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Acta Astronautica Vol. 17, No. 7, pp. 675-690, 1988 0094-5765/88 $3.00 + 0.00 Printed in Great Britain Pergamon Press plc SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS AT A LUNAR BASE Michael B. Duke and Wendell W. Mendell National Aeronautics and Space Administration Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center Houston, Texas, U.S.A. Abstract Scientific investigations to be carried out at a lunar base can have significant impact on the location, extent, and complexity of lunar surface facilities. Among the potential research activities to be carried out are: (1) Lunar Science: Studies of the origin and history of the Moon and early solar system, based on lunar field investigations, operation of networks of seismic and other instruments, and collection and analysis of materials; (2) Space Plasma Physics: Studies of the time variation of the charged particles of the solar wind, solar flares and cosmic rays that impact the Moon as it moves in and out of the magnetotail of the Earth; (3) Astronomy: Utilizing the lunar environment and stability of the surface to emplace arrays of astronomical instruments across the electromagnetic spectrum to improve spectral and spatial resolution by several orders of magnitude beyond the Hubble Space Telescope and other space observatories; (4) Fundamental physics and chemistry: Research that takes advantage of the lunar environment, such as high vacuum, low magnetic field, and thermal properties to carry out new investigations in chemistry and physics. This includes material sciences and applications; (5) Life Sciences: Experiments, such as those that require extreme isolation, highly sterile conditions, or very low natural background of organic materials may be possible; and (6) Lunar environmental science: Because many of the experiments proposed for the lunar surface depend on the special environment of the Moon, it will be necessary to understand the mechanisms that are active and which determine the major aspects of that environment, particu- lar3y the maintenance of high-vacuum conditions. From a large range of experiments, investigations and facilities that have been suggested, three specific classes of investigations are described in greater detail to show how site selection and base complexity may be affected: (1) Extended geological investigation of a complex region up to 250 kilometers from the base requires long range mobility, with trans- portable life support systems and laboratory facilities for the analysis of rocks and soil. Selection of an optimum base site would depend heavily on an evaluation of the degree to which science objectives could be met. These objectives could include lunar cratering, volcanism, resource surveys or other investigations; (2) An astronomical observatory initially in- strumented with a VLF radio telescope, but later expanding to include other instruments, requires site preparation capability, "line shack" life support systems, instrument maintenance and storage facilities, and sortie mode transportation. A site perpetually shielded from Earth is optimum for the advanced stages of a lunar observatory; (3) an experimental physics laboratory conducting studies requiring high vacuum facilities and heavily instrumented experiments, is not highly dependent on lunar location, but will require much more flexibility in experiment operation and EVA capa- bility, and more scphisticated instrument maintenance and fabrication facilities. I~A-86-509 presented at the 37th Congress of the International srPaper Astronautical Federation, Innsbruck, Austrla, 4-11 October 1986. *.A.n/7--C 675

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Page 1: Scientific investigations at a lunar base

Acta Astronautica Vol. 17, No. 7, pp. 675-690, 1988 0094-5765/88 $3.00 + 0.00 Printed in Great Britain Pergamon Press plc

SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS AT A LUNAR BASE

Michael B. Duke and Wendell W. Mendell

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center

Houston, Texas, U.S.A.

Abstract

Scientific investigations to be carried out at a lunar base can have significant impact on the location, extent, and complexity of lunar surface facilities. Among the potential research activities to be carried out are: (1) Lunar Science: Studies of the origin and history of the Moon and early solar system, based on lunar field investigations, operation of networks of seismic and other instruments, and collection and analysis of materials; (2) Space Plasma Physics: Studies of the time variation of the charged particles of the solar wind, solar flares and cosmic rays that impact the Moon as it moves in and out of the magnetotail of the Earth; (3) Astronomy: Utilizing the lunar environment and stability of the surface to emplace arrays of astronomical instruments across the electromagnetic spectrum to improve spectral and spatial resolution by several orders of magnitude beyond the Hubble Space Telescope and other space observatories; (4) Fundamental physics and chemistry: Research that takes advantage of the lunar environment, such as high vacuum, low magnetic field, and thermal properties to carry out new investigations in chemistry and physics. This includes material sciences and applications; (5) Life Sciences: Experiments, such as those that require extreme isolation, highly sterile conditions, or very low natural background of organic materials may be possible; and (6) Lunar environmental science: Because many of the experiments proposed for the lunar surface depend on the special environment of the Moon, it will be necessary to understand the mechanisms that are active and which determine the major aspects of that environment, particu- lar3y the maintenance of high-vacuum conditions.

From a large range of experiments, investigations and facilities that have been suggested, three specific classes of investigations are described in greater detail to show how site selection and base complexity may be affected: (1) Extended geological investigation of a complex region up to 250 kilometers from the base requires long range mobility, with trans- portable life support systems and laboratory facilities for the analysis of rocks and soil. Selection of an optimum base site would depend heavily on an evaluation of the degree to which science objectives could be met. These objectives could include lunar cratering, volcanism, resource surveys or other investigations; (2) An astronomical observatory initially in- strumented with a VLF radio telescope, but later expanding to include other instruments, requires site preparation capability, "line shack" life support systems, instrument maintenance and storage facilities, and sortie mode transportation. A site perpetually shielded from Earth is optimum for the advanced stages of a lunar observatory; (3) an experimental physics laboratory conducting studies requiring high vacuum facilities and heavily instrumented experiments, is not highly dependent on lunar location, but will require much more flexibility in experiment operation and EVA capa- bility, and more scphisticated instrument maintenance and fabrication facilities.

I ~ A - 8 6 - 5 0 9 p r e s e n t e d a t the 37 th Congress of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l srPaper A s t r o n a u t i c a l F e d e r a t i o n , I n n s b r u c k , A u s t r l a , 4 -11 October 1986.

*.A. n/7--C 675

Page 2: Scientific investigations at a lunar base

676 Michael B. Duke and Wendell W. Mendell

Introduction

During the past several years, a series of workshops and

symposia have been held which have begun to identify the rationale

for and characteristics of a permanent base on the Moon (Keaton

and Duke, 1984; Mendell, 1986; Burns, 1986; Keaton and Duke,

1986). In space exploration plans, new emphasis has been given

to the role of lunar bases (Duke et al, 1985; Koelle, 1986;

National Commission on Space, 1986). These reports have

generally described the uses of a base on the Moon in terms of

its usefulness for scientific research, resource (commercial)

development, and expansion of horizons for the human race. We

suspect that the initial impetus for establishment of a lunar

base will come from politically motivated decisions, either space

competition or space cooperation. An alternative scenario, in

which economic reasons related to the use of lunar resources for

major space projects is the driver, is also a possibility. In

either of these cases, significant scientific research could be

accomplished and science would probably form a part of the public

rationale for the undertaking. With this in mind, we have

considered the scientific research that might be undertaken

relatively early in a lunar base program, in an effort to initiate

discussion at a more detailed level than has previously been

explored and to begin to specify the manner in which science

facilities and requirements would affect decisions of architecture

or location of a lunar base.

Origin and History of the Moon

The Moon is a small planetary body, probably intimately

related to the Earth in its origin, and apparently relatively

simple in its evolutionary history. Although it has been studied

locally in more detail than any other planet except Earth, major

questions about its origin and history remain (LGO Science

Workshop, 1986). The most promising current hypothesis involves

the Moon's origin through collision of a Mars-sized planet with

the young Earth, following separation of the Earth's core

(Hartmann, 1986; Hartmann and Davis, 1975). If this explanation

Page 3: Scientific investigations at a lunar base

Scientific investigations at a lunar base 677

is correct, the origin of the Earth and Moon are intimately tied,

and the later history of the Earth can only be understood in the

light of this early, intense event. However, because the early

history of the Earth is no longer directly accessible through

rocks, which have been recycled by geological activity,

understanding the Moon offers the only possibility to test the

hypothesis.

The Moon itself is a somewhat evolved planet. During the

first 200-400 million years of its history, the outer regions

became largely molten and segregated into a less dense crust, rich

in feldspathic rocks and now represented by the lunar highlands.

Major impacts bombarded this crust, creating huge basins, up to

about 3900 million years ago. At this point, the large basins

began to be filled with dark volcanic basaltic rocks of the lunar

maria. This episode continued to perhaps 2000 million years ago,

after which the lunar surface has been struck occasionally by

large meteoroids, such as the ones that produced the rayed

craters Copernicus and Tycho, and by a myriad of smaller

meteoroids that have ground the surface layer to form the lunar

regolith. Current efforts are concentrating on understanding the

earliest history, through the study of rock fragments excavated by

the major basin impacts which have survived the later events.

These are typically small fragments in the lunar regolith "soil"

and in breccias, fragmental rocks created in impact events, which

are still large enough for modern techniques to determine

composition and age.

The Lunar Environment

Taylor (1986) has reviewed the beneficial and detrimental

attributes of the lunar environment as it applies to activities at

the lunar surface. The melting of the exterior regions of the

Moon apparently thoroughly outgassed the planet, and these gases

have been lost due to the Moon's 1/6 gravity. The results are

rocks that contain virtually no residual gases or combined

volatiles (water of crystallization) and virtually no atmosphere.

Page 4: Scientific investigations at a lunar base

678 Michael B. Duke and Wendell W. Mendell

The nighttime atmosphere is a collisionless gas with a density of

approximately 2x105 atoms per cubic centimeter, most of which

atoms are from solar wind gases weakly implanted in the lunar

soil. The surface diurnal temperature ranges from 100 - 385 K at

the lunar equator, but is constant at about 253 K below a few

centimeters depth. The slow rotation of the Moon yields days and

nights that are 14 Earth days long at the lunar equator, but some

points near the lunar poles may be in permanent light (hot) or

shadow (cold) as the rotational axis is nearly perpendicular to

the plane of the ecliptic. The lunar magnetic field is 10 -2 to

10 -4 smaller than that of the Earth at its equator, and the

release of seismic energy is 109 smaller than that of Earth; the

maximum moonquake magnitude would be in the background noise on

Earth. External fluxes of micrometeoroids and charged particle

radiation are inevitably present.

Lunar Science

Many questions remain about the origin and history of the

Moon. These have been summarized in the LGO Science Workshop

Report (1986), which has documented the contributions expected

from a satellite in polar orbit around the Moon (Lunar Geoscience

Observer). They include: (i) What is the origin of the Moon?;

(2) How did the lunar crust and mantle evolve?; (3) What is the

magmatic history of the Moon?; (4) What is the history and nature

of impact processes on the Moon?; (5) Is there an iron-rich

core?; (6) What is the Moon's thermal history?; (7) What is the

origin of lunar paleomagnetism?; and (8) what is the nature of

the lunar regolith? Most of these questions can be finally

resolved only with intensive study of the Moon at several sites

and by the probing of its interior utilizing geophysical

techniques operated over long periods of time. The first lunar

base, if properly sited, can make contributions to all of the

questions.

Cintala, et al (1986) have described the geological

investigation possible with a lunar surface traverse of some 4000

km and 29 sites across Mare Imbrium. We describe here a more

constrained set of observations, consistent with a lunar base

Page 5: Scientific investigations at a lunar base

Scientific investigations at a lunar base 679

which serves as a base camp for extended surface explorations, but

requiring less intensive long-range traverse capability. The base

site chosen is the Apollo 15 landing site; however, many excellent

alternatives could be illustrated, with somewhat different science

emphases. The advantage of choosing one of the Apollo sites for

an initial base is that the general geological aspects of the

landing site are known from the Apollo samples and previous

studies (Spudis and Ryder, 1985).

Examples of investigations to be undertaken from this base

include: (i) Studies of a major basin-forming event (e.g., the

Imbrium event); (2) Characterization of the latest (youngest)

lunar volcanic activity; and (3) Deciphering the history of

cometary and asteroidal impact on the Moon's surface.

i. Detailed Exploration of the Imbrium Basin

The Imbrium Basin was a major impact event that occurred

about 4000 million years ago, excavating a crater 700 km in

diameter and perhaps 20 km deep. Subsequently, the floor probably

rebounded and then later was filled with basaltic lavas. Within a

distance of 250 km of the Apollo 15 site it will be possible to

investigate a sequence of basin ejecta deposits that were

excavated from the lunar mantle and crust by the Imbrium event.

It may be possible to derive information on the vertical structure

of the pre-mare crust as the farther from the original crater rim,

the deeper the excavation depth of samples. Melt sheets and pools

resulting from the impact can be reached from which accurate ages

for the impact event can be determined and mechanisms of melt

formation to be studied. Topographic and structural features

resulting from the impact can be sampled and studied using

geophysical techniques. Using deep drilling techniques, the rocks

underlying the later mare volcanic fill can be sampled. Possibly

pre-mare volcanic rocks, exposed in the Apennine Bench, can be

investigated. These rocks are believed to be rich in elements

potassium, rare-earth elements and phosphorous (KREEP) and may

contain interesting mineral deposits.

Page 6: Scientific investigations at a lunar base

680 Michael B. Duke and Wendell W. Mendell

The base elements required to support detailed investigation

are shown in Table i. It is anticipated that studies will proceed

from reconnaissance, in which instruments are emplaced and samples

collected at various locations, then more detailed study, as

Tab. ICharacteristics for Lunar Base 'to Support Geological

Investigations

Base Camp (includes habitats, life support, etc.)

Laboratory Facilities

Sample preparation (thin section)

Sample analysis (scanning electron microscope,

microscope, x-ray fluorescence)

Sample storage (soils, rocks, cores)

Sample documentation/data facility

Map preparation facility (computer system)

Geophysical Instrumentation

Main station

Seismic station

Neutral ion mass spectrometer

Remote station / Traverse vehicle

Seismic stations (remote emplacement)

Traverse gravimeter

Active seismic

Magnetometer

Traverse Vehicle

250 km range

Capability to carry drop tanks to remote sites

I0 kw power

Remote Shelters

Unpressurized solar flare "huts"

Page 7: Scientific investigations at a lunar base

Scientific investigations at a lunar base 681

samples are analyzed and questions refined. This will require

that remote stations be reoccupied from time to time. Also,

shelters are required for quick occupancy in the event of solar

flares.

2. Volcanic History

Three distinctive epochs of volcanism can be studied at the

Hadley Base Site. These include pre-mare volcanism, the

mare-filling volcanics and late-mare or post-mare volcanism. The

mare-filling period produced the feature known as Hadley Rille,

apparently a collapsed lava tube which could have base development

implications if open sections remain. The Apollo 15 samples

included evidence of volcanic fire fountains that produced

deposits of volcanic glass in the form of tiny spheres, which

commonly contain thin volatile-rich surface coatings. Location of

the source of these glasses is of considerable interest for

volcanic mechanism and resource-related studies. The later

volcanism is of interest because it can yield information of the

thermal history of the Moon, and may contain fragments of crustal

materials as inclusions, from which information on the underlying

mantle can be gained. Dark deposits which may mark volcanic

vents, and features which may represent volcanic cones are present

in the vicinity of Hadley Base. Field locations to study each of

these features can be reached with modest surface traverse

capability. Here also, it will be desirable to set up

local shelters for field crews, for protection from solar flares,

to provide support while detailed local investigation is underway.

3. Impact History

A unique record which possibly can only be read on the Moon

is the historical abundance of comets and Earth-crossing

asteroids, which can be sampled through the intensive study of

impact craters. The experiment would involve sampling all impact

craters in a given area (say 20 km square). By studying the

features of the craters, the compositional glass formed by the

impact, and the distribution of fragments of the impacting object,

it should be possible to distinguish primary from secondary

Page 8: Scientific investigations at a lunar base

682 Michael B. Duke and Wendell W. Mendell

craters, the compositional characteristics of the impacting

object, and the age of each crater. The capability of trenching

the regolith to up to 10 meters depth would allow older craters to

studied in a similar manner, allowing the impactor flux to be

documented as a function of time.

Lunar Astronomical Observatories

Several unique aspects of the lunar environment characterize it

and distinguish it from other locations on Earth or in

space(Smith, 1986). The high vacuum of the lunar surface offers

diffraction-limited imagery utilizing sensors and arrays that are

particularly sensitive and will not suffer from significant decay

due to molecular contamination. The vacuum, absence of magnetic

field and low ion density in the lunar ionosphere should lead to a

lunar sky that is even darker than that seen from Earth orbit, due

to the very high terrestrial airglow. The Moon's stability as a

base for instruments, including an absence of seismic noise, will

allow instruments to remain in fixed position and orientation for

extended periods of time, and the slow rotational rate of the Moon

will allow long exposures for very faint sources or variable

objects. The lower gravity and lack of winds will eventually allow

the construction of very large instruments with very precise

positions. Some of these instruments may be adapted to natural

lunar landforms, such as craters, which may allow Arecibo-like

antennas to be utilized. If ways are found to utilize lunar

materials in construction, many of the transportation costs for

such large antennas may be offset by using local materials.

Finally, the far side of the Moon is permanently shielded from the

natural and artificial noise of the Earth.

The advantages of the Moon as an observatory site must be compared

to that of other potential sites for space observatories. For

UV-optical observatories, Stockman(1986) has made the comparison

shown in Table i.

The types of astronomical facilities that have been proposed and

their characteristics are presented in Table 2.

Page 9: Scientific investigations at a lunar base

Scientific investigations at a lunar base 683

The requirements for a lunar astronomical observatory are varied,

depending on the instruments to be established. One important

characteristic of modern astronomy is the strategy of constructing

telescopes which provide the signal-gathering capability, but

changing out the detectors/instruments at the focus to introduce

new analytical capability as technology advances. This is expected

to be the case for lunar telescopes as well, making an

observatory's association with a manned base a valuable asset. By

locating the observatory within easy transportation distance from

a base (5-50km), servicing and instrument replacement capability,

supported by shops and laboratories at the base, can provide

considerable flexibility to observatory operations. Instruments

not currently in use can be stored in a controlled high vacuum

environment at the main base.

Isolation of sensor systems from the inhabited base also must be

considered. Potential sources of contamination include volatiles

outgassed from habitats and suited astronauts; dust raised by

surface activities, traveling along ballistic trajectories;

vibrations and displacements related to movement of people and

equipment at the base. Location of communications antennas on the

surface or in space may interfere with some sensors. In general,

it appears that separation of the observatory from the base

activity by distance of a few kilometers should be satisfactory.

Placing the observatories at higher elevation than the base

facility should be effective, as could siting the instruments

behind ridges or mountains from the base. Attention should be paid

to preparation of the observatory site to minimize contamination

problems that might arise during observatory servicing.

Instrumentation for astronomical observatories will be fabricated

on Earth and transported to the Moon in the early stages of a

lunar base. Preparation of the site will be an important step in

observatory emplacement, depending on the type of installation.

Transportation routes from the base to the observatory site must

be established and stabilized, in order to support routine visits

by vehicles carrying people and replacement instruments. It will

probably be desirable to establish "lineshack" shelter capability

Page 10: Scientific investigations at a lunar base

684 MichaelB. Dukeand Wendell W. Mendell

Tab ,2 : ADVANTAGES FOR ASTRONOMICAL FACILITIES IN VARIOUS ORBITS

LEO GEO MOON

LAUNCH COSTS LOW HIGH HIGH

MAINTENANCE PLATFORM STS/SS* SS/LB LB

MAINTAINABILITY VERY GOOD POOR VERY GOOD

SCIENCE OPS. COMPLEX SIMPLE SIMPLE

SCIENCE EFF. 35% 90% 45%

OPTICAL BACKGROUND EARTH/ZODIACAL ZODIACAL ZODIACAL

THERM. STAB. POOR VERY GOOD VERY GOOD

MAX. EXP. 45 MIN 17 H 14 DAYS

LARGE APERTURES LIMITED LIMITED GOOD

POTENTIAL

UPGRADING GOOD POOR EXCELLENT

CONFIGURATION RIGID RIGID FLEXIBLE

*STS = SPACE SHUTTLE; SS = SPACE STATION; LB = LUNAR BASE

at the observatory site, in order to provide protection from solar

flares. As the capability of a lunar establishment increases, it

may be possible to manufacture more and more of the components,

particularly structural components (supports, insulation, light

shields, etc.) from lunar materials, thereby decreasing the

transportation costs associated with expansion of lunar astronomy.

Page 11: Scientific investigations at a lunar base

Scientificinvestigationsatalunarba~

TYPICAL LUNAR ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORY INSTRUMENTS

685

INSTRUMENT CHARACTERISTIC REFERENCE

OPTICAL INTERFEROMETER MICROARCSECOND RESO-

LUTION AT OPTICAL

WAVELENGTHS

BURKE(1985)

MOON-EARTH RADIO

INTERFEROMETER

<30 MICROARCSECOND

RESOLUTION AT <6CM

WAVELENGTH

BURNS(1985)

VERY LOW FREQUENCY

RADIOASTRONOMY

OPENS 10-100M WAVE-

LENGTH REGION TO STUDY

DOUGLAS &

SMITH(1985)

LARGE RADIOTELESCOPE

(SETI)

FAR-SIDE EMPLACEMENT OLIVER(1985)

Some instruments may benefit from emplacement out of line of sight

from Earth. At an early stage in lunar development, however, much

can be done within a few tens of kilometers of any base site

chosen. Selection of a lunar base site near the lunar limb may

provide an optimum way to provide an initial frontside facility

with ready access to a more extensive future far-side observatory,

perhaps a few hundred kilometers distant.

Physics / Chemistry Laboratory

The lunar environment is characterized by high vacuum with

arbitrarily high pumping capacity, excellent access to insolation,

and the virtual absence of an internal magnetic field. At the

lunar surface there is a constant flux of energetic radiation, but

a few meters below the surface, all radiation is absent except for

neutrinos and radioactive decay products from naturally occurring

potassium, uranium, and thorium. The latter could, in principle,

be made arbitrarily low by selecting natural lunar materials that

are depleted in radioactive species. By suitable thermal

Page 12: Scientific investigations at a lunar base

686 Michael B. Duke and Wendell W. Mendell

management, it should be possible to develop sustained very high

(several thousand degrees Centigrade) or very low (<5 K)

temperatures.

Fundamental physics investigations could be undertaken when

very low radiation backgrounds are necessary, e.g., for detecting

neutrinos (Shapiro, 1985; Petschek, 1985; Cherry and Lande, 1985)

or studying the electric dipole moment of the neutron (Keaton and

Duke, 1986). The stability of the lunar surface may make possible

the detection of gravity waves predicted by the theory of

relativity. Experiments at low temperatures might include

research on properties of matter near absolute zero. Techniques

for the isotopic separation of 3He from 4He or hydrogen from

deuterium might be developed. Hypervelocity electromagnetic mass

accelerators could be used to investigate impact phenomena and

material properties under very high shock pressures.

The nature of the facilities required for a fundamental

physics facility are are not now known in specific detail.

However, based on the speculation above, such a facility would

seem to be characterized by the following attributes:

i. Large volumes which are maintained at high vacuum should

be provided with structures to allow for experiment emplacement,

sensor positioning and remote observation, these may be shielded

or unshielded, depending on requirements for radiation and

temperature control. Access to the facility would be through

telerobotics or space-suited technicians.

2. Adequate power (tens of kilowatts) are necessary in order

to provide thermal control and stable high voltage power supplies

for experiments.

3. Underground, heavily radiation-shielded tunnels may be

required.

4. Provision must be made for adequate support of

experimentation. This includes data processing as well as shops

for fabrication of experiment and equipment maintenance.

The location of these facilities is probably not dependent on

intrinsic properties of the Moon and can be established at any

Page 13: Scientific investigations at a lunar base

Scientific investigations at a lunar base 687

base site. There will be a need to isolate the facilities from

certain types of interaction with other activities, particularly

those which would affect the high vacuum conditions. The physics

facility will also be distinguished from other facilities by a

relatively large staff of scientists, technicians, and supporting

crew, in order to maintain a suitable pace of experimentation.

Conclusion

Scientific uses of the Moon will require three distinct

classes of support capability. Geological exploration will

require emphasis on long range mobility, emplaced instruments,

coring and trenching apparatus, and analytical apparatus in order

to provide for rapid progress in field geological characterization

and selection of samples to return to Earth for detailed

investigation. Field crews will have to supported for extended

stays away from the base camp in order to take advantage of

mobility.

Astronomical facilities will generally require significant

emplacement of facilities, probably by human crews, but may not

require permanent crews on-site. Maintenance can be provided by

crews form the base, which will probably be separated from the

observatory 25 - 500 km. Rapid, reliable long-range

transportation will be required. The base camp will require

maintenance facilities and will provide a data processing

facility. However, much analysis may still be accomplished by

astronomers on Earth.

A physics laboratory will be characterized by extensive

surface and subsurface structures, complex sensor/data systems

requirements, and real time operations by scientists and

technicians. Shop facilities for experiment modification and

fabrication will be desirable and provision made for substantial

on-site staff (20 persons).

Page 14: Scientific investigations at a lunar base

688 Michael B. Duke and Wendell W. Mendell

Site selection for a base that will support geological

exploration will be determined primarily by the science

requirements. Capabilities for extended exploration may be

developed either by emplacing additional bases or expanding

traverse capability. Site selection for astronomical

observatories may be dominated by ability to access the lunar

farside and by the local characteristics of the site (engineering

considerations). Site selection is probably not a major

consideration for a lunar physics facility, although special

characteristics of the site (engineering properties, access to

craters) may be important.

The establishment of lunar base characteristics and optimal

sites should be investigated further, as requirements are

developed more completely.

REFERENCES

Burke, B. F. (1985), Astronomical Interferometry on the Moon, in

Mendell, W. W., Editor, Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the

21st Century, Lunar and Planetary Institute, Houston, Texas, pp.

281-292.

Burns, J. O. (1985), A Moon-Earth Radio Interferometer, in

Mendell, W. W., Editor, Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the

21st Century, Lunar and Planetary Institute, Houston, Texas, pp.

293-300.

Burns, J. O. (1986), ed. Proceedings of the Workshop on

Astronomical Observations from a Lunar Base, Houston, Texas,

January 9, 1986.

Cintala, M. J., Spudis, P. D., and Hawke, B. R. (1985), Advanced

Geologic Exploration Supported by a Lunar Base: A Traverse Across

the Imbrium-Procellarum Region of the Moon, in Mendell, W. W.,

Editor, Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the 21st Century,

Lunar and Planetary Institute, Houston, Texas, pp 223-228.

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Douglas, J. N. and Smith, H. J.(1985), A Very Low Frequency Radio

Astronomy Observatory on the Moon, in Mendell, W. W., Editor,

Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the 21st Century, Lunar and

Planetary Institute, Houston, Texas, pp 301-306.

Duke, M. B., Mendell, W. W., and Keaton, P. W., Compilers (1984

Report of the Lunar Base Working Group, LALP-84-43, Los Alamos

National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico.

Duke, M. B., Mendell, W. W., and Roberts, B. B. (1984), Toward a

Lunar Base Programme, Space Policy, vol. i, No. i, pp. 49-61.

Hartmann, W. K. (1986) Moon Origin: The Impact-Trigger Hypothesis,

in Hartmann, W. K., Phillips, R. J., and Taylor, G. J., eds.,

Origin of The Moon, pp. 579-608, Lunar and Planetary Institute,

Houston.

Hartmann, W. K. and Davis, D. R. (1975) Satellite-sized

planetesimals and lunar origin. Icarus 7, pp. 257-260.

Keaton, P. W. and Duke, M. B. (1986), A Lunar Laboratory, COSPAR

XXVI, Paper XXVI, July, 1986, LA-UR_86-2213, Los Alamos National

Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico.

%

Koelle, H. H. (1986), A Permanent Lunar Base, Space Policy, Vol.

2, No. i, pp. 52-59.

LGO Science Workshop (1986), Contributions of a Lunar Geoscience

Observer (LGO) Mission to Fundamental Questions in Lunar Science,

Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Texas.

Mendell, W. w., Editor (1985), Lunar Bases and Space Activities of

the 21st Century, Lunar and Planetary Institute, Houston, Texas.

National Commission on Space (1986), Pioneerin 9 the Spac e

Frontier, Bantam Books, New York.

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690 Michael B. Duke and Wendell W. Mendell

Oliver, B. M. (1985), A Lunar Base for SETI?, in Burns, J. O., ed

Proceedings of the Workshop on Astronomical Observations from a

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