sector, exporters or importers. The Arab Foundation of Investment

Assurance provides a system for export insurance covering trading and non-

trading dangers for the exporting processes, or a limited insurance contract

covering the trading dangers of a limited export process.

A program for financing the Arab trade was established by the Arab

Monetary Fund to finance the Arab trade in order to support and encourage

the Arabian and non-traditional exports at a rate of ٨٥٪ of the package

value. The rest should be financed by the national agency.

SEAPORTS

To serve trade and export, seven large main seaports have been built, four

of them on Red Sea. Jeddah, the Islamic seaport, Yanbu‘ commercial

seaport, King Fahad industrial seaport, and Jizân seaport. The other three

seaports overlooking the waters of the Arabian Gulf are King Abdulaziz

seaport, Jubail commercial seaport, and King Fahad industrial seaport at

Jubail.

Maintenance and services for ships are available at Jeddah seaport and King

Abdulaziz seaport in Dammâm. Facilities of large areas are also available to

the seaports for storing all kinds of goods. Also, there are open storage

areas, roofed depots, refrigerated stockrooms, dangerous materials depots



٢٥٣

and areas for storing containers. The sea transportation services in the

Kingdom have many characteristics, such as geographical advantages,

large-scale investments, advanced international technologies, and modern

seaports. The Saudi Company for Sea Transportation was established in

١٩٧٨ with a capital value of ٢،٠٠٠ million Riyals. The government

contribution was ٢٥٪. This company transports the imported as well as the

exported goods. It owns a large fleet of the most modern transporting ships

in the world of the rûrid model with a capacity of more than ٣٠٠ thousand

fixed tons, equal to ١٥،٢٨٨ typical containers.

There are eighteen commerce and industry chambers in the main cities of

the Kingdom. They collect and publish all information and statistics

connected with trade, industry, new investment opportunities, studies and

research relating to trade and industry. They supply the government sector

with statistics and other information relevant to the national trade and

industry and inform traders and industrialists and the members of

regulations, decisions and instructions relevant to their careers. They also

offer them support by educating them about the countries that they import

from or export to. They record the problems that they face in order to

present them to the authority concerned. Then they find solutions to

industrial and trading disputes by arbitration, encourage traders and

manufacturers to make use of the local and foreign experience, set up

exhibitions, take part in conferences and other events relevant to trade,

export or import and industry.

Exporting capacities have been available in a number of the industrial,

agricultural and productive activities as a result of the fast economic

development of the Kingdom’s economy. Increasing interest in the

development of export led to the establishment of a specialized institution

to carry out activities aiming to develop the non-oil exports of the private

sector. By an initiative from the Council of Industry and Trade Chambers a

call was made to set up a center for the development of exports. Both the



٢٥٤

businessmen and the authorities applauded this idea. This center aims at

making policies to develop the national exports and to arrange with the

authorities concerned with foreign trade so as to keep the flow of exports

free from obstacles.

The Kingdom has industrial and commercial relations with most countries

of the world. These relations developed by the end of the nineteen-thirties

after the discovery of oil that made up ٩٠٪ of the country’s export. Another

development had occurred in the import trade. Exports were no more than

٢٫٥ million Riyals in ١٩٣٨. It was doubled later. This was due to the

increase in the population and the development of the purchase capacity of

people in general. A structural increase took place in the country along with

the Kingdom’s commitment to the policy of the free market.

EXPORTS

The quality of Saudi exports has achieved a perceptible development during

the last two decades, ranging from heavy crude materials to half or fully

manufactured materials, forming a considerable percentage of the total

exports.

٣٤٪ of the Kingdom’s exports go to Asian countries, including Japan as the

most important country. Export to the United States of America makes up

٤٢٪ of the total exports. Exports to countries of Western Europe, mainly

Germany and France, make up about ٢٠٪. Oil and its derivatives make up

most of these exports. Exports to the GCC countries make up about ٧٪,

non-Arab countries make up about ٦٪, the countries of the Arab League and

Latin America make up about ٣٪ for each of them. African countries that

are non-Arab and non-Muslim, Australia, and the Pacific Islands are at the

bottom of the list with only ١٪ to each of them. Crude oil constitutes the

majority of exported material.



٢٥٥

Agricultural Exports

Most of the agricultural exports of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia are dates,

poultry and eggs. These exports represent only ١٪ of total exports. One can

also say that the improvement in petroleum prices and the success of other

exports on the competitive world market led oil and non-oil exports to score

new development rates. These rates were reflected in the improvement of

the commercial balance of foreign trade despite the increase in imports.

Imports

The rapid economic development in the Kingdom had a crucial role in

determining the amounts and levels of imported commodities. During the

first three years of the development plans, the rapid increase in the

development rates led to the increase in the relative contribution of

imported commodities needed in development projects, such as vehicles of

transportation, machinery, mechanical equipment, electrical equipment,

basic minerals and construction materials. The increased contribution of

imported commodities in turn resulted in raising the total of imports from

٤١٫٦٪ in ١٩٧٠ to ٥٩٫١٪ in ١٩٧٩. By ١٩٨٤, it had been reduced to٥٢٫٣٪.

During the Fourth Development Plan, the various economic sectors

witnessed a reduction in the groth rate. Accordingly, the relative

contribution of the commodities related to development was reduced in

١٩٩٠, to ٤٧٫٥٪ of total imports, and the share of foodstuffs was also

reduced to ١٤٪ in the same year. The ratio of material commodities for

development increased in the five-year plan to reach ٥٢٫٦٪ of total imports

in ١٩٩٤, while the ratio of foodstuffs declined to ١٢٫٩٪. The reduction in

the amount of imported materials and whatever changes followed in the

relative contribution of imported commodities represents the increased

capability of the Saudi Economy to satisfy local demands.



٢٥٦

TABLE SHOWING SAUDI ARABIAN EXPORTS ACCORDING COUNTRIES' BLOCKS No.

Countries Block Percentage

١ Asian Block - Non-Arab Countries, Non-Islamic Countries, Japan being on top of the list

٣٤ %

٢ North American Block - U.S.A. being on top of the list ٢٤ % ٣ European Block - Germany & France being on top of the

list ٢٠ %

٤ Gulf Cooperation Council (G.C.C.) Countries ٧ % ٥ Non-Arab Countries ٦ % ٦ Other Arab Countries ٣ % ٧ Latin American Countries ٣ % ٨ African Block - Non-Arab and Non-Islamic Countries ١ % ٩ Australia ١ % ١٠ Pacific Islands ١ %

Economic Diversity

Saudi athorities have come to know that reliance on oil as the sole source of

income is very difficult and dangerous due to the extreme fluctuation of oil

prices. This is in addition to the fact that oil faces international challenges.

Other alternatives of energy are being sought, heavy taxes are being

imposed on consumers and oil prices have deteriorated. Therefore, officials

have sought to develop non-oil exports.

In light of the availability of hydrocarbon resources and minerals,

concerned officials sought to convert some these resources into industrial

products of high value in order to diversify the sources of national income.

The state has established a number of industries to meet the demands of

foreign markets.



٢٥٧

It has been appreciated that the industrial sector, which provides ٨٪ of the

of the gross national income, has had a growth rate of ٧٫٥٪ in ١٩٩٥. This

increase was due to the sharp rise in the petrochemical sector, in addition to

other industrial activities. Exports in foodstuffs, soft drinks and some other

light industries have maintained their continuous rise and have expanded

into more foreign markets. The local production of cement was estimated to

be ٥٫٨٪ in ١٩٩٥. It totaled eighteen million tons in ١٩٩٦, and at the end

reached ١٨٫٥ million tons. This growth in turn enabled investment in

industry by the private sector to increase. Accordingly, the number of

licenses issued rose from ٣٤٩ in ١٩٩٢ to ٦٥٤ in ١٩٩٤. The number of

factories rose from thirty-seven in ١٩٩٣ to more ninety in ١٩٩٥. Industrial

exports, other than petrochemicals, rose from ٥٪ in ١٩٩٤ to more than ١٢٪

in ١٩٩٥.

It is well known that the Kingdom is very rich in minerals such as copper,

phosphate, gold, iron ore, silver, uranium, bauxite, coal and zinc. The

average production of gold in the Mahd al-Dhahab mines totaled ٢٫٥

million tons a year. Work has commenced on new projects to search for

and excavate iron ore, copper and phosphate. These projects represent an

investment of ٢٫٨ million U.S. Dollars, with an active contribution by the

private sector. It is expected that activities in mineral exploration and

extraction will grow at an annual rate of ٥٠٪ to the year ٢٠٠٠. This rate

should exceed the expected growth of other sectors of the economy.

Non-Oil Exports

The government of Saudi Arabia pays much attention to the development of

non-oil exports with the objective of assisting the managers of the national

economy implement the strategy of diversifying the sources of national



٢٥٨

income, and not to rely on oil as the sole source of wealth. Therefore,

development plans have emphasized the importance of diversifying sources

of national income with priority being given to production sectors. The

government has followed different strategies to develop and enhance Saudi

exports. The most important of these strategies are facilitating the

procedures of exporting, giving incentives and creating new systems to

develop and encourage exports. These strategies also include the provision

of incentives and facilities to exporters, including financial support,

exemption from taxes and establishing proper arrangements with a number

of countries to abolish or minimize customs and other restrictions imposed

on imports, on a reciprocal basis. In addition, the strategies aim at preparing

the proper infrastructure to enable producers to reduce the cost of

production and facilitate the export process for them.

SAUDI ARABIAN BASIC INDUSTRIES (SABIC) NET PROFITS FOR THE PAST TEN YEARS

(THOUSAND OF SAUDI RIYALS)

١٩٩ ١٩٨٩ ١٩٨٨ ١٩٨٧ ١٩٨٦٠

١٩٩١

١٩٩ ١٩٩٢٣

١٩٩٤

١٩٩٥

٢٢٣،٨٩٠

١٠،٧٧٨،١٧١

٣،٦٨٠،١٦٦

٣،٥٧٠،٣٨٩

٣،٠٢٩،٦٧٠

٢،٢٩٥،٣٠٦

١،٩٦٤،١٤٣

٢،١١٦،٥٥٦

٤،٣١٩،٢٥٦

٦،٢٨١،٤٧٢

Agricultural Exports

Most of the agricultural exports of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia are dates,

poultry and eggs. These exports represent only ١٪ of total exports. One can



٢٥٩

also say that the improvement in petroleum prices and the success of other

exports on the competitive world market led oil and non-oil exports to score

new development rates. These rates were reflected in the improvement of

the commercial balance of foreign trade despite the increase in imports.

Imports

The rapid economic development in the Kingdom had a crucial role in

determining the amounts and levels of imported commodities. During the

first three years of the development plans, the rapid increase in the

development rates led to the increase in the relative contribution of

imported commodities needed in development projects, such as vehicles of

transportation, machinery, mechanical equipment, electrical equipment,

basic minerals and construction materials. The increased contribution of

imported commodities in turn resulted in raising the total of imports from

٤١٫٦٪ in ١٩٧٠ to ٥٩٫١٪ in ١٩٧٩. By ١٩٨٤, it had been reduced to٥٢٫٣٪.

During the Fourth Development Plan, the various economic sectors

witnessed a reduction in the groth rate. Accordingly, the relative

contribution of the commodities related to development was reduced in

١٩٩٠, to ٤٧٫٥٪ of total imports, and the share of foodstuffs was also

reduced to ١٤٪ in the same year. The ratio of material commodities for

development increased in the five-year plan to reach ٥٢٫٦٪ of total imports

in ١٩٩٤, while the ratio of foodstuffs declined to ١٢٫٩٪. The reduction in

the amount of imported materials and whatever changes followed in the

relative contribution of imported commodities represents the increased

capability of the Saudi Economy to satisfy local demands.



٢٦٠

Percentage of the Imports’ total

٨٠

٧٠

٦٠

٥٠

٤٠

٣٠

٢٠

١٠

١٩٩٤ ١٩٩٠ ١٩٨٤ ١٩٧٩ ١٩٧٠

٤١٫٦٪

٥٢٫٦ ٪٥٩٫١٪ ٥٢٫٣٪

٤٧٫٥٪



٢٦١

THE BANKING SECTOR

Banking and money exchange appeared in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to

serve those who come to the holy places to perform either pilgrimage or

umra. This was followed by the modern banking institutions which provide

all banking services such deposits, loans, insurance facilities, financing

foreign trade, drafts and money exchanges. The creation and the

development of banks in the Kingdom can be illustrated through the

following three stages:

THE FIRST STAGE:

the commercial banks activities and services prior to the foundation of the

Saudi Arabian Monetary System.

Table One shows the developments of the general companies and banks in

chronological order during this stage.

Table 1. Commercial Banks and Companies operating before the

foundation of the Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency (SAMA)

No. Year Name of Company / Bank

١٨٨٤ ١. Jalati Hanki Co. was established and stopped its banking activities in ١٩٥٥.

١٩٢٦ ٢ Dutch Bank was established under the name of 'Hollandi Commercial Co.' and was the first specialized banking institution in Jeddah, Al-Khobar and Dammam.

١٩٤٧ ٣ Indo-Chinese Bank was established and had branches in Jeddah, Al-Khobar and Dammam.

١٩٤٧ ٤ First National Bank was established by Ibrahim Zahran and was named after Jeddah City.

١٩٤٩ ٥ Arab Bank was established and opened branches in Makkah Riyadh, Dammam and Al-Khobar.

١٩٥٠ ٦ British Bank ١٩٥٠ ٧ Pakistan National Bank established in Jeddah. [THE COMMERCIAL BANKS AND THE GENERAL COMPANIES BEFORE THE FOUNDATION

OF THE MONETARY SYSTEM.] Table One indicates that the Dutch commercial companies were the first

specialized institutions working in Jeddah, Khobar, and Dammâm.



٢٦٢

THE SECOND STAGE:

This stage witnessed the main steps of organizing the banking system in the

Kingdom and the establishment of the Saudi Arabian Monetary System,

which is regarded as the central bank of the country. Also many regulations

organizing the banking system were introduced at this stage, together with

the creation of the Saudi and foreign banks such as:

١-THE FOUNDATION OF THE SAUDI ARABIAN MONETARY SYSTEM Due to the various developments that took place in the national economy

and the discovery of oil with its consequences of wealth, the demand for

organizing and supervising the general banking institutions was increased.

The issuing of Royal Decree No. ٣٠/٤/١/١٤٠٦, dated ٢٠/٤/١٩٥٢ represented

this, to establish the Saudi Arabian Monetary System. This was followed by

another Royal Decree No. ٣٠/٤/١٤٠٧ issued on the same date as the

Agency basic regulations were issued, regarding the foundation’s

objectives, its capital, and its principal tasks. Thus, the Saudi banking

organization process had started. Its main characteristics can be shown as

follows:

× Adoption of new currency, the gold pound to replace the

English pound.

× The introduction of the Currency Monitoring System No.

٣٠/٤/١/٢٥٥٣ in ١٩٥٧.

× The introduction of Currency System No. ٣٠/٤/١/٢٥٧٥ on

the same date as above.

× The issuing of the Royal Decree No. M/٥/,dated

١١/٦/١٩٦٦, concerning the bank monitoring system .

× Erection of a clearing-house in Jeddah for the

organization of banking transactions among banks in ١٩٦٧.

× Erection of a clearing-house in Riyadh in ١٩٦٨.



٢٦٣

× Erection of a clearing-house in Dammâm in ١٩٦٩.

٢ - Banks and the foundation of the Saudi Arabian Monetary System

Banking activities have been increased after the establishment of the

Monetary Agency, which encourage the setting up of the Saudi as well as

foreign banks in the main cities of the Kingdom shown in Table Two. Table 2. Major National and Foreign Banks Following the Saudi Arabian

Monetary Agency (SAMA)

No. Year of Establishme

nt Name of the Bank City Nationality

١٩٥٣ ١ National Commercial Bank

Jeddah Saudi

١٩٥٤ ٢ Cairo Bank Jeddah Egyptian ١٩٥٥ ٣ Lebanon and Immigrants

Bank Jeddah Lebanese

١٩٥٥ ٤. First National City Bank Jeddah American ١٩٥٦ ٥. Riyadh Bank Riyadh Saudi ٧١-١٩٧٠ ٦ Iranian Community Bank Riyadh Iranian ٧١-١٩٧٠ ٧ United Bank Ltd. Riyadh - [The most important foreign and national banks after the foundation of the

monetary system]

Table Two shows that Riyadh Bank was the first national bank working as a

stock company.

THE THIRD STAGE: THE SAUDIIZATION OF FOREIGN BANKS

As a result of the development and prosperity of the national economy, the

number of banks increased, especially the foreign banks, which were

mostly branches of main banks inside their original countries. The scarcity

of the national banks (only two at that time: Riyadh Bank and the National

Commercial Bank) led the Arabian Monetary System to create a program of

Saudiization of the foreign commercial banks, opening the door for the

national capitals to take part in the existing banking institutions instead of

establishing new banks.



٢٦٤

The Saudiization program was adopted after convincing the foreign banks

to accept the national contribution capital at the rate of ٦٠٪ of the total bank

capital. Thus the foreign capital contribution would make up only ٤٠٪. The

Saudi capital was divided into shares for general subscription. All banks

have been ordered to apply this ratio.

Table 3. Foriegn Bank Saudiazed by Royal Decrees

Gregorian D

ate of Saudiazation

Royal

Decree N

o.

Nam

e of the

Foreing B

ank (before

Saudiasation)

Nam

e of the

Foreign B

ank (after

Saudiazati

١٢/٦/١٩٥٧ M/٤٦ Pakistan National Bank Bank Al-Jazirah

٧/١١/١٩٧٦ M/٨٥ Holland General Bank Saudi Hollandi

٤/٦/١٩٧٧ M/٢٣ Indonasian Bank Saudi Faransi

٢١/١/١٩٧٨ M/٤ Britan Middle East Bank Saudi Britani

٢٠/١/١٩٧٩ M/٧ Cairo Bank Saudi Cairo

١٧/٦/١٩٧٩ M/٣٨ Arab Bank Ltd. Arab National

١٣/٢/١٩٨٠ M/٣ First National City Bank Saudi American

١٣/١٢/١٩٨٢ M/٢٣ Lebanon and Immigrants Bank, United Bank, and

Iranian Community Bank

Saudi United Commercial Bank

[The Royal Decrees concerning the Saudiization of each of the foreign

banks, and the transformation of these banks to the national banks

concerned according to a timetable for each of them]

Table Three shows the foreign banks Saudiized by Royal Decrees. In this

period, the banking company for investment (the Saudi Investment Bank)

was established as a Saudi investment company by Royal Decree ٣١/M,



٢٦٥

dated ٢٤/٥/١٩٧٦, Saudiization programs were set up during the second

development plan, which began to be implemented in ١٩٧٥. The first

development plan has made a number of achievements at the level of local

revenue. The oil revenue during the years of the first and the second plans,

known as years of booming economy, helped to push the wheels of

economic development and increase the government expenditures. This

affected all economic sectors and opened the doors for the national sectors

to play an effective role in the large-scale development process in the

Kingdom.

THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE MONETARY POLICY IN THE KINGDOM

The most important instruments used to carry out the monetary policy are

as follows:

١. The Open (Free) Market Policy.

٢. The Discount Rate (Interest).

٣. The Regular Reserve Policy.

These instruments show that the Saudi Arabian Monetary System applies

the open market policy through establishing treasury bonds programs,

issued weekly for terms from one to twelve months. The objective was to

organize the banking fluidity. According to the control monetary system,

the bank keeps not less than ١٥٪ of its deposits in the Saudi Arabian

Monetary System.

The Agency does not deal with interest rates because this is against the

Islamic law (Shari‘a). The Agency also prohibits usury.

The Current Situation of the Commercial Banks in the Kingdom of Saudi

Arabia

Banks now play a vital and principal role in pushing forward the progress of

development in the Kingdom, and this role has been increasing during the

successive development plans. Due to the growing role of the private sector

in these plans, the commercial and banking sectors have achieved high



٢٦٦

growth rates in the sixth development plan. This is reflected in the

following indices:

(١) By the end of ١٩٩٣, the number of commercial banks was twelve in

total with nine banks centered in Riyadh, ٧٥٪ of the total number of banks,

and ١١٦٠ subsidiaries in total with ٢٦٦ in Riyadh representing ٢٢٫٩٪ of the

total number of subsidiaries. The nine banks established in Riyadh now

have ٨١٧ subsidiaries, including ٢٠٥ subsidiaries in Riyadh making up

about ٢٥٫١٪ of the total subsidiaries. This can be seen in Table Four and

Diagrams One and Two. Table 4. Geographical Distribution of Branches of the Commercial Banks

According to Major Regions of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia During the Period between 1990 - 1995 G.

Year ١٩٩٥ ١٩٩٤ ١٩٩٣ ١٩٩٢ ١٩٩١ ١٩٩٠

Region (١) (٢) (١) (٢) (١) (٢) (١) (٢) (١) (٢) (١) (٢)

estern and Southern

٣٩٫٣ ٤٦٨ ٪٣٩٫٤ ٤٧٨ ٪٤٠ ٤٦٤ ٪٤٠ ٤٥٥ ٪٤١ ٤٤٠ ٪٤٢ ..٤٢٥٪

Central and Northern

٤٢٫٢ ٥٠٣ ٪٤٢ ٥١٠ ٪٤٢ ٤٨١ ٪٤١ ٤٧١ ٪٤١ ٤٤٣ ٪٤١ ٤٣١٪

Eastern Province

٢٢١٫١٨٫٥ ٪١٨٫٦ ٢٢٦ ٪١٨ ٢١٥ ٪١٨ ٢٠٥ ٪١٨ ١٩٧ ٪١٨ ١٨٦٪

Total

(١)١٠٣٢ (٢)١٠٠٪

١٠٨٠ ١٠٠٪

١١٣١ ١٠٠٪

١٠٠ ١١٩٢ ٪١٠٠ ١٣١٤ ٪١٠٠ ١١٦٠٪

(١) total number (٢) percentage

[The geographical distribution of commercial subsidiaries in the main

regions of the Kingdom during the period from ١٩٩٠ to ١٩٩٥]

By the end of ١٩٩٥, the number of subsidiaries in the Kingdom was ١١٩٢,

including ٥٠٣ subsidiaries in the North and Central Region, ٤٦٨ in the

Western and Southern Regions, and ٢٢٢ in the Eastern Region. Tables

Four, Five, and Six and Diagram Three show the development of the

banking sector during the period of ١٩٩٥-١٩٦٩.



٢٦٧

Figure ١. Importance percentage of Commercial Banks in Riyadh City in 1999/97

Figure ٢. Impotrance Percentage for the geographical

distribution of Commercial Banks 1n 1993/94

between Riyadh City and the Kingdom

٢٢٫٩٣٪

٢٦٦ branches ٨٩٤ branches

٧٧٫٠٧٪

Eastern Region ١٨٫٥٪ Western and Southern ٣٩٫٣٪

Central and Northern ٤٣٫٢٪

The statistics of the sixth development plan show the increase in the total

size of the commercial deposits. They went from ١٤٣٫٧ billion Riyals in the

first year (١٩٩٠) of the fifth development plan to about ١٨٤ billion Riyals

Saudi Investment

United S. Commercial

Saudi Cairo

Al Jazira

National Commercial

Riyadh

Saudi American

Saudi Hollandi

Saudi

Faransi

Saudi British

Rajhi Investment

Rajhi Company



٢٦٨

by the end of first quarter of the final year (١٩٩٥) of the plan at a rate of

٢٨٫٠٤٪, and the total capital and the shares of the contributors from ١٧٫٤

billion to about ٣٣ billion Riyals during the two cooperative years, at a rate

of ٨٩٫٦٦٪. The rate of the total capital and the shares of contributors in

comparison with the total deposits went from ٢١٪ to ٨١٪ during both years.

This rate is high according to international standards.

Statistics also point out a decrease in foreign assets from ١٢٣٫٥ billion

Riyals in ١٩٩٠ at the beginning of the fifth plan, to about ٩٩٫٩ billion

Riyals at the middle of ١٩٩٣, the end of the fifth plan, with a rate valued at

١٩٫١١٪.

This index shows that the financial position of the foreign banks was good

in the Kingdom at the beginning of the sixth development plan. Such banks

can increase their contributions to the achievement of the plan’s objectives

through expansion of long-term loans transactions, and developing the

savings and loans sector to suit the depositors’ wishes and the investors’

demands for long-term loans to finance big projects.

THE PRIVATE SECOR AND DEVELOPMENT

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is adopting free market policies where

citizens can have private property and make investments in the economic,

productive and service activities within the framework of regulations, easy

procedures and various forms of support and encouragement.

In this distinguished investment environment, the private sector has been

continuously developing, and has varied its activities, especially after the

Kingdom’s adoption of a large-scale plan to achieve development in a

balanced and complete form, either through developing the economic

sectors or through the development of various regions.

FACTORS DESIGNED FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRIVATE SECTOR



٢٦٩

Many factors joined together to design and help in the development of the

private sector in the Kingdom. These factors include the following:

× Adoption of free market and economic policy which gives an

opportunity for the private sector in the form of establishments or

companies to exercise full economic activities in the light of Islamic

instructions (shari‘a) free of conditions.

× Accomplishment of social and economic stability. As a result of

the government’s wise policy in dealing with situations and

implementing the Islamic legislation (shari‘a), an environment of

security and stability prevail on man, money and properties,

encouraging businessmen to invest their money and establish their

projects.

× Construction of a full network of modern infrastructure. The

Saudi government was interested in setting up a complete network of

modern infrastructures at a cost of ٣،٢٧٥ billion Riyals, equal to ٩٠٠

billion dollars, represented by motorways, electricity, water purification

plants, construction of local and international airports, main seaports,

railways, and telecommunication networks.

× Providing bonuses for setting up private projects. Various kinds of

support and encouragement were offered to those who have been willing

to invest. These include feasible non-interest loans from the specified

government development funds worth about ٥٠٪ of the project’s total

cost. Water and electricity are provided at low cost (subsidized prices).

Lands are also provided for industrial and agricultural project investors,

with easy conditions, and all requirements of production are free from

custom duties. Customs protection is offered for national products and

priority is given to national products in the government purchases, tax-

free, except for poor dues (zakât) which are counted as ٢٫٥٪ on the

existing goods.



٢٧٠

The government purchases local agricultural products such as wheat,

barley, corn, and dates from farmers at subsidized prices.

Contracts for roads, normal bridges, and small or middle-sized

buildings are carried out by Saudi contractors. The foreign contractor

should commit himself to offer at least ٣٠% of contracting work to

Saudi contractors.

× Setting Up Development Support Staff

The development plan was accompanied by the development of

management staff represented by ministries, foundations and other

parties associated with development. Government development funds

were set up to finance projects and the Royal Commission of Jubail and

Yanbu‘ was also set up to trace the construction of infrastructure and to

provide the factories in both cities with suitable facilities. The Saudi

House of Supervision Services was established to supply technical and

economic studies in the industrial investment fields. The General

Foundation for Storing Crops and Wheat Mills receives wheat from the

farmers at subsidized prices. The Saudi Arabian Corporation of

Specifications and Measurements(Standards) specifies the quality of

each commodity. The General Foundation of Technical Learning,

Rehabilitation and Training prepares the national and technical cadre

required for the job market. The King Abdulazîz City for Science and

Technology creates national scientific technology in the economic

sectors. The Chambers of Commerce and Industry serve the private

sector and supply it with assistance services such as information,

research, investment and trading opportunities, law consultation,

participation in exhibitions, trade delegation receptions, training and so

on.

THE ADVANCEMENT OF THE PRIVATE SECTOR THROUGH THE DEVELOPMENT STAGES



٢٧١

The characteristics and specifications of the private sector are set up

according to modern economic standards with the execution of the five-year

development plan. The private sector’s role is progressing throughout the

successive plans as follows:

× In the first development plan (١٩٧٥-١٩٧٠), importance was

attached to presentation of projects and programs connected with

encouraging the private sector of production, service and in particular

education. The government drew its attention to carrying out the

infrastructure programs which should be carried out by the contract

sector. The average annual development rate of the private sector during

the first plan in ١٩٧٥-١٩٧٠ was ٩٫٦٪, compared with ٤٫٤٪ at the start of

its execution. Its capital participation was ٣٣٫٨٥٪. In the local national

revenue it was ١١٫٨٪, and in non-oil local revenue it was ٦٥٫١٪.

× In the second development plan (١٩٧٩-١٩٧٥), much importance

was attached to the private sector. This importance was one of the

priorities of the plan, which prepared all circumstances to enable it to

work quickly and actively to construct the buildings required by the

plan, as well as to provide the necessary services to aid the rapid

development of economic activity. To achieve this goal it was agreed

that the private sector should operate freely. In order to receive more

practical support from the government, many financing bodies were

created in this period to offer loans for investors, and other regulations

were issued to provide those investors with various kinds of bonuses.

Consequently, the annual and the actual development rate of the

private sector during this plan increased to ١٤٫٨٪ on the average, and

its participation rate in creating the total capital was ٢٧٫٢٪. The total

local revenue was ٢١٫٩٪ and the non-oil local revenue ٥٦٫٩٪.

× In the third development plan (١٩٨٥-١٩٨٠), some procedures

were defined to increase support of the private sector in taking part

actively in the variety of product foundations and in reducing



٢٧٢

dependence on oil as a source of income. Some of these procedures

include: investing in production and mining sectors, urging commercial

banks to expand their facilities for production projects, continuing to

offer bonuses from the specified government development funds, and

providing support for establishing assistant services for production

industries, as well as encouraging the setting up of more stock

companies to ensure advantages for a larger number of citizens in

investment processes, and giving priority in contracts to Saudi

contractors. In the case that a bid is won by foreign contractors, the

Saudi contractors should have to take part in the carrying out of these

contracts.

The private sector annual development rate for these plans was ٨٫٨٪, and its

participation in creating capital rose up to ٤٢٫١٪, in the total local revenue

٣٧٪, and in the non-oil local revenue ٦٠٫٥٪.

In the fourth development plan (١٩٨٩-١٩٨٤), the role of the private sector

was basically changed to expand its tasks to meet the rising demands for

commodities, services and utilities in order to secure the country’s needs.

The private sector had to continue variation and expansion of economic

foundations by developing the mining, agricultural and industrial

production sectors, improving the productive efficiency of the existing

economic units, and increasing the opportunities for the private sector to

possess, administer, manage and maintain projects established by the

government and conditioned to make an actual benefit in reducing the cost.

× The annual development rate of the private sector for this was

١٫٤٪ and its participation in creating the total existing capital was ٥٤٪,

in the total local revenue ٤١٫٨٪, and in the non-oil local revenue ٦٠٫٩٪.

× In the fifth development plan (١٩٨٩-١٩٩٤), the role of the private

sector was emphasized in the plan’s objectives, strategies and policies,

especially after the structural changes took place in the national

economy. This directed the private sector to create variation in its



٢٧٣

activities and to expand the setting up of industrial and agricultural

projects and establishing companies of all kinds. The annual

development rate of the private sector at the end of the plan was about

٤٫١٪. The rate of its participation in creating total existing capital rose to

٦٧٫٣٪, the total local revenue to ٤٥٫٣٪, and the non-oil total local

revenue to ٧٢٫١٪.

In the sixth development plan (١٩٩٩-١٩٩٤), the private sector was given a

pioneering role in achieving the plan’s objectives for the continuation of the

economic development. This was apparent in its priorities, objectives and

annexes. These priorities assured the adoption of more policies which

encouraged the private sector’s capital to participate in the national

investment, to finance some government projects, and to own some

government activities of a commercial nature. The objectives include

continuous encouragement for the private sector to take part in the

economic development process of the country, concentrating on industry,

agriculture, and development of metal resources. The plan also includes

three annexes emphasizing the private sector’s role in strengthening the

national economy by accomplishing economic efficiency, developing

manpower and offering more employment opportunities. The two latter

annexes are highly dependent upon the private sector.

THE PRIVATE SECTOR’S ACHIEVEMENTS The private sector has participated in executing all the development plans

and their objectives, and is capable of making achievements distinguished

on the national level or on the level of the production, service, and

economic sectors. These achievements include the contribution to total

local revenue, investment increase and the creation of existing capital which

rose from ٤٫٤ billion Riyals (٣٣٫٨٪ of the total in ١٩٧٥-١٩٧٤) to ٤٥٫٧

billion at a rate of ٦٧٫٣٪ of the total in ١٩٩٤-١٩٩٣. The investment capital

rose from seven billion in ١٩٧٦-١٩٧٥ to ١٠٨٫٧ billion Riyals in ١٩٩٤-١٩٩٣.



٢٧٤

The rate of the private sector contribution to the total local revenue rose

from ١١٫٨٪ in ١٩٧٥-١٩٧٤ to ٤٥٫٣٪ in ١٩٩٤-١٩٩٣. Its contribution to the

non-oil total local revenue was about ٧٢٪.

Moreover, the private sector has taken part in the increase and variation of

the national income sources which are regarded as the core of the main

objectives of the development plans. This was represented by the increase

of the non-oil total product four times during the period from ١٩٧٠-١٩٦٩ to

١٩٩٤-١٩٩٣. Also, the participation rate of non-oil sectors in the local

revenue rose from ٤٥٪ in ١٩٧٠-١٩٦٩ to about ٦٢٫٨٪ at the end of the fifth

development plan.

The rate of non-oil export participation of the Kingdom’s total exports has

risen from ٨٪ to about ٢١٪. Also the number of factories went up from ١٩٩

at a total cost of ٢٫٨ billion Riyals, with a manpower of ١٣٧،٠٠٠ workers,

to ٢،٤١٢ factories costing ١٥٨٫٩ billion Riyals, with manpower mounting to

١٣٧،٠٠٠ workers. Agricultural production also went up at the end of the

fifth plan to six times the amount at the beginning of the first plan. All these

factors indicate positive steps towards achieving food self-sufficiency.

The number of private firms represented by establishments and companies

with trading records increased greatly, up to ٤٦٦،٠٥٤ firms in ١٩٩٥. There

were ٧٨،٧٧٠ firms in ١٩٧٩. This indicates the importance of the private

sector in the national economic structure. On the level of joint projects, the

Saudi private sector cooperated with foreign investors in setting up joint

projects. These joint projects amounted to ١،٣٠٦ in ١٩٩٥, with a total

capital of about ١٢٩ billion Riyals. The national capital contribution was

seventy-three billion Riyals with a proportion of ٥٦٫٦٪, while the foreign

capital was fifty-six billion Riyals with a proportion of ٤٣٫٤٪. These joint

projects included investors from fifty-eight countries, mainly from

America, Japan, the UK, Germany, France, South Korea, and Taiwan as

well as some Arab countries.



٢٧٥

These joint projects include petrochemicals, oil refining, repair and

maintenance of aircraft, the electrical appliances industry, electronic and

electrical appliance maintenance, the pipe industry, and various food

industries.

Regarding manpower, the number of workers in the private sector rose from

about ١٫٧ million workers in ١٩٧٥ to more than six million workers by the

end of the fifth development plan. So the private sector has provided job

opportunities for ٤٫٣ million.

The above Statistic tables indicate the active participation of the private

sector in many areas

THE FUTURE ROLE OF THE PRIVATE SECTOR The sixth development plan for ٢٠٠٠-١٩٩٥ points out the importance of the

private sector in leading the march of progress in the Kingdom, regarding it

as the main foundation for the full development process. It confronts the

challenges which the economy of the Kingdom is facing through

cooperation with the government in order to achieve the development

objectives and improve the levels of economic efficiency in all phases. It

aims to replace foreign manpower with Saudis and create new job

opportunities for citizens, in addition to making variations in the productive

foundation of the Saudi economy, and reducing dependence on

hydrocarbon resources. It creates new local areas of investment, reducing

the government’s financial burden through participation in financing the

development projects.

On the other hand, many opportunities to expand its investments and

activities are open to the private sector. These include exploitation of

mineral discoveries to establish the mining industries, and investment in the

industries depending on local raw materials such as petrochemicals. These

industries are electronic and engineering. There are also the large industrial

projects, money investment companies, and communication projects.



٢٧٦

Opportunities in health care service projects, especially after the

introduction of the health insurance system, are also open. Then there are

projects in the rehabilitation and training of manpower, as well as tourism

and entertainment projects. Finally, opportunities include participation in

foreign capital ventures to set up projects of high levels of technology in the

Kingdom.

SAUDI FOREIGN AID

LOANS

The government of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is interested in supporting

the development programs of the developing countries. Part of its income is

allocated towards easy development aid in form of grants or loans through

either the Saudi Development Fund or regional and international

development foundations to those countries whose objectives are to raise

the standard of living of their people.

The Kingdom’s interest in this field is clearly shown through the aid offered

in the ١٩٨٠’s. The Kingdom is the first among the world countries, with an

aid rate of an estimated ٥٫٥٪ of the total national revenue. This is many

times more than the ٠٫٧٪ objective set by the United Nations for aid from

rich countries to developing countries.

The Saudi Development Bank, established by a Royal Decree dated ١٩٧٤,

is regarded as one of the main channels for easy twofold aid offered by the

Kingdom to the developing countries. Special considerations are given to

countries with limited income in Africa, Asia and some other countries in

the world whose situations have suffered much from international economic

changes or their lack of available resources to achieve their development

objectives.

The Fund has demonstrated positive and active stands through international

efforts to support the process of development in low-income countries.



٢٧٧

From its start, the Fund signed ٨٠٨ loan contracts of ٢١،٢١٥٫٧٣ million

Riyals for sixty-two countries, ٩٧٫١٪ of this sum being allocated for ٢٧٣

development projects. The rest of the sum, ٢٫٩٪, is allocated for twenty-five

development programs aimed mostly at supporting economic strategy and

improving the infrastructure of the recipient countries. The average loan for

each project was about ٧٥٫٤ million Riyals, and about twenty-five million

Riyals was the average loan for a single program.

The loan chart shows that thirty-eight countries in Africa received ٩،٥١٩٫٩٠

million Riyals (٨٫٨٤٪ of the total aid) to finance ١٤٥ development projects

and twenty-three economical projects. In Asia, nineteen countries received

٩،٦٩٢ million Riyals (٤٩٫٧٪ of the total loans) to finance ١٠٦ projects, in

addition to one economic program.

The Fund also helped finance six projects in four countries at a total cost of

٢٩٨٫١ million Riyals (١٫٥٪ of the total aid).

The average loan for each project in the African countries was sixty-one

million Riyals. In the Asian countries it was ٩٥٫٧ million Riyals.

The relative decrease of the average loans in Africa was due to the limited

expansion of these projects. Usually these loans cover all different

developing sectors equally in the recipient countries, such as transportation,

communication, electricity, industry, agriculture, social structure and other

important sectors.

CAPITAL FUNDS

This Saudi Fund started work on ١/٣/١٩٧٥ with a capital of ١٠،٠٠٠

million Riyals offered by the government of the Kingdom. The capital was

increased through three stages. The first, in ١٩٨٠, became ١٥،٠٠٠ Riyals,

and the second, in ١٩٨١, became twenty-five million Riyals. The third

stage of increase in the capital was in١٩٩١ when it reached thirty million

Riyals to meet the increasing requirements of the developing countries.



٢٧٨

AID TO SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND DEVELOPMENT SECTORS

Since its foundation, the Fund objectives have been set to help finance

projects intended to improve the social and economic situation in the

developing countries and achieve actual distribution of the available

resources. It focuses on infrastructure, agricultural production, industry and

social structure. Communications and transportation had the priority of the

total fund allocations between ١٩٧٥ and ١٩٩٥. Next came the agricultural

and rural development sectors, followed gradually by energy, social and

industrial other sectors.

The transportation and communication sector priority of the Fund aid due

to the positive role of this sector in activating the development process. The

number of projects financed by the Fund was ١٠٢ with a total cost of about

٧١٣٫٨ million Riyals (٣٣٫٥٪ of the total offered from ١٩٦٥ to ١٩٩٥). This

includes construction of railways, harbors, airports, and communication

technology in a number of Asian and African countries.

As to the priority of aid, agriculture and rural development sectors came in

the second stage, these being the principal sectors in the developing

countries. Their role is to support the economy and create investments and

foreign currency as well as to create job opportunities for the other

economic sectors. Loans were offered to finance sixty-seven projects with

the goal of increasing animal and agricultural products, developing rural

life, building or repairing dams, aggregating distribution networks and

accommodating farmers. Loans of ٤٣٨٠٫٩٠ million Riyals were equal to

٢٠٫٧٪ of the total loans for the period between ١٩٧٥ and ١٩٩٥. Aid offered

to Africa was ٦٦٫٩%, while Asian countries received only ٣٢٫١٪.

Energy as aid comes in the third stage. The Saudi Development Fund took

an interest in advancing the developing countries’ capacities to produce

various kinds of energy from water or heat resources. Thirty-six projects so

far have been financed to generate heat and water energy at a cost of

٤٢٢٣٫٢٥ Riyals (١٩٫٩٪). Nine African countries got ٦٧٩٫٢٥ million Riyals



٢٧٩

to finance ten electricity projects (١٦٫١٪ of the total sum alllocated to the

energy sector). The Asian countries received the biggest share of these

loans due to their fast industrial development; their countries got ٣٥٣٢٫٩

million Riyals (٨٣٫٧٪) to finance twenty-five electricity projects. Brazil

received ١١١٫١ million Riyals for this same purpose.

Social construction was in the fourth stage. The Saudi Developing Fund is

interested in developing human resources by including aid for education,

health, accommodation, urban development, water and sanitation. This cost

of ٣٢٨٨٫٢٥ million Riyals (١٥٫٥٪ of the total loans) to finance fifty-nine

projects, including building schools and colleges and supplying instruments

and educational materials to develop curricula. Loans in this particular field

are offered to seven African countries and five Asian countries of low or

middle income.

These projects include ten in the health sectors, to build hospitals and

medical centers in eight African and Asian countries and to supply them

with important medical equipment at a cost of ٤٩٦٫٦ million Riyals.

The Saudi Development Fund also looks after the industrial sector. It

financed industrial projects such as sugar manufacturing in Sudan, Egypt,

and central Africa, fertilizer and chemical industries in Indonesia, Pakistan

and Bangladesh, and steel mines in Mauritania. ١٧٥٤٫٣ million Riyals

(٨٫٣٪ of the total fund loans) are allocated for this sector to finance

eighteen projects. The African countries received ٦٢٫٦٪ of this sum, while

the Asian countries got ٣٧٫٤٪.

Other Loans offered by the Fund include the accords signed with regional

or international foundations to finance a number of programs and projects

supporting reconstruction measures and rehabilitation in the developing

countries of low income in the southern desert of Africa. Two other projects

to support rehabilitation and rectification of infrastructure in Pakistan,

Bangladesh and Asia were also financed by the Fund. This activity cost



٢٨٠

٤٦٥٫٢ million Riyals, financing sixteen projects and programs (٢٫٢٪ of the

total loans offered by the Fund in the period from ١٩٧٥ to ١٩٩٥).

CONSTRUCTION OF ISLAMIC CENTERS AND INSTITUTIONS

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has its own religious peculiarity among the

world Islamic countries. So it has a distinguished position among these

countries to fulfill its special responsibilities towards Muslims all over the

world. The location of the Ka‘ba and the Prophet’s Mosque in the Kingdom

requires educational and religious communication between the Kingdom

and countries of the tens of millions of Muslims in Europe, America and

other continents.

It is due to the Kingdom’s adherence to the Islamic path that guaranteed the

Islamic interests in the world: the religious, the educational, and the social,

represented by moral or materialistic aid to help Muslims keep their

educational and religious identity in the society in which they live

The services offered by the Kingdom are but to reassure the

internationalization of Islam and the right of all people to listen to the voice

of Islam and be familiar with its beliefs, ethics and its source of legislation.

This can never be achieved except by spreading its call (appeal) among

people by all lawful means.

The Kingdom also offers many kinds of aid and help to Muslims in the

West and all over the world. The four kinds are represented by the

following:

١-The Building of Mosques and Islamic Centers

A Mosque is regarded as the foundation stone in any Islamic

society; it is the house of God and the place of worship where

people receive all education in general. A mosque was first built

by the Prophet Muhammad(PBUH) in Madina when he migrated

there. Therefore, the construction of mosques was the most

important means of serving Islam and Muslims. And for this



٢٨١

reason the Kingdom started setting up mosques and Islamic

centers in the Muslim communities in the West and other

countries worldwide. This requires great effort by the Kingdom,

represented by cost or technical help or mediation with the

authority of the countries in which these centers are to be set up.

Usually this can be done easily and smoothly.

These centers make great social, instructional and educational

efforts to enhance the identity of Muslims in the non-Muslim

countries, and to develop their abilities to serve the society in

which they live. The most important mosque and center set up by

the Kingdom in Europe is the Islamic center in Geneva in

Switzerland. It is a big mosque with full services of worship,

education, and reading, and cost sixteen million Riyals. The

congregational mosque in the Belgium’s capital, Brussels, has a

capacity of ٤،٠٠٠, with an annex for education, a publishing

house and press club for the youth, and cost twenty million

Riyals. The congregational mosque in Madrid, the capital of

Spain, is regarded as one of the biggest Islamic centers in the

West, with a capacity of ١،٠٠٠ worshippers, male and female,

and an annex equipped with many departments, including

educational, medical and sports. The London mosque with its

Islamic center, in the United Kingdom, cost about forty-three

million Riyals. In has an entailed estate to cover its expenditures.

Another big mosque was built in Rome, Italy. Twenty-two

million Riyals was spent on it by the Kingdom. This mosque can

accommodate ٢،٠٠٠ worshippers, with facilities for learning,

education and sports. There are also other big mosques, built

either fully or partially at the expense of the Kingdom, in

Zagreb, Lisbon, Vienna, and in Edinburgh. Other big mosques in

North America were financed by the Kingdom. Some of these



٢٨٢

are in New York, Washington, California, Colorado and

Missouri. Large Islamic centers and their activities are financed

and supported by the Kingdom in most of the United States of

America: in Chicago, Maryland, Ohio, Michigan, Virginia and

other places.

The Kingdom built mosques in Toronto, Quebec and Ottawa in

Canada, as well as the Islamic center in Brazil (South America)

built in ١٩٩٠.

There are also Islamic centers for Muslims in the big important

cities of South America built completely or partially by aid from

the Kingdom. There are about twelve centers and mosques for

social and religious activities. The Islamic efforts of the

Kingdom have reached as far as the Australian continent and the

neighbouring islands. Mosques and Islamic centers were set up

in the cities of the continent and the provinces, and in the Pacific

islands such as Fiji. The Australian Union of Islamic Councils

received ten million Riyals in aid.

٢-The Construction of Institutes for the Arabic and Islamic

Sciences and Important Oriental Study Departments

Muslims in the West and especially the younger generation need

to be exposed to the Islamic and Arabic studies. So the Kingdom

started to set up institutes that teach Islamic sciences as well as

Islamic civilization and education. One example is the Institute

of Arab Islamic Science History in Frankfurt, Germany. The

Kingdom’s contribution to this institute was around fifteen

million Riyals.

The Kingdom’s contribution to the construction of the Arab

World Institute in Paris was about eighteen million Riyals. The

Kingdom also was interested in Oriental and Islamic Studies

departments centered in the Western universities.



٢٨٣

The Kingdom offered a big grant to Harvard University in

America to set up the Department of Islamic Law and a research

study department. A chair was established for Islamic Studies.

Johns Hopkins University has been receiving annual aid since

١٩٧٦ to support the Center of Middle East Studies which is

interested in teaching Islamic law (Shari‘a) and Arabic. Also,

Duke University in North Carolina, Colorado University, The

American University in Washington D.C., and the Syracuse

Institute which is interested in the study of human rights

protection in the criminal court system of the Islamic countries,

as well as other institutes and universities.

The Arab Islamic academies were established by the Custodian

of the Two Holy Mosques, King Fahad ibn Abdulaziz, financed

fully by the Kingdom, and spread throughout the capitals of

Western countries. They include the Saudi Islamic Academy in

America, the King Fahad Academies in London, Bonn, Moscow

and others. These academies have solved some big problems in

educating Muslims in the West. The doors of these academies

are open to all. Also an independent institute for Arabic and

Islamic sciences was constructed in America at the expense of

the Kingdom and is affiliated with Imam Muhammad Ibn Saud

Islamic University.

٣- Study Scholarships

Muslims need professors from among them to keep their

younger generations attached to the Arabic and Islamic

education. So the Kingdom offers facilities and grants for those

people from all over the Islamic world to study Islamic sciences

and Arabic in its universities and institutes.

٤- Educational Aid



٢٨٤

This kind of aid covers all expenses of Islamic institutes as to

teaching staff, references, Islamic education books, research

means and equipment. Also this aid covers the expenses of

sending highly qualified Saudi instructors and preachers to

deliver lectures, and attend seminars and conferences in the

European countries and America. The Kingdom sends thousands

of copies of the Holy Qur‘an together with interpretations to

Islamic centers in the West, in addition to hundreds of thousands

of books on Islamic studies in European languages to publicize

information on Islam, its basic beliefs, and its social and literary

background. Every year many Islamic corporations throughout

the world receive aid intended for spreading the message of

Islam. The Islamic World Assembly and the World Assembly for

Muslim Youth are two examples of these corporations and

foundations.



٢٨٥

CHAPTER FOUR

COMMUNICATION

TRANSPORTATION

Man in the Kingdom, as in many other countries of the world, used the

camel as a means of transportation and trade in the past. But when trading

activities grew, camels were used in-groups called caravans. The camel is

known for its ability to stay without water for a long period of time

extending to weeks. And also a camel does not need paved roads to walk

on; they can walk across very rough areas. Narrow ways used repeatedly by

caravans have been transformed into public roads connecting cities one

with another. The caravan’s choice of roads depended mainly on the

availability of flat land and water sources. The preferred caravan routes for

the Hajj were those starting from Baghdad to Najd and from Damascus and

Cairo to Tabûk and the Hijaz.

Because of its distinguished geographical position, the Arabian Peninsula in

the past has been a crossroads for trade between Europe and the East. The

trade routes of the Red Sea were the most preferred by traders. In the past

the Arab Peninsula’s harbors have been abundant with the activities of

sailing boats, which played a crucial role in the economy of countries

located on the Arabian Gulf, the Arabian Sea, and the Red Sea, where there

have been active movements of boats until recently. These sailing boats

used to carry goods from the seaports of big cities to the smaller seaports

which could not provide facilities for unloading such large ships. This was

the case with Jeddah seaport, which used to receive many huge European

ships whose cargo was then carried by sailing boats to smaller seaports.



٢٨٦

These boats accomplished the great task of carrying local goods and Saudi

passengers between different seaports. The Dammâm seaport on the

Arabian Gulf coast was the most active seaport close to the small Jubail Sea

and was used as a crossing point to Ahsâ’ and Najd.

THE GENERAL FOUNDATION OF SAUDI RAILROADS

Before the end of World War II, there were no land roads and airports in the

Kingdom. At the beginning of the second half of the Twentieth Century, the

Kingdom had started to build roads and to use modern means of

transportation. King Abdulaziz al-Saud, may God bless him, had

recognized the importance of the transportation sector in the development

process from the beginning, so he made his wise decision to construct the

railways to be the first modern means of transportation in the Kingdom of

Saudi Arabia.

With the growth of the oil industry in the Kingdom after the Second World

War, demands increased to import equipment and gear through the

Dammâm seaport. Lorries were used to carry them to Riyadh. The growing

population in Riyadh had led to an increase in the demands for food and

other requirements of life. Consequently, the King recognized the need for a

railroad connecting Riyadh with Dammâm, so he ordered a complete study

for the project. A group of experts from many international companies was

organized. A report was submitted in ١٩٤٧ on the bases that the project

would serve Dammâm, Buqaiq, Ahsâ’, Kharj, and the Riyadh region. The

project was commissioned to be carried out by the Arabian American Oil

Company (ARAMCO). The execution of the project started on ٠١/٠٤/١٩٤٧,

lasted five years and nine months, and was handed over to the Saudi

government on ٣١/١٢/١٩٥٢. At the beginning of the project, the total length

of the railroad was ٦٣٤ km.

The last decade has witnessed a great development in the area of railroad

construction, represented by the execution of many large projects costing



٢٨٧

more than ٣،٠٢١ million Riyals. These include the construction of the

customs station in Riyadh (the dry harbor) to help Saudi traders to load their

goods directly from ships instead of loading and unloading the same goods

more than once. This station provides all necessary facilities. At a value of

٣٩٥ million Riyals, these projects also include renovating the old railways

and building a direct railway from Hofûf to Riyadh, doubling the railway

between Dammâm and Hofûf, as well as constructing new sub-railways and

side railways, and constructing three new stations in Riyadh, Dammâm and

Hofûf. Also on the list is expanding maintenance transporting equipment

establishments and supporting the transportation fleet by purchasing

modern trains and railroad coaches for passengers and carriages for

transportation of goods.

ROADS

The construction of modern roads in the Kingdom is something new. In

١٩٥٤, the total length of the roads was ٢٣٧ km. This number rose to ٨،٤٤٠

km by ١٩٧٠, and then jumped to ١٨،٠٥١ km of paved roads and ٢٤،١٨٥ km

of agricultural roads in ١٩٨٠. The statistics have indicated that the total

length of the inter-city roads was more than ١٢٢،٠٠٠ km in ١٩٩٥. Of these,

٤،٤٠٠ km of high-speed, dual-carriage highways made up ٣٫٦٪ and ٣٣،٧٥١

km of one-way roads made up ٢٧٫٨٪. There were ٨٣،٣٦٥ km of paved rural

roads, a proportion of ٨٦٫٦٪. The rate of road length compared with the

number of the population was ٧١٧٫٦ km for each ١٠٠،٠٠٠ people. The total

cost of road construction in the Kingdom was about ١٣٠٫٨ billion Riyals by

the end of the fifth development plan. The construction of these roads has

been carried out according to the most modern highway specifications in

the world. These roads include the Makkah / Madina road at a length of ٣٢١

km, the Riyadh / Sudair/ Qasîm road at a length of ٣٧٣ km, the Riyadh /

Tâ’if road at a length of ٧٥٠ km, the Hadria / Hafar al Bâtin / Rafhâ dual-



٢٨٨

carriage way at a length of ٦١٣ km, and the Qasîm highway network at a

length of ١٤١٫٧ km.

Ring roads continue to be built around some main cities in the Kingdom to

facilitate the movement of transportation and the crossing of local traffic.

This network was supplied with bridges, flyovers, underpasses, service side

roads, lightening services, forestry and safety equipment. The most

important of these roads are the Riyadh ring road with a length of ٦٣٫٢ km,

the Buraida ring road with a length of fifty-eight kilometers (under

construction), the Jeddah ring road which is ١،٠٣٦ km long, and the joint

road of the Eastern Region cities whose length is ١٠٨ km.

TRANSPORTATION FOUNDATIONS

The Saudi Arabian Mass Transport Company (SAPTCO) was set up in

١٩٧٩ by Royal Decree No. ١١/M dated ١٩٧٨. It was the first Saudi

company to accept the responsibility of public transportation inside cities.

Later this company had another task represented by transporting people

from or to the Kingdom. The government’s contribution to the company’s

total capital was ٣٠٪ out of one thousand million Riyals, the total capital of

the company. The company fleet now consists of ٢،٣٤٤ buses of various

sizes and specifications. Its local services cover most main cities. It offers

regular daily services to more than ٣٥٠ cities and villages. The company

provides more than ٣،٠٠٠ buses to transport about three and a half million

hajjis (pilgrims) every year. The company’s services have been extended to

transportation outside of the Kingdom through its part in the formation of

the Saudi Bahraini Transportation Company with joint stock. Regular

international transportation services have been established by the company

from the Kingdom’s different cities to a number of neighboring Arab

countries.

“SASCO” the Saudi Stock Company for cars and equipment services with

a ٦٠٠ million Riyal capital provides maintenance and services for vehicles



٢٨٩

and equipment of all kinds. It provides a number of service stations

throughout many of the main cities in the Kingdom, as well as first aid

services on roads inside and outside the cities. Three central service stations

have been established in Riyadh, Jeddah and Dammâm, in addition to a

number of mobile stations.

SEA TRANSPORTATION

Sea transportation is regarded as one of the most important means of

transportation in the Kingdom, because the Kingdom looks over the Red

Sea and the Arabian Gulf and is the biggest oil exporter in the world. It has

a seashore of ١،٨٠٠ km on the Red Sea, and another of about ٦١٠ km on the

Gulf, where many new seaports have been constructed. Large new trading

ships have been bought to form the core of the Saudi fleet. Developed and

modernized for efficient transportation of the large volume of Saudi trade to

foreign countries, this fleet also links the Kingdom’s seaports with other

Arab and the international seaports. The Saudi National Company of Sea

Transportation was established by a Royal Decree in ١٩٧٨ with a capital

valued at ٥٠٠ million Riyals. The government’s contribution was at a rate

of ٢٥٪. The company’s capital increased in ١٩٨٢ to one thousand million

Riyals. The company transports exports and imports from or to the

Kingdom. In addition to the transportation of passengers, the fleet exhibits

high specifications and can accommodate about ١٠،٧٧٦ typical containers

carrying all kinds of goods.

Regular transportation has been organized by the company from the

Kingdom to the southeast of the United States of America, to the east of

Asia, and to Europe. The company carries out some activities in the field of

petrochemical transportation.

The Kingdom cooperated with five other Gulf countries in establishing the

United Arab Navigation Company in ١٩٧٦ with a total capital valued at

٥٠٠ million Kuwaiti dinars. The Kingdom’s rate of contribution was at



٢٩٠

١٩٫٣٪ of the total company capital. The Kingdom also took part with nine

other Arab countries in establishing the Arabian Sea Company for Oil

Transportation in ١٩٥٣, with a capital valued at ٥٠٠ million American

dollars. Established for the transportation and marketing of the Arab oil

products, the company now possesses nine carriers with a total capacity of

about ٤٠٢،٥٨٨ tons. The Kingdom is one of the countries that established

the Arab Academy for Sea Transportation, which aims at preparing the

cadres for managing and developing the Arab commercial fleets.

The Kingdom has also joined a number of international organizations and

corporations which are concerned with matters of sea transportation and sea

safety. These include the International Arab Organization, the International

Labor Organization, and the United Nations Conference for Development

and Trade. The Kingdom also signed the United Nations Accord for Sea

Regulations as well as a number of treaties and agreements especially

related to international sea transportation and safety regulations.

The General Foundation of Seaports was established in ١٩٧٦ with the

responsibility of developing the Kingdom’s seaports and improving its

working efficiency. The foundation has achieved its objectives by

employing progressive technical methods so that the number of docks had

risen from ٢٧ to ١٨٢ in ١٩٩٣, with twenty-three of these in the King Fahad

Industrial Seaport in Jubail, and twenty-three in the King Fahad Industrial

Seaport in Yanbu‘. These have been especially built to transport industrial

products. The manpower productivity at the commercial seaports has risen

from ١٦١ thousand tons in ١٩٨٧ / ١٩٨٦ to ٢٨١ thousand tons in ١٩٩١/١٩٩٢

and the productivity in the industrial seaports has risen from twenty-two

thousand tons to about ١٥٩ thousand tons in the same period. The number

of available docks in the main seaports by the end of the fifth developing

plan was ١٧٩, with an increase of ٣٪. This is about four times as much as it

was before. The available capacity of the seaports was increased by more

than forty times since ١٣٩٦ H., up to about ٢٤٧ million metric tons yearly.



٢٩١

The industrial capacity makes about ٧٤٪ of the available total capacity at all

seaports.

THE AIRLINES

The Kingdom has been building its air fleet since ١٩٤٦, when King

Abdulaziz, may God bless him, had given orders to establish the Saudi

Arabian Airlines, administered by the Ministry of Defense and Aviation.

When the first airport had been built in the Kendra region in Jeddah, the

Saudi airline started its local and international flights.

In the mid-fifties the Kingdom owned a foundation for aviation connecting

all distant places inside the Kingdom with one another. Also, flights to

neighboring countries started at the time when the Saudi air fleet consisted

of fifteen aircraft of the Dakota DC ٣ model. In ١٩٤٩, the fleet was

augmented by five more aircraft of the Bristol ١٧٠ model, which were used

to carry passengers as well as goods. In ١٩٥٢ the Kingdom bought five

long-range four-engine DC ٤ aircraft to be used for flights to the

Mediterranean region. By the end of ١٩٥٤, Riyadh airport was opened.

In ١٩٦٢, King Faisal, may God have mercy on him, issued a royal decree to

transform the Saudi airlines to a general independent foundation. In ١٩٦٥,

the Kingdom joined the Arab Union for Air Transportation and the

International Union of Air Transportation two years later. In ١٩٦٨, the

Saudi airlines received the first two Boeing ٧٠٧ aircraft, with a capacity of

١٤٧ passengers. This model had never been used before in the Middle East.

These aircraft made direct flights to London. In ١٩٧٢, the formal name of

the foundation became ‘Saudia’. In the same year five Boeing ٧٣٧ aircraft

joined the Saudia fleet to replace the DC ٩ aircraft. The Saudia fleet is

regarded as the most modern air fleet in the Middle East, serving twenty

Saudi locations, and with forty-one destinations in three continents. In

١٩٧٢, Saudia passes the one million-passenger mark, making ٩٫٥ million

Riyals in profits, with an increase rate of ٥٠٪ for transportation of goods.



٢٩٢

The recent years of the ٧٠’s witnessed big leaps in the number of

passengers, an unprecedented achievement in any similar company

throughout the world. The fleet has been expanded to include a number of

new aircraft such as the Sylvester ٢-١, the Tri-Star, the Boeing ٧٠٧, and the

Boeing ٧٣٧. The auto-booking system has started in Jeddah.

In ١٩٨١, King Abdulaziz International Airport was opened in Jeddah. This

airport is regarded as one of the largest and most modern airports in the

world. In ١٩٨٣, new King Khalid International Airport in Riyadh started to

receive flights.

With the fast economic development in the Kingdom, the number of late

model aircraft has been increased. Many modern airports have been built

throughout the Kingdom, the most important of these are Riyadh airport,

Jeddah airport, Dahrân airport, Madina airport, Qasîm airport, Tâ’if airport,

and many others. Work is still going on in the first stage of the new King

Fahad airport in the Eastern region and some basic installations have been

completed. It is expected that all the remaining work will be completed

during the sixth development plan.

Saudia held the responsibly of preparing, rehabilitating, and training the

people of the country to create the national cadres required for the field of

air transportation. So the Aviation Academy was established in ١٩٨٥, to

train pilots and their assistants together with aviation engineers. The

academy has graduated ٢٣l, including eighty-six pilots, eighty-two aviation

specialists and sixty-three aviation engineers. Saudia has been made the

head of many committees of Arab and International Unions. In ١٩٩٣,

Saudia was chosen from among the best thirty international airlines

according to the formal reports of the International Union of Transportation.

Saudia was chosen by the International Union of Airline Travel as the safest

and the most secure international airline.



٢٩٣

Saudia was also chosen to preside over the safety committee in the

International Civil Aviation Organization. It is the first time that such a

committee is headed by an Arab airline.

Saudi Arabian Airlines is making a series of developments nowadays to

improve its services and respond to the demands of its customers. In this

framework a new emblem has been designed for Saudia. Changes in the

interior and exterior decoration of the airplanes and offices of the Saudi

airline throughout the world, as well as changes in the employees’ uniforms

have been made.

Saudia has signed a contract to purchase a new fleet of sixty-one airplanes

to help the airline to carry out its responsibilities. Statistics show that the

number of passengers of Saudia has risen from ٣٫٢ million in ١٩٨٩/ ١٩٨٨

to ٢٥٫١ million passengers in ١٩٩٣ / ١٩٩٢ with an increase reaching up to

about ٢٤٪. There are twenty-five airports in the Kingdom, including three

international airports, seven regional and fifteen local. Goods exported from

the Kingdom’s airports on all airlines have increased at an average annual

rate of ١٧٪, from ٥٫٦ thousand tons in ١٩٧٠ to about ١٥٦ thousand tons in

١٩٩٤. The statistics also show the number of passengers has gone up to

١٢٫٥ million in ١٩٩٤ with the annual rate of ١٣%. The kilometric revenue

of Saudia airlines has risen from ١٧ million kilometers in ١٩٧٠ to ١٢٩

million kilometers in ١٩٩٤. Also the number of working hours of the

airplanes has risen from ٤٥٫٤ thousand hours in ١٩٧٠ to ٢١٠٫١ thousand

hours in ١٩٩٤. Again, the number of available seats from ١٩٧٠ to ١٩٩٤ had

an annual increase rate of ١٤٫٦ going up from ١٫٣ billion to about ٣٢٫٥

billion kilometric seats. The number of occupied seats on Saudia has gone

up with an annual rate of ١٥٫٥٪ to ١٩٫٣ billion kilometric seat revenue

during the same period. Kilometric tons available to Saudia went up from

١٦٠ million tons in ١٩٧٠ to ٥٫٥ billion tons in ١٩٩٤ with an annual

developing rate of ١٥٫٧٪ and the kilometric tone revenue increased from ٦٥

million tons in ١٩٧٠ to ٢٫٦ billion tons in ١٩٩٤ with an annual growth rate



٢٩٤

of ٦٫٤٪. Expense operation rate has increased to ٩٤٪ in ١٩٩٣-١٩٩٢ out of

the airline total revenues during the fifth development plan. During the

same period there was a parallel in the unit cost of operation between

Saudia and any other international airline. The productivity of manpower

went up from ١٨٦٫٢ thousand metric tons available to every employee in

١٩٩٠-١٩٨٩ to ٢١٩ thousand kilometric tons in ١٩٩٣-١٩٩٢. These numbers

reflect the extent of development which the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has

made in the field of air transportation since the Saudi government acquired

the first civil aircraft presented by the American President Franklin

Roosevelt to King Abdulaziz ibn Abdurrahman al-Saud in April ١٩٤٥.

AIR TRANSPORT

Due to the long distances that separate the main cities of the Kingdom, air

transportation seemed the most comfortable. Saudi Arabian Airlines

(Saudia) provides a domestic transport network that covers all part of the

Kingdom through twenty-four well-equipped and well-maintained domestic

airports. Saudia is also equipped with modern planes and organizes tours

anywhere in the desert. The three international airports of the Kingdom are

King Abdulaziz International Airport in Jeddah, King Khalid International

Airport in Riyadh and King Fahad International Airport in the Eastern

Region. Other international Airlines Company are operating in major

airports to provide another international travel network. In all airports of the

Kingdom, city and domestic transportation services such as car rentals,

comfortable buses provided by Saptco (Saudi Arabian Public Transport

Company), taxis, hotel limousines and trains between Riyadh and Dammâm

are available.

During the last few years, domestic tourism has provided a substantial

contribution to the national income. Investments in current services for

domestic tourism have been estimated to reach ٤٫٥ billion Riyals. This

figure confirms the trend for more domestic tourism by the people of the



٢٩٥

Kingdom. The potential is evident when looking at the total Saudi

expenditure on international tourism during ١٩٩٤ at ١٦٫٨ billion Riyals and

during ١٩٩٥ at ٢٥ billions. The numbers indicate the economic importance

of tourism and the justification for further investment in the domestic

tourism industry.



٢٩٦

THE SAUDI TELECOMMUNICATIONS

Communications and postal services have contributed to the economic and

social development in the Kingdom through services such as telephones,

mobile telephones and communication systems, the leased circuits and

electronic messages and other means of communication. These services

provide foundations, production and financial sectors with the basic means

of communication at a national or an international level. This helped these

institutions to get the information needed to promote their functions.

The history of communications in the Kingdom started in ١٩٢٦, when the

communication network was established in the main cities of the Kingdom,

namely Makkah, Riyadh, and Jeddah, to provide facilities for pilgrims.

Then this sector started receiving constant care and attention.

In ١٩٧٢, the manual telex network was replaced with an automatic network.

In ١،٩٧٤ telex lines covered the world. The Latin alphabet was the only one

used in telex. The Kingdom adopted a telex with a two-fold language

system. The authorities in the Kingdom ordered a telex system of two

languages, Arabic in addition to Latin letters. The Kingdom was the first in

the Arab world to adopt the telex of two language systems.

The telegram is still one of the most important communication services in

world, because it is fast, and cheap if compared with other means of

communication, especially in the populous areas. It is also still a necessary

service for communication between countries that could not achieve an

advanced communication system. So for this reason the authorities

provided offices for telegraph and other communications in all places for

pilgrims and ‘umra performers. The majority of those people come from

countries that have not yet acquired modern means of communications.

Regarding the importance of postal communication services, a ministry of

telegraph, postal and telephone communications was established in ١٩٧٥,



٢٩٧

making many achievements in the world of mail. Now more than four

thousand cities or villages are provided with post offices. On July ١٩٨٤ ,٤,

the excellent postal system was introduced as an advanced service with the

automatic post system, a system distinguished by the high speed of letter

distribution. This service is covers now more than forty-five foreign and

Arab countries, and more than thirty cities inside the Kingdom.

THE MICROWAVE AND SATELLITE SYSTEMS

In ١٩٧٦, the underground microwave communication network system was

set up over an area of more than ten thousand kilometers in the Kingdom.

About fifty main lines containing more than ٣٠٠ microwave stations have

been established, with a capacity of forty telephone channels, to create more

than ١٢٥ microwave subsidiaries, four thousand kilometers long. The

Kingdom has been connected with the neighboring countries by

microwaves. ٢،٠٠٦ circuits of the Arabsat have been used by the Arab

counties, and the Kingdom uses ٣٩٥ of them. The Kingdom was the first to

use the Arab satellite since its launch and has established a mobile land

station in Riyadh. Since ١٩٨٣, forty-eight channels have been in service.

King Fahad City for Space Communication in Jeddah contains four land

stations. Two of them work with Intelesat satellite, one with the Anmarsat

and the other with Arabsat. Both stations, Jeddah ٤ and Jeddah ٥ of the

Intelesat have been in service since ١٩٨٧. Jeddah ٥ deals with the satellite

over the Indian Ocean to enable the Kingdom to communicate with

Australia, Hong Kong, Japan, Pakistan, Holland, and Iran. ١٤٦ circuits have

been used with these countries. Jeddah ٤ through Intelesat over the Atlantic

Ocean secures communications with Britain, America, and Spain. ٢٤٥

circuits have been used. Arabsat’s main station in King Fahad City for

Space Communications, Jeddah ٨, entered service in ١٩٨٦, with eight

circuits using the F.D.M. system, and eighty-one circuits using the S.C.B.C.

system, in addition to two TV channels for television transmission and



٢٩٨

receiving units. Thus all regional communications with the Arab and

Islamic countries have been secured. Land stations for sea communication

have been set up to secure communication with ships. Other stations

connected with Anmarsat provide communication services for airplanes.

TELEPHONE (TELECOMMUNICATIONS)

١،٨٩٨،٥٨٨ telephone lines are in service, with ٥١٠،٤٦٤ lines in Riyadh,

٥٧٤،٥٨٦ in Makkah, and ١٣٦،٣٤٨ in Madina. ١٠٤،٧٥ cabins, ١٤٩،٦٤ lines

for each cabin, and ٣٨٦ telephone exchange stations were established in

٦-١٩٩٥. Five of these were international, twenty-two transit and ٢٧٧ local.

Fifty-seven are developed exchange stations, and fourteen independent.

Mobile telephones number ١٦،٠٠٨, telexes ٦،٨١٢, and public telephones

١٥٥،٥٦.

THE INTERNATIONAL AND LONG-RANGE COMMUNICATIONS

In ٦-١٩٩٥, the number of satellite land stations was fifteen, and the number

of axial cable positions ninety-four, stations of optical fibers thirty-seven,

the microwave stations ٨٩٠, and the coastal stations eighteen.

The Kingdom can communicate with ٢٠٢ countries, with an annual rate of

١٩٧ million calls, with ٥٥٤ thousand international calls each day and an

average of ٥٣٧ million minutes a year (٢٫٧٢ minutes for a single call). The

national calls in a year were ٨٣٨ million (٢٫٤ million calls a day). The total

revenue of coin telephones during ١٩٩٥-١٩٩٤ was ٥٣٤٫٤ million Riyals

from ٥،٢٣٢ coin telephones, including ١،٦٤٨ million Riyals from ١٢٨،٤

coin telephones in Riyadh alone.



Documents

SAUDI ARABIA