Scientific Literacy and the H. S. Curriculum

Scientific Literacy and the H. S. Curriculum*

Milton 0. PellaUniversity of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706

Prior to considering the problem of scientific literacy and the highschool curriculum it is essential that a few observables be pointed out.The first important observable is the population and what happens toit.

"Of the children born in 1944, 74 per cent made it to the sixthgrade, 53 per cent lasted to the eleventh grade, 47 per cent graduatedfrom high school, 24 per cent entered college, 14 per cent will receivetheir bachelors degree, and about 3 per cent will earn the doctor-ate.^1]Depending upon the geographic area under consideration from 0

to 75 per cent of the high school graduates will attend college or someother educational institution beyond high school. If they attend acollege or university they will most probably enroll in at least onescience course. If they attend business colleges or vocational schoolsthey are likely to be exposed to one or more science courses.The graduates from high school will have a variety of backgrounds.

About 90 per cent will have had a year of biology. About 35 per centwill have had a year of chemistry. About 18 per cent will have had ayear of physics. Some small portion will have had a course in physi-cal science or earth science. The students who go to college are mostlikely those who have taken chemistry or physics and those highschools in which the highest proportion of the pupils are collegebound have the highest proportions of students in physics and chem-istry. Until a few years ago it was also the student who took physicsand chemistry who also went to college where he took more physics,chemistry and biology. The young men or women who do not takephysics and/or chemistry in high school and who do not go to collegeor other institutions therefore do not get experience with these areasat any time in their lives.When asked why even so few of the college bound children took

physics they reported that the course was a threat to their grade pointaverage and hence a threat to their college admission.

It may be confidently stated that more than 90 per cent of thechildren who terminate their formal education with high school havenever had a course in physics and more than 80 per cent have neverhad a course in chemistry; most have had general science and biology.

Before attempting to attack the real core of the issue a brief ex-amination of the importance of science to all people may be in order.Why is education in science and technology important? One reason

* Paper presented at the Annual CASMT Convention, French Lick, Indiana, November 24-26, 1967.

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Scientific Literacy 347

is that our present society has its foundations on science and tech-nology and it must continue to support the source of its base. With-out public understanding of the nature and implications of scientificand technological developments to society, our democratic process isendangered. Concern for the inclusion of science in the education ofyouth has been recognizable to many people for many years. In con-sidering these concerns for science teaching, bear in mind that thenature of science has also changed over time. In 1750 it was knownof as natural history and natural philosophy. The purpose for includ-ing science in the education of children and youth was once "to betterunderstand God’7 or stated another way "An important means ofelevating the moral horizons and elevating the moral feeling.n

It was about 1850 when religion and science tried to explain "Godby science and science by God" that science and religion almostparted ways. During later stages the study of science was a means oftraining the mind, later to develop an understanding of technologyand still later to understand the nature of science. Today manypeople believe that the study of science is important because all peopleshould be scientifically literate.Although science teaching has occupied a critical position in the

curriculum for many years, most will admit that its position is nowmore critical than ever in the past and it will be even more critical inthe future. In our society it is the products of science that will con-tinue to elevate the prosperity and reduce the misery of man, it willdetermine the strength of nations, and whether or not there is to befreedom of thought and action. It will be a factor in determiningwhether large portions of a population will be free or slave.

Bertrand De Jouvenel believes that "Scientists have become thedominant intellectuals; they have superseded the jurists who held thedominant position from the middle ages until the 20th century. . . .

No status is higher in our present society than that of scientists; andjustifiably so since he is the artisan of all change." [2]

In response to the problems consequent to this age of the scientist,a new group of scholars is now emerging called the sociologists of sci-ence. One of their number, Bernard Barber has pointed out that asociety without science soon becomes stagnant [3].

Necessary for the continuation of science in any culture is thetransmission of the accumulated knowledge and strategies from onegeneration to another. Also necessary for the continuation of scienceis financial support which in a democracy is determined by the willof the people. Wise choices and wise thoughts depend upon knowl-edge. In his decisions, man must come to include the present andfuture human values and power that have come through science andto science.

348 School Science and Mathematics

It is obvious that a society that has evolved to its present level dueto science and that will continue to develop only with more science,must be literate in science. This opinion has been expressed by manyscientists, philosophers, historians, sociologists and educators.The next step is to try to give some meaning to scientific literacy.

What are its parts? The term literacy is common to most ^That is itrefers to the ability to read and indicate understanding at aboutGrade 4 level." .A recent research project completed at the University of Wisconsin

[4] is the source of some help but not very much. The ^not verymuch^ comment is a consequence of the fact that the data were theopinions of those who talk about scientific literacy. It is also possiblethat what they talk about may not be researchable. An examinationof the referents will clarify the problems.The referents that appeared in the 100 articles in the order of fre-

quency of appearance are:

1. Interrelations between Science and Society 672. Ethics of Science 583. Nature of Science 514. Conceptual knowledge 265. Science and Technology 216. Science in the humanities 21

1. The scientifically literate person understands the interrelation-ships between science and society. Science is looked upon in manyways by society. It is (a) looked upon as the chief internal source ofsocial change, (b) looked upon as the most powerful means devisedby the mind of man for arriving at truth in respect to the world ofmatter, of energy and also the realm of mind and behavior, (c) sci-ence is the great force in human life making for change in ways ofliving, through increased power to alter and control the environment,(d) science is the greatest liberating, liberalizing force in humanthought, (e) science is the hope for solving all future problems, (f)science is a threat because technological changes lead to unemploy-ment, (g) to others science is some kind of magic.The scientifically literate person should come to see that the social

consequences of science come as a result of the interaction of scienceand society and not to one or the other alone. Knowledge revealed bypure science serves to free the mind of ignorance and thus removesthe shackles so firmly fastened by superstition. Man sees the applica-tion of rational thought to his universe.

Materials for human consumption that give him pleasure, removeman from the level of animal labor and increase his length of life comefrom applied science. As man receives benefits he wants more benefits,so there is more stimulation to develop and discover.


Unfortunately few of our citizenry recognize the contributions ofthe pure scientist. His wares are not so readily noticed. He producesconceptual schemes rather than color television or automatic trans-missions. It is the pure scientist who has difficulty securing supportfor his studies.

It would be careless to omit the science-politics interaction. Ascientifically literate person must recognize that some scientific (pureand applied) activities are politically inspired and yield political re-sults that could be achieved no other way. We may well look uponsome of this activity as a cold war of science and technology becausescientific and technological advances are now an indication of poweror supremacy.

2. The scientifically literate person should understand the methodsor processes of science. These terms are not easily nor clearly defined.Some authorities refer to a method and other to many methods. Ofone thing we may be reasonably sure, that is, that scientific investiga-tion is controlled by the ethics of the disciplines.On the basis of history in terms of definition and practice, there are

alternatives in developing a definition or description of science; sci-ence could be defined in terms of the kinds of data that fall within itspurview (what is studied), science could be defined in terms of theproducts developed (knowledge), science could be defined in terms ofits methods (the ways scientists work), or science could be defined interms of its motives or ethics. Any one of the developed definitionswould be inadequate, misleading or incorrect. An adequate descrip-tion or definition would more probably include all of these. A defini-tion is risked, here. Science is an enterprise participated in by humanbeings concerned with the study and parsimonious explanation of thematerials and forces of nature that employs a variety of techniquesknown and to be made known to us, is motivated by a desire to know,assumes an orderliness in nature, is governed by understandable andaccepted ethical principles, and terminates in credible conceptualconstructs in the form of classifications, correlations or theories.The activities of the scientist are based upon his acceptance of

certain assumptions at a given time. For example, he assumes thatspace, time and matter are real and have dimensions. The descrip-tions of space, time and matter depend upon the system of which theyare a part. In one system they may be considered absolute and inanother they are relative. The scientist assumes a consistency and auniformity in the operation of the universe, that is, nature is notcapricious. He assumes that all events have causes. He assumes thatman can understand the natural universe.These assumptions were arrived at by the scientific community as

a consequence of observing nature. Man is sensitive to space; con-


scious of time, sensitive to matter, has never witnessed an irregularityin nature, to date has found that effects have causes, and he has beenrelatively successful in understanding nature. It is, therefore, obviousthat assumptions in science have their basis in fact. The validity ofassumptions is judged by their consequences.The scientist makes observations in nature; these are the facts with

which he works. However, facts alone, no matter how extensive thelist, are not science. What is done with the facts makes a science. Thescientist maysearch for common elements so he can classify the facts.He may correlate facts in an attempt to ascertain probability of causeand effect. He may develop theories to explain effects.

Classification as an enterprise worthy of inclusion in science hasbeen and still is debated. To some classification is referred to as na-ture study and to others it is the first step in any study.Some scientists see the basic purpose of science as that of forming

theories which will explain the facts of the universe. Within the disci-plines known as science at any one time are blank intervals; void interms of facts. In forming theories the scientist attempts to amalga-mate the explored and unexplored. The theory proposed at any timeby a scientist is a statement of speculation and surmise about a broadrange of phenomena, some of which are actually obscure. It is an at-tempt to explain the unknown.The credibility of the systems of classification, cause and effect

relationship, or theoretical constructs, is tested by its consequences;is it functional in making predictions? This means that the test of asystem is in the facts that may be predicted through its use. Sciencebegins with facts and ends with facts, no matter what constructs arein between. Albert Einstein states, "Pure logical thinking cannotyield us any knowledge of the empirical world, all knowledge startswith experience and ends with it. Propositions arrived at by purelylogical means are completely empty as regards reality. Experience isthe alpha and the omega of all our knowledge of reality."[5]

This description is a calculated risk because at times the attemptat brevity results in confusion. This statement is by no means com-plete for we have omitted discussions of theoretical models, induction,deduction, experimentation, etc. It is given here merely to help pointout that a single scientific method is impossible and that the scientistgoes from observation to observation with many possible constructsin between.

3. The scientifically literate person should have knowledge offundamental science concepts or conceptual schemes. This means thatthe scientifically literate person should understand some of the pro-ducts of scientific investigation.

Unfortunately there is little agreement above the general level of


what is meant by a concept or what conceptual schemes one shouldunderstand.

Concepts may be defined as ideas, meanings, abstractions, etc. [6].Probably the oversimplified description to be given will prove re-pulsive to the educational psychologist; if so, my apologies. Let usbegin with facts�these are the events you witness with the sense;they are the observables in nature. If two or more observables (facts)are associated by the observer these lead to a concept. The concept isthe mental or verbal generalization that includes more than one fact.A conceptual scheme, however, consists of one idea that encompassesmore than one concept. A molecule may be considered a conceptualscheme since it includes other concepts as elements, compounds,electrons, nuclei, etc. The possessor of a concept or conceptual schemehas, therefore, at his disposal, more usable knowledge than he real-izes. A conceptual scheme is a general system of abstraction fromempirical data, which indicates the conditions under which empiricaldata are interrelated.

Concepts in science are important because of the rapid growth ofknowledge. Presently no one can be fully informed in a single dis-cipline in science. The one way known to provide the maximumcoverage of knowledge is that of developing a kind of classification orsummarizing system which results in the economizing or conservationof human intelligence. Concept formation results in the simplificationof past, present and future experiences because individual facts be-come parts of the ideas. Because of the comprehensive nature of con-cepts they enable the individual to have some grasp of a much largerfield of knowledge than he has personally experienced. He is able tointerpret the new and to assimilate the new into the old through themodification of the existing concepts.

According to Barber there are some general criteria for the selectionof concepts to be included in education in science. He states "Forreasons of adequacy, parsimony and elegance of thought the idealconceptual scheme at a given time is that which has the greatestgenerality, that is, the one in which the number of conceptual cate-gories or variables in terms of which abstract general propositions arestated is very small." [7]The National Science Teachers Association has been active in the

attempt to identify important conceptual schemes. In their publica-tion "Science into Action," the following are given: particle nature ofmatter, conservation of matter and energy, classification of matter,the behavior of matter may be described on a statistical basis, unitsof matter interact, equilibrium, the motion of particles is related toenergy, and matter and energy exist in time and space.

It seems that more definition must be given to the important con-


ceptual schemes prior to using these as organizational themes forscience programs. It is suggested that evolution and genetics shouldbe added to those previously noted. Further research in this areasurely will result in more refined definitions of important concepts orconceptual schemes.

4. The scientifically literate person should understand the differ-ence between science and technology. Considerable concern is indi-cated by scientists to the effect that technology or applied science isdependent upon pure science for its existence. Equally convincing arethe applied scientists who indicate that applied science has a historyand structure of its own and is no more dependent upon pure sciencethan pure science is dependent upon applied science. It seems that thedifferences between pure and applied science are the motivations ofthe scientists and the ethics controlling their activity.To the pure scientists, knowledge for the sake of knowledge to

satisfy a curiosity is the motivation. To the pure scientist secrecy and,ideally, self gain are not ethical.To the applied scientist the motivation is the solution of a problem

that will have application in the lives of men. What he produces hewants used but not without reward. Secrecy and self gain are ethicalfor the applied scientist.As we study the activities of these two types or classes of scientists,

it becomes more and more evident that they are symbiotic and thatneither is pure. The pure scientist often produces something usefuland the applied scientist often discovers something useful as knowl-edge only. The methods of work are the same, however, the motivesand ethics appear to differ.

5. The scientifically literate person understands the relationship be-tween science and the humanities or better still looks upon science asone of the humanities. Science is as much a part of our culture as theart and music of our time.Burkhart points up the need for this attitude, "This dehumanizing

of science teaching is the first step in the production of mutual ignor-ance. I believe it is the main reason why so many students express adistaste for science. ’ ;/

^So long as science is kept separate and is taught in isolation from itscultural context, so long as the humanities are kept separate andtaught in isolation from science,! do not see how we can achieve thatunderstanding, or for that matter, the unified culture which would beits consequences.7’[8] ’ ;

Conant feels that a widespread understanding of science is neces-sary in the country because only through understanding can sciencebe assimilated into our cultural pattern.There are others who believe that science should be taught with its

cultural setting and with its cultural significance constantly in focus.


Similarly the humanities should be so taught that the scientific com-ponent of our culture is given its intellectual credit. Only then willthere be a solution to the problem of the two cultures described byC. P. Snow.There is no doubt that science is reflected in the culture of the west.

It has changed the sense of economic, political, moral and culturalvalues. It has changed the way people think of themselves, of othersand of their surroundings. Evidence of this is found in art, literature.internal social mores, music, stated social and personal philosophies,and in religion. The scientifically literate person will understand theinterrelatedness of science and the humanities. Ideally the scientifi-cally literate person will come to see science as one of the humanities.This is reasonable for science is truly a part of and a formulator of ourculture.

Roughly these are the dimensional factors used in describing anddiscussing scientific literacy. These dimensions now need refining interms of definition so they may be assessed quantitatively and quali-tatively.

Care must be exercised by those who support the realization of theobjective of scientific literacy so ttiat this worthy objective does notbecome a part of a propaganda scheme for a favor seeking group.Even now the literature concerned with scientific literacy has severalflavors in addition to its true value to this world and the democraticway of life. At times the pure scientist, intentionally or unconsciously,belabors the belief that support must be given to pure science be-cause, he says, pure science is the source of applied science. The ap-plied scientist at times stresses technological or applied scientificstudy out of proportion as an attempt to make a point. Still othersemphasize space exploration as a scientific venture of a pure varietywithout helping people to see its political overtones. If this programwere of a pure science variety, many of the activities would bechanged. Your attention is called to the use of the needles of copperthat were placed around the earth prior to the time when scientistshad a chance to speculate as to the consequences of such an act. An-other was the detonation of the nuclear device in the upper atmo-sphere, the by-products of which had a half life far in excess of thatplanned so that research of this upper region will be unnecessarilydifficult for a number of years. There are other examples that can bepointed out that may cause thinking people to doubt the motives ofreally very worthwhile projects. We must not use the motives of thepure or applied scientist to mask the motives of politically inspiredprojects. The result may be disastrous for both the scientists and thepolitical strategists.

Since the objective of scientific literacy has been noted for severalyears it would seem reasonable to look to see what attention it had

354 School Science and! Mathematics

received. The place that seems most logical to begin is with the booksand curricula developed by teams of scientists and teachers. Thecourses have gained greatly as a result of publicity and have been re-ferred to by many as "The new courses.77 Unfortunately they are nowmore than five years old so are no longer new. They may more prop-erly be called the "Government science courses/7 Note that we mustconsider�science concepts, nature of science, ethics of science, sci-ence and technology, science and society, and science and the humani-ties.An analysis of government high school courses in biology reveals:1. Attention is given to the development of concepts in science.2. Attention is given to some of the aspects of scientific investiga-

tion�planning experiments, controls and variables in experi-ments, use of data, theory formation.

3. Attention is given to some of the ethics of science.4. No mention is made of technology or of the relationship be-

tween science and technology.5. No mention is made of the social implications of science as radia-

tion hazards, biological aspects of radioisotopes, problems ofspace exploration, survival problems, radiation genetic problems.

6. No mention is given to science and the humanities.

The government courses in physics and chemistry followed thesame general pattern. Although all of the government courses reportand do stress understanding rather than memorization of facts, all ofthem present large amounts of factual information. Visits in classeswhere these courses are being taught revealed that many teacherscontinue to have pupils memorize large numbers of facts with little orno attention being given to concept development.

Traditional courses in physics, chemistry, and biology were also ex-amined.

1. Attention is given to the development of concepts in science;however, there seems to be somewhat greater reliance on thepresentation of facts.

2. Attention is given to some of the aspects of scientific investiga-tion but less than that in the government courses.

3. Attention is given to some of the ethics of science.4. Technology as well as science is included�drugs, conservation

electronics, metallurgy, engines, fuels, etc. No attempt wasfound to differentiate between pure and applied science.

5. Considerable attention is given to social implications of scienceas radiation, radioisotopes, space exploration, satellite motion,rocket engines, survival problems, radioactive fallout, radiationgenetic problems.

6. No attention is given to science and the humanities.


The junior high school appears to be the level at which more thanaverage attention is given to such topics as weather, universe, spaceexploration and orientation, rocket engines, nuclear fission and fusion,atomic structure, radiation including light and other electromagneticwaves, uses of radioactive isotopes, solar energy, etc.

Also at this level more attention is now devoted to the historicaldevelopment of conceptual schemes and technological devices. This isinterpreted to be attention to the social implications of science.

It is fair to state that most recent junior high school science pro-grams have an orientation toward space exploration, particle natureof matter, classification, the universe, energy transformation, chem-ical change, and animal and plant adaptation (structure and func-tion) .

Science for the elementary school child is largely of the descriptiveor classificational and low level correlational variety. Recent emphasisis reportedly on the development of science concepts and on the use ofthe methods of the scientist in the study of science. Brief units on thesolar system, air travel, space travel, meteorology, and structure ofmatter are found. In addition, there are units concerned with livingthings, the earth, water, fire, machines, light, heat, conservation,seasons, etc.The study of social studies texts indicates that little or no atten-

tion is given to the interrelationships between science and society. Itseems that science teachers will need to work with the social studiesteachers here. Presently it seems that:

1. Very little attention is given in P.O.D., American History, andother Social Studies textbooks to the influence of science onsocial development. Some reference is made to the influence ofthe automobile and other transportation devices on the locationof people and cities. Mention is made of the industrial revolu-tion, forthcoming automation, and of atomic energy. In addi-tion, the concept of genetics is frequently alluded to. These younote as being applied science.

There has been no mention to date made of the effect of man^s re-liance on facts and demand for facts in making decisions, nor the reli-ance of society on science, nor the influence of man’s concept of mat-ter, nor man^s conviction of cause and effect. Apparent is the absenceof awareness that the scientist has now assumed the position once as-sumed by the man of the cloth and the barrister.

Brief studies of the humanities courses reveal at this time completeindifference to science, except as a source of new materials for ex-pression. There is no conscious attention given to science in courses inliterature, art, music, or foreign language. Is it possible that the pres-ent uncertainty reflected in our art and music has its origin in the


uncertainty principle in science? Does our literature reflect the de-mand of people for more facts and the concept of probability? Wouldreading such pieces of literature as ^The Watershed,^ "The StarGazer,^ "Two Cultures," etc. help pupils to understand science andits place in our lives. This has been tried; however, there were and areat present no means of measuring achievement in this area.

So it seems that nearly every deficiency libeled against books andteachers has an instance that makes it true and others that make itfalse. No one or combination has yet arrived at perfection concerningthe objective of scientific literacy.

Observations have led to one more discovery of a reasonable level ofcredibility that does not reflect with favor upon certain groups whocall themselves aerospace education committees. These groups arepropagandizing for courses in aerospace science and call themselvesaerospace educators. It is of concern that aerospace is probably a goodtitle for this age or era just as the atomic age was before this and theair age prior to that. It may well be that the next era will be called theinterplanetary age. Care must be exercised not to abuse the cause foreducation through giving it a title that looks like self gain. This isunethical for an educator. His concern must be to provide the besteducation for all of the pupils so they may learn how to leam, the mostvital preparation for the future. The schools and all teachers must seescientific literacy related to economic literacy, to social literacy, tohumanistic literacy, to technological literacy. To educate for todayonly is to prepare to live for only today and is to prepare to cease tolive tomorrow. To educate at the conceptual level, to help pupils seehow knowledge develops, to accept the ethics of science as their own,to see science and society as interrelated, and to accept science as oneof the humanities, and to see both pure and applied science as impor-tant is to prepare people to live now and in the future.

BIBLIOGRAPHY[1] Cox, HIDEN T., 1966, Viewpoints on Undergraduate College Science Programs,

National Science Teachers Association, Washington, D.C., p. 37.[2] DE JOUVENEL, BERTRAND, 1963, The Political Consequences of the Rise of

Science, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientist, December, p. 2-8.[3, 7] BARBER, BERNARD, 1952, Science and the Social Order, The Free Press,

Glencoe, 111., p. 351, 22.[4] PELLA, MILTON 0., GALE, CALVIN W., O’HEARN, GEORGE T., 1966, Refer-

ents to Scientific Literacy, The Science Teacher, May, p. 44.[5] EINSTEIN, ALBERT, 1934, Essays in Science, Philosophical Library, N. Y.,

p. 14.[6] PELLA, MILTON 0., 1966, Concept Learning in Science, The Science Teacher,

December, p. 31.[8] BURKHART, FREDERICK, 1959, Science and the Humanities, Antioch College

Founders Day Lectures, Vol. 5.

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Scientific Literacy and the H. S. Curriculum