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Selection and arrangement of plants for protecting crops and
livestock buildings
October 2007
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Presentation overviewShelterbelt characteristics based on
protection objectives
Factors affecting porosity
Analysis of various shelterbelt models
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Shelterbelt characteristics based on protection
objectivesCrops
Livestock buildings (roads)
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Summer porosity: 40-50%
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Winter porosity: 60-70%
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Distance between shelterbelts = 180-240 metres
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Protection for buildings, roads and animalsSummer porosity:
30-50%.
Winter porosity: 50%.
Leave a distance of 30-60 m between the outer row (most exposed
to wind) and the protection target to allow snow accumulation.
Extend the row over 30-60 m to mitigate the incidence of
convoluting winds.
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Low porosity
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Medium porosity
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Factors affecting porosityFoliage and branch density of each
species
Crown width
Distance between plants
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Foliage and branch density Genetics
Shade tolerance
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Eastern white cedarNorway spruceWhite spruce
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Sugar maple Red ash
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Crown widthWide crown (15 m and more): maple, oak, linden,
walnut, hybrid larch, white ash
Intermediate crown (10-15 m): red ash, paper birch, hop
hornbeam, hickory, tamarack, red pine, Scots pine
Narrow crown (5-10 m): hybrid poplar (some clones), spruce, jack
pine, Eastern white cedar
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Distance between plants 1.5 to 3 m (usually 2 m)Direction of
prevailing windNumber of rowsStrength of windMaintenance
capabilityGrowth rate of the trees
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What were looking forConsistent porosity both vertically and
horizontally
Continuous protection over time, despite renewal of plants
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Consistent porosityMake sure the base of the shelterbelt is
covered if pruning is planned.
Select trees that will have connecting crowns.
Select species that are well adapted to the site (make sure you
have winners dispersed over the length of the hedge).
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Continuous protection over timeCombine species with different
growth rates and life spans.
Arrange plants so as to preserve diversity after harvesting.
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Compatibility of plants Avoid combining species that may be host
to pest insects or diseases affecting other species
Look at natural hedges for inspiration.
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Protection will be afforded by the spruces after the removal of
the poplars
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Replace dead trees rapidly
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Hedge layouts Protection of crops
Protection of livestock buildings
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Protecting cropsSingle row TreesTrees and shrubsShrubs (small
plots)
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Protecting livestock buildingsTwo- or three-row hedge; not as
long as hedges designed to protect crops Easier to renew Wider
variety of speciesProvide ultimate distance required between
plants.
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Different possible arrangementsSpace availability
Availability of tree and shrub species
Personal preferences
Protection requirements
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Prevailing windsPrevailing windsRow 1Row 2Row 3LegendRow 1
:Evergreeens (3m spacing) Row 2: Poplars (2 m spacing)Row 3:
Hardwoods (3 m spacing)Main building requiring protectionSpacing =
3-4 m30 to 60 m30 to 60 m30 to 60 m30 to 60 m
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Types of hedges 6 models of row combining trees and/or shrubs
that can be associated to meet the needs of protection
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Type 1: Hardwoods spaced at 2 m or 3 m Production of
shading.Production of high quality timber.Aesthetic value.Higher
protection when trees are in foliage; minimal protection
otherwise.
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Red ash Red oak (17 years; 2.5 metres)Sandy loam, St-Aubert de
lIslet
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Tamarack Red ash Yellow birch (16 years, 3 metres) Clay loam,
St-Roch-des-Aulnaies
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Tamarack Red ash Yellow birch (16 years, 3 metres)Closer
view
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SuggestionsPlant trees in pairs to maintain diversity after
harvesting.
Alternate wide crowns and intermediate crowns. Spacing = 2 m
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Type 2: Hardwoods and shrubsShrubs cover the lower portion of
the hedge.
Fruit harvesting may be possible.
Space plants at 1,5 to 2 metres.
Avoid conifers (except pine) with shrubs.
Beware of far-reaching shrubs.
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Legend: A: high branching tree, B: bushy shrubs, C: small trees
or shrubs 2 metres2 metres2 metres2 metres
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Red ash caragana caragana (6 years, 1 metre)Sandy loam,
St-Aubert
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Red ash Common lilac (6 years, 1.5 metre)Sandy loam,
St-Aubert
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Red ash American elder (6 years, 1.5 metre) Sandy loam,
St-Aubert
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Red ash Ninebark Silver buffaloberry Ninebark (15 years, 1.5
metre)Clay, La Pocatire
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Osier Red ash (15 years, 1.5metre)Sandy loam, La Pocatire
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Red ash Arrowwood Red ash (17 years, 2 metres)Organic soil,
Sainte-Clothilde
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Trees and shrubs (17 years, 1 metre) Backfill soil, La
Pocatire
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Type 3: Evergreens spaced at 3 metresProtection is maintained
year-round.Slow juvenile growth. Space at 1,5 m if the objective is
to spade one tree at of two when the trees reach 1,5 m in
height.Irrigation is necessary if large trees are to be planted.
Requires less maintenance than hardwoods.
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Spruces (white, Norway and Colorado)White spruce offers better
wind resistance than Norway spruce.
Colorado spruce is tolerant to de-icing salts.
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Sandy loam, MontrgieWhite spruce
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Norway spruce (25 years old) spaced at 3 metres, (1 out of 2
trees was removed 10 years ago)Clay, LAcadie
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Wingham, OntarioColorado spruce (approx. 20 years, 4 metres)
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Pines (red, Jack and Scots)Faster juvenile growth than
spruce.
Requires sandy soils.
Crown thins-out (loss of needles) when tree is planted in
shade.
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Red pine (approx. 40 years, 2 metres)Sandy loam, Montrgie
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Jack pine (forest/blueberry type)
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Scots pine (20 years, 2.5 metres)Sandy loam, Sainte-Louise des
Aulnaies
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Cedar (15 years, 4 metres)Sandy loam, Sainte-Louise des
Aulnaies
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Type 4: Fast-growing trees Rapid vertical growth (1 to 2 m/year)
provides protection early on.
Poplars usually grow faster than larches, but have a shorter
life span.
Wood can be harvested after 15-20 years.
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Hybrid poplar (12 years, 2 metres)Clay, Kamouraska
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Watch out for roots.Chernozem, Sainte-Clothilde
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Hybrid larchAdvantages: Longer-lived than poplarsNot as
competitive
Disadvantages: Slower growth rateSome clones have a higher
branch densityProblems of stability sometimes experiment
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Hybrid larch (10 years, 1.5metre) Organjc soil, Sherrington
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Organjc soil, Sainte-ClothildeHybrid larch (5-10 years,
1.5metre)
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Type 5: Poplars and long-lived trees on a single row Poplars
ensure protection in the short term, and long-lived trees take over
in the long term.
Poplar branches need to be pruned off.
Poplars can be harvested (15-20 years).
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Poplar and oak, Sainte-Sraphine
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Red oak after harvesting poplars Sand, Sainte-Sraphine
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Type 6: Shrubs (1,5 to 2 m spacing)Protection for smaller
plots
Snow trapping
Fruit yields
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Osier Ninebark Amur maple Ninebark (10 years, 1.5 metre)Clay, La
Pocatire
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Osier Ninebark Amur maple Ninebark (10 years, 1.5 metre)Clay, La
Pocatire
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Osier Wayfaring tree With-rod Wayfaring tree Osier (3 years, 2
metres)Organic soil, Sainte-Clothilde
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Osier Ninebark (2 years, 2 metres)Sand,
Saint-Roch-des-Aulnaies
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Sea buckthorn Silver buffaloberry (15 years, 2 metres) Clay, La
Pocatire
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Spirea billardii (3 years, 1.5 metre) Sandy loam,
Saint-Jean-Port-Joli
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Red ash Norway spruce Tamarack White spruce (5 years, 1.5 metre)
Clay loam, La Pocatire
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Red ash Norway spruce Tamarack White spruce (10 years, 1.5
metre) Clay loam, La Pocatire
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Red ash Norway spruce White elm Norway spruce (10 years, 1.5
metre)Clay, La Pocatire
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Norway spruce Red ash Norway spruce Scotch elm (10 years, 1.5
metre)Clay, La Pocatire
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Yellow birch White spruce Yellow birch Norway spruce (3 years, 2
metres)Organic soil, Sainte-Clothilde
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Hybrid poplar (2 m)White spruce (3 m)Red ash - Ninebark - Bur
oak - Cranberry bush (2 m) Sandy loam, 2 years, St-Pascal de
Kamouraska
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After 5 years
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NinebarkCranberry bushAfter 5 years
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Poplar, spruce and decorative hardwoods (12 years)Clay loam,
Saint-Roch-des-Aulnaies
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Side view of hedge on previous page
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Winter view of hedge on previous page
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Protection of farm buildings,
Sainte-Anne-de-la-PocatireSnow-trapping row also circumscribes
pastures.
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ConclusionPlant an assortment of species.
Remember to renew the hedge.
If possible, plant shrubs as well.
Multi-usage hedges: FruitWood Continue experimenting.
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Characteristics of main trees and shrubs suggested for use in
shelterbeltsBy Marie-Emmanuelle PorlierAndr Vzina
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Images (sources)CPVQ (1989). Les brise-vent: le choix des espces
darbres et
darbusteswww.hort.uconn.edu/plants/www.cnr.vt.edu/dendro/dendrologywww.rook.org/earl/bwca/nature
http://plants.usda.govwww.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hortwww.liberherbarum.comwww.biopix.dk
Shelterbelt trials conducted over the past 20 years.
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White birch (betula papyrifera)
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White birchAdapts well to different types of soil, but prefers
sandy, well drained and slightly acidic soils.
Rapid growth rate, particularly in the first years after
planting.
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Bitter hickory (carya cordiformis) Sandy loam to clay loam Slow
initial growth rate
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Shagbark hickory (carya ovata) Sandy loam to clay loam Slow
initial growth rateCredit: Seiler and al., 1990
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Common hackberry (celtis occidentalis)
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Common hackberry
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Common hackberryDisplays a cylinder shape at maturity.Crown
develops almost uniformly. Branches tend to droop. Rapid growth
rate. Easy to transplant.Adapts well to various types of soil, but
prefers rich soils. Tolerant to most conditions, including wind and
urban environments.
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Pin cherry (prunus pennsylvanica)Adapts well to various types of
soil.Requires full sunlight.Rapid growth rate.Good quality
timber.
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Bur oak (quercus macrocarpa)
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Bur oak
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Bur oak
Prefers rich, well drained and alkaline soils. Good resistance
to de-icing salts.
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Red oak(quercus rubra)
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Red oak
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Red oak
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Red oakPrefers acidic and well drained sandy loam. Good
transplanting potential (for an oak). Rapid growth rate (for an
oak) Tolerant to urban conditions.
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Silver maple(acer saccharinum)Prefers very moist soils, but can
tolerate drier soils.Sensitive to breakage due to glaze ice.Hard to
prune because of numerous suckers.
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Sugar maple(acer saccharum)
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Sugar maple
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Sugar maple Requires sufficient extension area for roots to grow
well.Prefers rich, well drained and moist soils. Does not tolerate
excessive heat, pollution or de-icing salts. Presents ramose, dense
foliage.
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Red maple(acer rubrum)
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Red maple
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Red mapleWith time, the crown extends and the profile of the
tree becomes rounder. Fairly rapid growth rate. Easy to transplant
and to establish. Adapts well and tolerates different conditions.
Prefers moist, acidic soils. Tolerates wet soils and occasional
flooding. Tends to develop manganese chlorosis in alkaline
soils.
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American white ash(fraxinus americana)
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American white ashAdapts well to soil conditions, but will grow
best in moist, deep and rich soils.Soil pH has little importance.
Easy to transplant and to establish. Tolerates insufficiently
drained soils and de-icing salts.Male and female trees.Emerald ash
borer is a major threat
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Red ash (fraxinus pennsylvanica)
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Red ashRapid growth rate. Adapts fairly well to various types of
soil. Grows best in moist, deep and rich soils.Soil pH has little
importance. Easy to transplant and to establish. Tolerates
insufficiently drained soils. Male and female trees.Emerald ash
borer is a major threat
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Tamarack(larix laricina)
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TamarackUsually has a conical shape: horizontal main branches
with drooping branchlets. Slow to intermediate growth rate.
Requires cool temperatures in summer. Prefers moist, well drained,
acidic soils. Tolerates wet soils. Does best in full sunlight.
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European larch(larix decidua)
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European larchEasy to transplant when in dormancy. Prefers well
drained, neutral or barely acidic soils.Tolerates insufficiently
drained soils. Does best in full sunlight. Tolerates air pollution
and wind. Reaches 20-30 metres in height and 6-9 metres in width.
Crown is usually cone-shaped; horizontal main branches with
drooping branchlets. Profile tends to de-organize with age.
Intermediated growth rate.
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European larch
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Japanese larch (larix kaempferi)
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Japanese larch
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Easy to transplant when in dormancy. Prefers well drained,
neutral or barely acidic soils.Tolerates insufficiently drained
soils.Conical, sheer shape. Flexible, drooping branchlets on very
large lateral branches. Rapid to intermediate growth rate.
Japanese larch
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Hop-hornbeam(ostrya virginiana)
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Hop-hornbeam
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Hop-hornbeamWide-spreading, upright branches. Juveniles have an
overall shape that goes from pyramidal to ovate, while older trees
tend to have a more irregular branch pattern. Does not tolerate
de-icing salts at all. Full sunlight to partial shade. Prefers
soils that are rich, slightly acidic, moist and cool. Can tolerate
drier, gravely soils if established in a partly shaded area. Can be
difficult to transplant and needs time to establish.
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Cottonwood (populus deltodes)
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Cottonwood
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Cottonwood Prefers moist soils. Full sunlight.Tolerant to
de-icing salts and drought.Easy to transplant. Adapts well to
various pH levels. Large crown.Pyramidal crown in juveniles; older
trees have an oval, irregular, open crown. Rapid growth rate.
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Hybrid poplar
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Hybrid poplarAvoid soils that are too dry.Euro-American clones
with the following characteristics:Not too branchy;Rapid growth
rate;Resist septoria canker;Good quality lumber, if possible.
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Basswood (tilia americana)
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Basswood
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Basswood -shaped crown. Reaches 15-25 m in height. Trunk is
usually straight.Full, or almost full sunlight. Prefers deep,
moist, rich soils. Tolerant to difficult soil conditions (dry,
heavy). Easy to transplant. Tends to produce suckers that need to
be removed from the base. Good nectar producerCan be difficult to
obtain.
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Cedar(thuya occidentalis)
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CedarDense, compact, conical shape. Easy to transplant. Prefers
rather high humidity. Prefers moist, loamy, deep soils. Tolerant to
acidic and alkaline soils. Usually adapts well and has good
tolerance once it is established.Can be pruned for shape and
height. Full sunlight; partial shade is tolerable, but trees will
thin out and become less attractive. Tolerates fairly wet
soils.
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White spruce (picea glauca)
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White spruce
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White spruceNarrow, conical shape. Horizontal branches. Moderate
growth rate. Dense in youth; thins out with age. Tall trees are
easy to transplant. Prefers sandy, acidic and well drained soils.
Prefers cooler climates. Offers good wind resistance.
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Norway spruce(picea abies)
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Norway spruce
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Norway spruceConical shape. Growth rate is rapid in youth, but
slows with age. High density in juveniles, older trees are thinner.
Tall trees are easy to transplant. Prefers sandy, acidic and well
drained soils. Prefers cooler climates.
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Colorado spruce(picea pungens)
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Colorado spruceBase is usually covered with branches. Dense,
narrow, conical shape; becoming thinner with age. Slow growth rate.
Very adaptable. Prefers moist, organic soils. Tolerates drought
fairly well, for a spruce.
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Jack pine (pinus divaricata)
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Jack pineInteresting species for use in association with
blueberry fields. Slow growth rate.Tolerates de-icing salts.Prefers
sandy, well drained soils.
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Red pine (pinus resinosa)
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Red pine
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Red pineMore or less ovoid shape.Multiple lateral branches that
start close to the ground. Moderate growth rate.Prefers soils that
are dry, soft, sandy and acidic. Tolerates cold temperatures, but
abhors heat.
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Scots pine(pinus sylvestris)
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Scots pine
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Scots pineConical shape in juveniles; crown widens and top
flattens with age. Beautiful trees at maturity when trunks take on
an orange colour.Branches grow horizontally. Intermediate growth
rate. Prefers acidic, well drained soils. Good wind resistance.
Easy to transplant. Very good tolerance to dry, poor soils. Can
become a problem because it spreads a lot
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Downy serviceberry (amelanchier canadensis)
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Downy serviceberry
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Downy serviceberryLarge shrub (multiple trunks) or small tree
(2-6 m in height). Full sunlight.Prefers humid environments.
Usually pruned so as to become a small, single-trunk tree.Easy to
transplant. Sucker shoots produced at the base.
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Sea buckthorn (hippophae rhamnoides)
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Sea buckthorn
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Sea buckthorn in winter, La Pocatire (approx. 10 years)
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Sea buckthorn3-8 m in height. Wide crown, at least as wide as it
is high.Intermediate growth rate. Difficult to establish. Prefers
to grow in isolation. Good tolerance to wind and de-icing salts.
Edible fruit. Fructification requires the presence of a male plant
(ratio: 1/7).
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Green alder(alnus crispa)
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Green aldera. Leaf b. Male catkins c. Mature female catkin
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Green alder3 m in height.Fixes atmospheric nitrogen. Does well
in poor soils. Does best in sandy, gravely soils that are well
drained, but will tolerate humid environments.
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Speckled alder(alnus rugosa)
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Speckled alder
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Speckled alderVery hardy plant. Well adapted to poor soils
(fixes atmospheric N).8-10 m in height.Humid environments.Can be
quite pervasive.
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Caragana Caragana arborescens
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Caragana
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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CaraganaFull sunlight. Prefers dry, poor soils, but will also
grow in clay. Tolerates deep chills, salt and wind. Can grow up to
6 metres in height; not as wide as it is high. Bare base (no leaves
or branches). Reacts well to coppicing.
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Amur maple(acer ginnala)
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Amur maple
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Amur mapleGrows better under colder climates (cool summer
temperatures). Adapts to various types of soil. Easy to transplant.
Can be severely pruned back. Has become pervasive in Connecticut
and New England.
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Common lilac(syringa vulgaris)
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Common lilacFull sunlight.Easy to transplant. Prefers well
drained, barely acidic soils. Prune after blossoming.2-5 m in
height and 2-4 m in width.Produces numerous sucker shoots.
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Late lilac(syringa villosa)
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Late lilac
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Late lilacFull sunlightEasy to transplant.Prefers well drained,
barely acidic soils. Prune after blossoming.Offers fairly good
resistance to mildew and insects. Usually has a dense, rounded
shape. 2-3 m in height and 1-3 m in width. Intermediate growth
rate.Does not produce as many sucker shoots as common lilac.
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Osier(salix viminalis)
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Osier
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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OsierHeight: 7 metres.Sandy loam to clay loam, preferably humid.
Not sensitive to willow flea weevil.Rapid growth rate. Used for
basket-making, noise-abatement barriers and to produce biomass.
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Ninebark(physocarpus opulifolius)
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Ninebark
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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NinebarkEasy to grow.Very easy to transplant. Adapts to various
types of soil.Full sunlight to partial shade.Will rejuvenate after
severe pruning down. Height: 2-3 metres, as wide as it is high.
Upright branches with bowed extremities. Bushy
appearance.Intermediate growth rate.One of the best shrub in
windbreaks and riparian buffer
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Red choke cherry(prunus virginiana)
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Red choke cherryClay loam to sandy loam.Rather rapid growth rate
(60-90 cm/year).Very sensitive to black knot.Edible fruit.
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Japanese rose(rosa rugosa)
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Japanese rose
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Japanese roseRigid, upright branches that start at the
base.Produces suckers. 0.6-2 m in height, also extends laterally.
Rapid growth rate. Easy to transplant and to grow. Prefers well
drained, acidic soils.Adapts to different pH levels. Tolerates
de-icing salts as well as pruning.
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Silver buffaloberry (shepherdia argentea)
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Silver buffaloberry
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Silver buffaloberry2-4 m in height. Rapid growth rate. Easy to
grow.Adapts to various types of soil. Ideal choice in poor soil
conditions. Tolerates de-icing salts.
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Russet buffaloberry(shepherdia canadensis)
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Russet buffaloberry
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Russet buffaloberry
Easy to grow. Adapts to various types of soil.Does best in full
sunlight.Ideal choice for poor soil conditions. Tolerates de-icing
salts. Rounded, sheer crown. 2-4 m in height and in width.
Moderately rapid to slow growth rate.
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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American elder(sambucus canadensis)
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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American elder
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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American elderEasy to transplant. Prefers moist soils.Adapts to
different pH levels.2-4 m in height.Non-tolerant to de-icing
salts.Rapid growth rate.Produces fruit used to make a natural
colouring agent.
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Scarlet elder(sambucus pubens)
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Scarlet elder
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Scarlet elder2-4 m in height.Moderately dense foliage.Prefers
sandy or loamy soils. Tolerates higher pH levels.Non-tolerant to
de-icing salts.Stems are more lignified than in American elder.
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Witherod viburnum(viburnum cassinodes)
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Witherod viburnum
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Witherod viburnum
Appreciated for its extreme durability. Attracts birds.Does well
in difficult conditions.Dense and multi-stemmed. 1.5-2 m in height.
Also extends laterally. Dense, rounded crown.Intermediate growth
rate.
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Arrowwood(viburnum dentatum)
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Arrowwood
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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ArrowwoodAppreciated for its extreme durability.Attracts
birds.Does well in difficult conditions.Height: 2-4 m; as high as
it is wide.
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Wayfaring tree (viburnum lantana)
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Wayfaring tree
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Wayfaring tree3-5 m in height, sometimes even taller.Solid,
rugged branches. In older trees, branches can become uneven.With
age, tends to thin out at the base.Full sunlight or partial shade.
Tolerates dry, compacted sols, and higher pH levels than other
virbunums. Easy to transplant and to establish.Prefers rich, loamy
soils.
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Cranberry bush(viburnum trilobum)
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Cranberry bush
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
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Cranberry bushEasy to transplant.Prefers humid, well drained
soils. Full sunlight or partial shade.Height: 2-4 m; as high as it
is wide.Intermediate growth rate.
Andr Vzina, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
Prevailing winds
Row 1Row 2Row 3
30 to 60 m
Main building and protection target
Distance between rows: 3 to 4 metres
LEGENDRow 1: Fast-growing treesRow 2: EvergreensRow 3: Quality
or utility hardwoods2 metres
Legend:A: Tall-branching treeB: Bushy shrubC: Small tree or
shrub
Illustration: Roch Lavoie, ITA, La Pocatire Campus
