SHANKER THAPA's > Identity and Study of Religious Minorities

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    To be quoted as:

    Thapa, Shanker, 'The Conceptual Paradigm of Identity and Study of Religious

    Minorities', Rolamba, Vol. 24, No. 1 & 2, January-June 2004.

    The Conceptual Paradigm of Identity and Study of

    Religious Minorities

    Prof. Shanker Thapa

    Theoretical Framework of Identity:

    The term identification itself is an inherent and unconscious behavioural imperative in allconcerned individuals or the group members. The group or other community members tend to

    identify themselves in the broader socio-religious and cultural perspective in order to protect

    their own existence, stability and emotional well being. This imperative works not only in the

    groups but also within individuals and religious and cultural minorities in all the societies and

    intends to maintain or bolster the continuity of religious and cultural tenets to achieve a

    dependable psychological security. It is vital in the stability of minority group personality. As a

    general, rule all the group members within the boundary of the society as such equally share the

    identity.

    The theory of identity of individuals or groups in terms of sociological, anthropological,

    psychological, and religious connotations discussed in this paper is borrowed from the exegesis

    of the identification theories developed and analyzed by Sigmund Freud, George Herbert Mead,

    Erik Erikson, Talcott Parson, Jurgen Habermas, Richard Richardson and, to some extent Martin

    Heideger. They are the patrons of the theory of identity who made identity crisis as the key

    issues of contemporary social theory. Thus, it is the concept, which is crucial for sociologists to

    analyze minority group behaviour. The individual members irrespective of majority-minority

    dichotomy internalize their social values, norms and behaviour. Regarding the religious

    minorities with unique social, cultural and religious characteristics, the of thinking of entire

    community remains vital in identity.

    The imported culture of religious minority such as the Muslims in non-Muslim societies is

    always seen as the outside element. Therefore, the minorities need to emphasize identity and

    preserve indigenous cultural and religious elements for their own existence. In this case, the

    members of a minor religious groups attempt to come nearer to individuals or members of other

    societies having same faith with which they share common culture, ideas or religion. The religion

    alone brings people of different region together. But such a relationship alone is not adequate to

    maintain prolonged identity of a religious minority. The total dependence or the lack of efforts by

    the members as a minority group obviously leads to crisis of identity. In fact, it is a dynamic

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    human imperative. The identity as such occupies a central place in the analysis of cultural

    behaviour. It was Erik Erikson who brought the term into common usage particularly in

    association with the phrase "identity crisis" (Bloom:1933:34-40). If identity crisis is taken into

    consideration, it demonstrates identity formation of a cultural or religious minority as the on

    going process. The individual identity is, of course, tied with the group identity. The human

    needs for psychological identity are anchored in nothing less than his socio-genetic evolution. An

    inability or failure to hold on integrated and continuing sense of identity obviously leads to

    personality breakdown. The evolving configuration which integrates idiosyncratic libidinal needs,

    favoured capacities, significant identification, effective defenses, successful sublimation,

    consistent roles, responded to inner drives and social pressure normally changes at different

    stages in the life cycle as well as inter group or inter-group relations.

    In fact, Eric Erikson is the source of both of these notions being abstracted to apply to

    social groups as a whole e.g. 'the identity crisis of modernization (Erikson:1993:36). In analyzing

    configurations of identity formation through life cycle component, it is required to focus upon

    activities of the group as a whole. Whenever the group acts as a cultural unit, it integrates their

    own inner drives with the expectations of the society. They always require remaining in contact

    with their counterparts beyond the political border. Even if the minor group does not act as a

    single whole and fragmented into different units (or segments of religious activities or ideological

    division) due to differences of opinion in existing cultural and religious phenomenon, the identity

    of minorities as such remains and still works as the marker of collective existence.

    In this case, the identity itself is a "negative identity". In all such stages of development,

    the groups are expected to understand their own existence and a separate identity within the

    society. The individual and community leaders make orientation to contribute towards identity.

    Of course, the former are expected to hold leadership and contribute more in the identity

    behaviour. But on certain point of the development process, the group is preoccupied by the

    identity crisis. It is in fact a general syndrome of having acute problem to synthesize social

    realities, needs and problems with other psycho-phenomenal realities. He further argues -

    Thus, identity or ideology is two aspects of the same process.

    Both provide the necessary condition for further individual

    maturation and, with it, next higher form of identification, namely,

    the solidarity linking common identities (Erikson:1968:157).

    Thus, Erikson found a clear continuum between identity, ideology and culture. Therefore, a

    threat to ideology and culture is obviously a threat to identity. Similarly, an enhancement of

    ideology or culture enhances identity. The diffusion of identity or identity crisis will trigger

    anxiety and the crisis will be countered by a dynamic adaptive reaction in which either- already

    held identity is protected or a new synthesis of identification is made appropriate to the situation

    and its constraints (Bloom:1993:39). Equally, the individuals seek to enhance their sense of

    identity and the psychological sense of security and well being that comes with it. Erikson's

    interpretation is therefore concluded accordingly -

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    1. The individuals seek to protect and enhance the sense of identity.

    2 The individual group member either reinforces already held identity or actively seek an

    opportunity to make a new identification.

    3 The lack of a secure personal identity is experienced as a threat to survival and is also

    felt as anxiety.

    4 Identification, being the initial mechanism for the creation of social identity and

    assurance of social survival, is also an on going process and dynamic adoptive

    mechanism. It responds to changes in the life situation that threatens identity.

    Talcot Parsons also deals with identity and identification mechanism. He argues that

    identification theory moves from mainly being concerned with the formation of individual

    identity to its position as a fundamental base in any general theory of social action. He defines

    identification in the socio-cultural context.

    The social scientists like Jurgen Habermas deals identification as an essential prerequisite

    for an cohesive social system. He used Berger's ideas to retest Erikson's hypothesis of 'identity

    diffusion' which ultimately leads to personality breakdown. He used the term - Identity Securing

    Interpretive System (ISIS) to denote Erikson's ideology. Habermas further concluded if there is

    not an appropriate symbolic mediation between the individual or the group and social structure,

    the anxious need for a secure and meaningful identification will manifest itself in either the

    change of the interpretive system that is the ISIS or a demand for change in the social structure

    (Bloom:1993:48). He further says if the interests inherent in identification are not met then the

    social system is not legitimated (Bloom:1993:48).

    He is explicit that legitimization cases are to be understood and analyzed within the

    identification paradigm. Only when members of a society experience structural alterations as

    critical for continued existence then they feel their social identity threatened. Habermas opines -

    Disturbances of system integration endanger continued existence

    only to the extent that social integration is at stake, that is when the

    consensual foundation of normative structures are so much impaired that

    the society becomes anomie the crisis assume the form of a disintegration

    of social institutions. Social systems too have identities and can basethem, historians are cable of differ entailing between revolutionary

    change of a state or the downfall of an empire, and mere structural

    alterations. In doing so, they refer to the interpretations that members of

    a system used in identifying one another as belonging to the same group,

    and through this group identity assert their own self identity. In

    historiography, a rupture in tradition, through which the interpretive

    system that guarantee identity loose their social integrative power serves

    as an indicator of the collapse of social systems. From this prospective, asocial system has lost its identity as soon as later generations no longer

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    recognize themselves within the once constitutive tradition

    (Habermas:1976:4).

    Habermas says that there must be a great historical and social distance between primitive

    and industrial societies. But human beings manifest the same psychological syndrome: social or

    cosmic reality must be satisfactorily mediated to them through a myth or ideology or identitysecuring interpretive system which meets the behaviour imperatives to identify.

    A.. L. Strauss concretely deals with identity on the psychological paradigm (Strauss:

    959:118-124). He does not ignore or rule out man as a carrier of inalienable identity in the whole

    process because the underlying implication namely indeterminacy element in human life enhances

    the value (Gopalan:1978:122). His work goes into the implications of the symbolic interaction

    approach to the concept of identity and attempts also to explicate the role of language, the

    indeterminacy of human behaviour and the self being no more immune to re-examination from

    new perspectives.

    This approach, suggests a possible way of making the concept of identity more concrete.

    The assertion of the self by the individual in social action, which is apparent in the insistence of

    indeterminacy characteristic of human action, would indicate that identity refers to the core

    element in a man which makes for the freedom of his will. His stress on indeterminacy

    (indeterminate element) in human action highlights an aspect of identity which helps to

    appreciate the deeper implications of a sociology of religion with an emphasis on metaphysical

    dimension of the human personality (Gopalan:1978:122). Regarding his explanation from new

    perspectives, the experts of identity argued that the 'identity' concept as such need not be

    considered a purely metaphysical one with accessibility to it denied from all quarters. In effect, it

    provides the rationale for the philosophical approach which stress the basic element in human

    action by reiterating the projection of the self (Gopalan:1978:122-123). The role of self has

    widened the scope of identity as a conceptual basis. Thus, theoretical approach of Strauss has

    something to do with the sociological theory of identity. A sociological theory of identity need

    not necessarily dwell all the time on more tangible, observable, empirical and social aspects of

    human action. Strauss has equally emphasized on 'social aspect of philosophy' and 'philosophical

    aspect of sociology' or described it as personal (which does not exclude the metaphysical as

    unimportant) as well as the social. The socio-philosophical approach takes due note of the wider

    connotation of the terminology of self- and consequently also of identity (Gopalan:1978:123).

    Thus, the social psychologists such as Sigmund Frued, Erik H. Erikson, Jurgen

    Habermas, George Herbert Mead, Talcott Parson and Strauss deal with different versions of

    identity. Those exegeses brought to the following propositions -

    - Identification is a psycho-biological imperative based on the earliest infantile need to

    survive.

    - It is a dynamic adaptive mechanism as much at work in adults as in infants.

    - The synthesis of identifications or identity stability is crucial for a sense of

    psychological security and well being.

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    - Identity enhancement leads to a greater sense of well being and on contrary, identity

    diffusion leads to anxiety and breakdown.

    - Changes in circumstance leads to make new and appropriate identifications and the

    individual society members seek to protect and enhance the identification already

    established.- Whenever the group shares a common identity, there are chances to act together to

    strengthen and protect shared common identity, and

    - Man is the carrier of inalienable identity (Gopalan:1978:120).

    These propositions of identity behaviour in the cultural activities of the human society

    lead to the clear corollary while taken into consideration of the religio-cultural analysis.

    Any identification, which is made in the first instance, is psychologically beneficial for the

    individual or the group to do so. From sociological viewpoint, the terminology does not

    preclude the inner dimension of human behaviour or action. Thus, it remains significant in the

    study of identity. The identity of human behaviour is studied in terms of present context social

    actions of religion in the human society.

    The concept of identity is crucial for sociologists, social theorists as well as the

    psychologists. The nature of identification of an individual or a particular religio-cultural group is

    similar with no basic differences. The identity of minorities as such is always over shadowed by

    the activities of majority in the society by permitting the penetration of religio-cultural elements

    within the main flow of minority culture thereby accelerating the process of cultural assimilation.

    From the perspective of interactionists, identity is a meaning attributed to self as an

    object (Burke and Tully:1977:880-97). Among varieties of identities, identity of minorities in

    terms of religious behaviour and the belief system is just one among a host of identities in

    salience hierarchy. While not denying the belief on the possibility of the God's existence, the

    identity theory attempts to explain religious behaviour or the belief system without assuming the

    truth of religion.

    The analysis of different core of minority religion and culture concludes that

    identification is a dynamic human imperative. The identity of individual members of a minor

    religious group is largely determined by entire faith and belief reposed by the community.

    Therefore, boundary of the religious belief and confinement of adherents in it is core to

    individual identity.

    The individual members of a group are linked within the same psychological syndrome

    and will act together to preserve, depend and enhance their common identity through a shared

    identification. The group of people no matter minority or the majority, who share common

    identity will, within a certain configuration of circumstances, tend to act as one unit and mobilize

    as a coherent mass movement. Therefore, cultural mobilization of a mass is possible only when

    the individuals share common identification. Within majority or the minority groups,

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    identification can be shared even within the periphery of groups. People sharing same

    identification will tend to act collectively to protect, foster or enhance the common identity.

    In fact, sociology in general did not show much concern with the conceptual

    phenomenon of identity as an independent area to study human behaviour until 1980s. However,

    specially the symbolic interactionism has been maintained in identity construction (Robertson andHolzner:1980:2). So, it does not exist as a core sociological concept in spire of its frequent

    occurrence in different sociological writings. Therefore, it has not received adequate and

    sustained attention. Thus, it has been centered only in the ego psychology. The continuous

    concern of philosophers with identity has taken two major forms; firstly, the question of

    identifying persons or individuals thus attributing to humans as subject or object; and secondly,

    the relationship between reason and reality in terms of their being identical. This philosophical

    interest on identity has permeated sociology. But the mainstream of sociological concern to

    identity has been intermittent, tentative and discontinuous. So, sociologists, who deal with

    identity, are social-psychologically inclined (symbolic interactionists). They emphasized that it

    has been regarded by most of the sociologists as an extra-sociological issue. Identity differs to

    personality attributing to the image of social objects, knowledge, positions and performances.

    The 'personal identity' as such often placed between construction of personality and social

    structure which is the subjected to evolutionary change. A conceptual framework of universal

    applicability is required to speak intelligibly about it. The analysis of the term identity by Martin

    Heidegger is relevant to quote there. He argues -

    The usual formation of the principle of identity reads A=A. The

    principle of identity is considered the highest principle of thought (but)

    what does the formula A=A state which is customarily used to represent

    the principle of 'identity'? The formula expresses the quality of A and

    A. An equation requires at least two elements. One A is equal to

    another. Is this what the principle of identity is supposed to mean?

    Obviously not . . . for something to be the same one is always enough.

    Two are not needed as they are in the case of equality.

    (Heidegger:1969:23).

    The formula A=A speaks of equality. It does not define A as the same. The common

    formulation of the principle of identity thus conceals precisely what the principle is trying to say.

    A is A, that every A is itself the same. The more fitting formulation of the principle of identity

    A=A would accordingly mean not only every A is itself the same; but rather every A is itself the

    same with itself. Sameness implies the relation of 'with', in this connection that is mediation,

    connection, and synthesis: the unification into a unity. This is why throughout the history of

    western thought identity appears as unity. The principle of identity, that is the sameness of every

    A with itself requires through assessment.

    Heidegger's explanation may provide certain suggestions for sociologists to interpret

    identity. He suggests the concept to be something deeper than the unmistakable location of an

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    object in an analytical space so that it can be identified in the sense of located in a unique

    manner. Without such locating assessment, there could be no conceptions of identity. Generally,

    in the sociological interpretation of the concept of identity, two factors must inevitably be

    considered, firstly, the object assessment in the field of social measurement and secondly, the

    aspects of authenticity (Robertson et.al:1980:9). The identity of a particular person or a group

    has always two aspects- i.e. determinations of persons' objective nature and their subjective

    experience. The latter is sharpened in the notion of authenticity, by which it means a wholeness

    or integration of identity experience. In every society, the collective identity is assessed in terms

    of performances and attributes, and identified in the sense of "located" in this respect. Identity as

    such is an entirely a private phenomenon. However, the degree to which there is a separation of

    private domains from public ones, and hence a differentiation between public authenticity

    performance and private authenticity experiences, is itself variable (Ibid: 9).

    The assessment of personal or group behaviour or nature and the requirement for

    authenticity come together in the conception of trust in identities. In every society, there is also

    requirement for the assessment of authenticity, which in its form may vary. The individuals or

    members of a group take the situation and objects as reliable and present themselves

    authentically. Trust is an essential quality of social bonds and a constitutive element of the

    society. Where condition of trust is established explicitly, as through measurements, the pressure

    towards explicit and reflective construction of an individual (or group identity) becomes great.

    The basis of trust will thus, be related to the modes of identity assessment through social

    measurements and the (social) requirements for authenticity (Robertson:1980:6). In religious

    behaviour of particular group members, the tenets as well as 'folk believes' have played

    significant role in transformation of the society as a whole into a particular identity paradigm.

    Thus, the nature of the belief system directly relates to emerging models of identity. Such

    identities determined in relation to social measurement may be viewed as a consequence of

    integrated belief system and the way of thinking or outlook occurring in the broader society. The

    assessment of differences at the point of constraining boundaries leads to requirement to

    determine the sameness of an individual over a period of time and also in regard to different

    relations. The test of social boundaries and test of loyalty within the boundary are in the sense,

    collective parallels to the developmental schemata of self and personhood in the individual.Reflexivity in the establishment of social identities, therefore, will be a variable depending on the

    nature of symbolism available for the establishment of social measurement and differences; the

    perception of boundaries; and the multiplicity of boundaries to be considered. The entire analysis

    has asserted that identity assessment occurs in terms of symbolism available for social

    measurement.

    Identification is a necessary and contingent feature of all forms of social life. The

    boundary is a circumstance which denies the identity of all cultural principle and social practice.

    Thus, it resides at the quasi-group membership. Identity as such is a relational construction andrelative to situations and contexts which have both temporal and spatial dimensions.

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    The symbolic articulation of collective identity is most significant. The symbolic

    articulation of past, present and future, their relations with models of decision making, or their

    relation to patterns of mobilization can be seen as the central structure yielding interpretation of

    a collective fate and of desirable actions. In this connection, the symbolization of collective

    identity becomes an orientation pattern for the collective feeling and its response to new

    situation.

    Both Max Weber (1968) and Karl Marx dealt with individual and collective identity

    construction. It is more abstractly prescribed in Marx's theory of class-consciousness. A class is

    transformed from a category of persons sharing similar positions through the recognition of

    grievances and interests, and the establishment of communication and organization pattern that

    sustain capacity to make decision, and to engage in a collective struggle as a politico-economic

    force. The transformation from a class in itself to a class for itself is the construction of a

    collective actor. Marx and Weber have many differences in their analyses. But there are common

    emphases on the establishment of common boundaries, organization capacity and emergence of a

    collective identity in agreement (concert) with the collection of models for individual identity.

    The models of identity can be viewed as cultural objects, which have certain probable

    relations with the range of likely modes of experiencing on parts of individuals. An important

    attribute of the personal identity model concerns the manner in which an individual may grow

    into it or a conception of the process by which such an identity is acquired and fulfilled. This

    links the models of identity to the domain of personal experience. It has implications both for the

    modes of becoming socialized to the point of being able to enact the identity model and for the

    manner in which authenticity demands are both subjectively experienced and socially assessed

    (Robertson et.al:1980:29). The models of identity can also be seen as comprehensive

    prescriptions for conduct. It works as code of conduct in managing socialization, social control

    and authenticity. However, the enactment of an identity model in the alienated mode, creating

    multiple, non-synchronized identities in coexistence with each other is a possibility as well. The

    strategy for authenticity here rests in the withdrawal from the identity model without leading to

    the innovation of a new identity. Acceptance of and alienation from identity models are, of

    course processes that differ from the establishment of social identities through external

    constraints.

    Identity is interrelated with the existence not only of individuals but also of the entire

    society. Therefore, the modern social scientists laid higher emphasis on the theory of identity to

    understand behaviour of a particular religious community, cultural or other groups in general. It

    has been a device that provides appropriate tools to penetrate inner side of a group either

    majority or minority. If religion and religious behaviour is studied on the conceptual paradigm of

    identity tested by the mechanism of sacralization, it can be better understood than looking

    through any other paradigms existed so far. Obviously, it can be said that identity is the answer

    to everything. There is nothing that can not be seen through the mirror of identity. We are not

    going to pretend that there is the slightest argument about that.

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    It makes clear the horizon and strength of the term "identity" as a mirror. Everything can

    be seen through it. Thus, the theory itself is potential even to study religious minorities, examine

    their holistic identity, identity crisis or identity management. The identity model of sociology of

    religion became very effective. The sociologists use the model in the sense of stable niche

    whereas the social psychologists tend to use it in the sense of something to be negotiated or

    performed according to the circumstances. Allen Wheelis wrote -

    Identity is founded on those values which are at the top of the

    hierarchy. The beliefs and ideals integrate and determine other

    subordinate values (Wheelis:1958:200).

    The Identity Theory of Religions

    People follow religion who are abide by various psycho-social phenomenon to do so.

    They are at the same time found to be conscious and committed in their own way of belief. This

    context of religious practice finds them juggled with their own belief system or other uniquecharacteristics. This uniqueness makes them alert in their own identity as a religious unit in the

    broader social perspective. Each and every group always remains very conscious towards their

    own identity. Even all the segments of the society are tied by identity consciousness in one way

    or another. The components such as shrines, temples or places to offer prayer and perform

    sacred performances, and sacred objects such as texts of pray or images of Gods etc. deserve

    higher place with in the phenomenon of faith. A remarkable correspondence between those units

    and the level on which people form a particular community are detected in several studies.

    William A. Christian also found unique similarities between such things(Christian:1992:XI-XII). This type of traditional relations or structures of the belief pattern

    pushed forward the society to be more and more cautious to the sense of identity and

    independent existence within the frame of indigenous culture. Buddhism, as such as a way of life

    has similar correspondence with family identity (Morioka et.al:1971:185-200). In the same way,

    a study on Muslim minority persuaded in different Muslim settlements in Nepal also pointed out

    a very similar correspondence between Islam and collective identity (Thapa:1997:36-54).

    However Muslim identity has to suffer from various problems in places where its status is that of

    a minor religion. The religion considers the entire Muslims as a single brotherhood - thereby

    emphasizing collective identity within the boundary. But the sectarian division such as the Shia

    and Sunni remained very powerful. But the holy Quran, Allah, Prophet Muhammad, the Hadith,

    the practices such as- the Prayer (Namaz), charity (Zakat), fasting (Roza), pilgrimawge (Hajj),

    the creed of Islam (Kalimah), mosque (Masjid), the law (Sharia) and soon are sacred objects

    which govern Muslim spirituality and their collective identity. All the Muslims as community

    members proudly emphasize collective identity on this paradigm.

    At present, the identity theory to study religio-cultural or other social behaviour is

    regarded as one of the important devices to analyze human behaviour. Thus, identity itself has

    become one of the important models in sociological study of religion although sociologists pay

    low attention to this conceptual paradigm. So, the identity model can be used to understand

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    religious phenomenon using identity as a basic variable. At the moment, this concept has gained

    popularity in similar kinds of studies to analyze human religious behaviour. A professor in

    Canada named Joannan J. (Hans) Mol first developed this idea. He synthesized, testified and

    perfected the model to analyze identity. Since then, many researchers have studied different

    religions on the basis of the identity paradigm. In this book, the validity of the theory is tested

    through the study of Muslims as a religious minority living in non-Muslim societies. Even before

    Hans Mol has refined this theory, a large number of sociologists studied identity of religious,

    cultural or other psychological groups, which after all, rendered valuable contribution to Hans

    Mol to perfect the theory to study a particular religious group. Thus, this theory was introduced

    as a model of religious behaviour of individual members in a group. This model is an effective

    tool to understand individual, society and their behaviour. In fact, religion (Dharma) represents

    interaction between personal, group and social identity and also maintains the social order

    (Gopalan:1978:119).

    This is to say that religious behaviour itself is deeply imbedded in the social behaviour of

    people. This is a variable that has built human society in a frame ultimately leading to spirituality.

    Therefore, spirituality as such can also lead to identity of a person, group, society or community

    as a single whole. But it is, of course, not worthy that the degree of faith and spirituality varies

    from one group to another. It effects the identity of those people as well. The belief system

    among the Hindus, Buddhists, Muslims, Christians (different sects), smaller nationalist religions

    and totems varies to each other. It later introduces particular identity of its people through

    sociological and psychological perspective. Hans Mol looked the concept of identity through the

    perspective of sociology of religion. He analyzed identity of groups by defining religion as

    sacralization of identity. His main thesis is that man's attempt to sacralization self-identity, group

    identity and social identity result in transformation of personality. Thus, the relevance of religion

    is perennial and categories implied by various religions need not be understood as abstract taking

    man's thoughts and aspiration away from the society. Mol laid emphasis on sacralization process

    but he did not disregard the sacred. Thus, both of the variables keep equal importance in the

    everyday form of human living. Mol's theory primarily emphasizes on description of four basic

    conceptual bases (Mol:1976:120 / Mol:1978:11-14, 119-150 and 179-202).

    While studying Yoga on the basis of mechanism of sacralization, Manju and Braj Sinha

    have added one more component to Mol's interpretation of the theory that is - 'Dialectic of

    Appropriation'. The identity theory as such has in fact religious behaviour and individual identity

    and at the same time provided frame of reference to analyze identity of a particular religious

    group. This concept displays the meaning of sameness, boundary, wholeness and finally the

    structure. These four basic conceptual parameters help to analyze and further understand

    functions of religion (Mol:1979:12).

    It refers to individuals, groups or social identity. The personal identity is wholeness of an

    individual in so far as the person attempts to remain as a well functioning unit in his environment.

    If a group doesn't maintain itself as available system in its surrounding the identity forces to

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    originate certain crisis. Various elements in individuals or group behaviour make the wholeness,

    continuity and identity stronger. The human society has constantly been learning how to react to

    the sources of change and situation proved to be a danger to the identity and existence.

    The sociology of human behaviour can be understood applying various conceptual

    frames. The identity under consideration is concerned with what it does rather than what it is(Mol:1978:3). Therefore, it lays higher emphasis on the mechanism of sacralization. It gives a

    more solid base to understand identity in terms of religious behaviour. This theory further

    considered religion not as a product of human thinking but as a complete process. It defines the

    religion as whatever sacralization. The context of sacralization as a system of meaning is defined

    as a process, by which on the level of symbol systems, certain patterns acquire the same, taken

    for granted, stable, eternal quality which, on the level of instinctive behaviour, was acquired by

    the consolidation and stabilization of new genetic materials. Thus, it is a sort of brake applied to

    unchecked infinite adaptations in symbol systems for which there is increasingly less evolutionary

    necessity and which become more dysfunctional for the emotional security of personality and for

    the integration of tribe or community (Mol:1978:13). Sacralization then is to the dysfunctional

    potential of symbol systems. It produces immunity against persuasion, which is similar to the

    biological immunization process. It has been an inevitable process that safeguards identity when

    it is endangered by disadvantages of the infinite adaptability of symbol systems (Mol:1978 :13-

    14). It prefects identity a system of meaning, or a definition of reality, and also modifies,

    obstructs or legitimates changes. The sacralization process as such is comprised of certain

    mechanisms which are -

    - Objectification : It is the projection of order into a beyond where it is less vulnerable to

    contradictions exceptions and contingencies, in other words- a refereed realm

    where major outlines of order can be maintained in the facet of temporal, but all

    absorbing dislocations of that order.

    - Commitment: The commitment is emotional anchorage in various proliferating foci of

    identity.

    - Ritual: The ritual is the action, articulation and movements that keeps sacralization

    objects from being lost and contributes to maintain 'sameness' and continuity of

    religious tenets that helps to maintain identity.

    - Myth : It is an integration of the various strains in a coherent and short hand symbolic

    account.

    Besides these four important conceptual mechanisms, another mechanism known as the

    dialectic of appropriation is later added for its clearer understanding.

    - Dialectic of Appropriation: A second moment in the dialectical growth of sacralization

    process more explicit (Manju and Braj:1978:146).

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    The identity of a particular group can be analyzed through the application of the

    mechanism of sacralization. Regarding the Muslim identity, the activities inside Masjids and

    other religious perceptions can be studied in this paradigm. The situation in Islamic and non-

    Islamic societies is somewhat different in nature. Therefore, it should be taken into account while

    analyzing its behavioral aspect. Of course, the faith is reposed so far but the consistency of faith

    and belief influence identity of the group as a whole. Similarly, the commitment of group

    members towards their own belief system also makes difference to great extent.

    Taking into account, the importance and relevance of the theory of identity to analyze the

    identity as such of a religious minority, all of the five mechanisms of the said theory are described

    for easy understanding. Later, all the five conceptual bases are used to analyze different aspects

    of minority religious behaviour, religiosity, belief pattern and secularization process within the

    belief system. This explanation is the key to analyze identity of the particular religious group. In

    the case of religious minorities such as the Muslims or even the followers of other religions, this

    theory is applicable to the extent that it is sufficient to analyze the group identity as a particular

    religious group.

    For wider implications of the identity theory, these five mechanisms are frequently used

    in studying the religious culture. The religious identity could well be judged from this 'Mollian

    Concept'. Thus, all the mechanisms are equally important to study human behaviour of all

    religions. Later, this chapter intends to evaluate Islamic theology as well as the religious

    behaviour of Muslims as a minor religious group living in non-Muslim societies. For our concern

    to review Muslim minorities, all the concepts are equally important and applied in different

    contexts, so the identity theory as such can be interpreted from the point of view of Islam and

    identity can be understood both in terms of individuality and collective feeling. The conceptual

    basis of identity is effective if we take it with what it does rather than what it is.

    The human social behaviour can be analyzed from different angles applying different

    conceptual references. Thus, the belief system of any society is of no exception. The study of a

    group within this theoretical paradigm of identity is concerned with evaluating and analyzing

    identity phenomenon. At the same time, it is necessary to pay attention to individuals personal

    development and personality integration.

    The mechanism of sacralization, which perfectly examines the identity of individuals or

    groups in a society is, discussed here.

    1. Objectification :

    The objectification is the projection of order in a beyond where it is less vulnerable to

    contradictions, exceptions and contingencies. In other word, objectification is a rarefied realm

    where major outlines of order can be maintained in the face of temporal.

    The sociological significance of religion can be appreciated only when religion is not

    considered merely as a product but looked at also as a complete process. Every day behaviourand activities in the society in which they live construct the nature of identity of an individual. An

    individual has dynamic nature reiterating to understand religion. This dynamism can be an

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    advantage as well as disadvantage with regard to the effectiveness of religion. In this context, it

    seems to be an unrealistic to hold that religion has always helped mankind in achieving

    personality integration, group cohesion and social unity as it is to point out an accusing finger at

    religion and condemn it as having thwarted individuals' growth, marred group consolidation,

    destroyed human unity and effectuated alienation and anomie in the individual

    (Gopalan:1978:124-125).

    In and through the conceptual tool of objectification, Hans Mol takes note of the

    transcendental implications of morality and also indicates metaphysical roots of social life.

    Although he took the concept in the context of explaining various mechanisms of sacralization, it

    can also be applied to visualize the ways concerning ideas and idealization of inter-personal

    relationship. Mol himself defined the objectification as - the tendency to sum up the variegated

    elements of mundane existence in a transcendental frame of reference whereby they can appear

    more orderly, consistent and more timeless (Mol:1976:264-66). He further says that the process

    of objectification is symptomatic of man's progressive capacity for abstract thinking and ability to

    use symbols.

    Here it can be said that it necessarily functions to stick out or project a conception of

    reality, a system of values or a meaning structure in a transcendental order as well as providing a

    point of reference in terms of which the corruption, contingencies, chaos, and inconsistency of

    the mundane realm come to be interpreted and appropriated (Manju and Braj:1978:136). Any

    conceptual interpretation which lays emphasis to knowledge as an ultimate union with the

    supreme is comparable to the process of objectification.

    In popular religions, there are both transcendental and mundane things which are

    objectified. Later those mundane objects retain sacralization and remain vital in identity. Thus,

    symbols are used in religion which remains part of mundane experience and some how transcend

    those experiences (Mol:1978: 180). Various mundane objects are objectified and remain as the

    sacralization symbols of religious behaviour. In this case, the objectified components remain an

    integral part of identity within the religious boundary. For Mol, objectification serves the purpose

    of minimizing disruptive influence of meaninglessness of existence on the self. The function of

    objectification, as Mol suggests, is to guarantee the incorruptibility of the transcendental order as

    well as to provide a point of reference in terms of which corruption, contingencies, Chaos, and

    inconsistencies of the mundane realm can be interpreted and appropriated (Mol:1976:265).

    Different religions use symbols which are part and parcel of mundane experiences. They use

    materials at hand and weave them into a coherent pattern (Mol:1978:180).

    2. Commitment:

    It is an emotional component of identity theory or the mechanism of sacralization.

    Commitment as such is defined as the focused emotion or emotional attachment which is specific

    to identity (Mol:1976:216). It reinforces identities, system of meaning and definition of reality.

    The reinforcing process is seen as guaranteeing consistency and predictability of motivation and

    behaviour. Thus, it has a stabilizing effect on system of meaning and actions and thereby ensures

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    personality integration and social cohesion. Commitment is primarily affirmative and identity

    consolidating (Manju and Braj:1978:138-139). The practice of asceticism in itself is a

    commitment. The ascetic practices either of Hindu ascetics or the Buddhist monks or the

    renouncing worldly desires is self-surrender or sacrifice. The individual ascetics prompts to

    renounce the worldly society and solely devote to the culmination of the ultimate truth

    (Thapa:1995:11-33 and 52-71). Mol further observes asceticism as a way of clarifying personal

    priorities and purifying one's loyalties (Mol:1976:229). The most important factor in the

    formulation of commitment relates to the priority setting function and its relevance to the

    sacralization of a system of meaning or value structure. Hinduism insists on the contribution of

    Sradha (ritual anniversary for deceased one) in setting such priorities for spiritual realization

    (Manju and Braj:1978:140). In priority setting function of the commitment links that on a

    different plane, which enables aspirants to perceive immense possibilities for union with the

    supreme in self-sacrifice. The later is guided by need to find oneself in the company of the divine

    whose constant companionship is always desired by devotees. The death, instead of being an end

    of life, is the beginning of a more meaningful life in the fellowship of the divine. Thus, sacrifice is

    a form of commitment which reinforces a system of meaning or identity by clarifying priorities

    (Manju and Braj:1978:14).

    The commitment itself is crucial in identity. It is a prerequisite to have a commitment in

    individual group members for social identity or to a system of meaning. In the lack of feeling of

    loyalty, the belief, values, and norms of tribe, family and community are likely to crumble.

    This has been the emotional part of the identity process. It is an emotional attachment to

    the focus of identity. Then it reinforces identities, system of meaning and definitions of reality.

    The reinforcing process is seen as guaranteeing consistency and predictability of motivation and

    behaviour. Thus, it has a stabilizing effect on systems of meaning and actions, thereby ensures

    personality integration and social cohesion. The commitment is primarily affirmative and identity

    consolidating (Maju and Braj:1978:139).

    3. Rituals:

    The Human society performs different ritual practices based on prevalent belief system,

    which further elaborates, and legitimizes it. The observance of religious and cultural rites

    restores sameness through repetition of ritual action and provides a system of meaning to

    memory. It also preserves identity by harnessing and guiding necessary changes from one pattern

    to another (Mol:1978:191).

    There are rites in different sects to reinforce sameness through repeated

    observances. For an instance, such an identity is reinforced among the Muslims by collective

    gatherings in prayers and festivals, offering prayers in congregation and so on. It reinforces

    identity and distinguishes insiders and the outsiders. Emile Durkhim discussed power and

    influence of rites in the following words -

    A rite can have this character, in fact, the rite does not exist

    which does not have it to a certain degree. If the Vedic sacrifices

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    has had such an efficacy that it was the creator of the Gods, and

    not merely a means of winning their favour, it is because it

    possessed a virtue comparable to that of the most sacred beings

    (Durkheim:1976:37).

    The ritual practice has played eminently important contributory role in theidentity consolidation. Rites maximize order, reinforce the place of the individual in his

    society and strengthen the bonds of a society vis--vis the individual. Through

    repetitive emotion evoking action, social cohesion and personality integration are

    reinforced. At the same time that aggressive or socially destructive actions are

    articulated, dramatized and curbed (Mol:1976:13). Each ritual activities involves a

    recommitment to memory of a system of meaning. So, a group periodically reviews

    the sentiment which it has of itself and of its unity, at the same time, individuals are

    strengthened in their social nature (Durkhem:1976:360-67).

    4. Myth:

    Myths express reality which provides basic personal and social experiences. It reinforces

    men's place of making implicit or even explicit, statement about it. The mythic symbolism also

    denotes a system of meaning in the identity. In some cultural or religious groups, it acts as a

    separate mechanism. The basic function of emotional sublimation of the critical conflict situation

    of human existence is accomplished through mythic symbolism over and against adaptation

    through the instrumental symbol system (Manju and Braj:1978:144). The basic binary opposition

    or conflict which is emotionally sublimated on a symbolic level constitutes the core of mythic

    narration (Mol:1976:252-53).

    5. Dialectic of Appropriation:

    In the study of sacralization process, the aspect of the sacred which leads further

    sacralization has received little attention. This dialectic, further emphasized by Manju and Braj

    Sinha in their study of Hindu Yoga in the identity paradigm, drew more attention from scholars.

    So, they proposed the fifth component of identity i.e. the dialectic of appropriation in order to

    analyze the second stage of dialectical growth of the process in which sacred extends its reign

    over profane and hereafter transforms profane into the sacred (Manju and Braj:1978:146-149).

    In fact, sacralization process itself is so powerful and intrinsic which extends its reign to

    the extent that it appropriates and assimilates all that comes into contact with it

    (Durkheim:1965:358). Therefore, there is a process of appropriation in which profane becomes

    sacred. Once they acquired sacredness in and through these mechanisms, they do not remain

    totally confined to the transcendental locus. If those mechanism have relevance in the human

    existence, it must participate in mundane life. It is done through the mechanism of the dialectic

    of appropriation (Manju and Braj:1978:146). It can take place on different levels of economic,

    political, cultural and artistic subsystems. The result of the dialectic of appropriation is always

    integrative for understanding of group identity.

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    Muslim Minorities and Theory of Identity and:

    The analysis of relationship between theology, brotherhood and cultural practices in

    Islam denotes to communal identity of Muslims brethren. Islam as a cultural system prefers

    fostering integrated communality unlike other religions such as Buddhism, Christianity and

    Hinduism, which denotes to the personal and group identity. In fact, Islam prefers collectiveidentity. It is an identity with the foundation in a limited boundary of communality.

    The aspects of Islam such as the interpretation of dogma, conservative attitude,

    integration of politics and religion and religiously determined intolerant nature play important

    role in the identity of Muslims. These variables are often persistent among the Muslims in the

    places of its origin as well as in those places where they command majority. The concept of

    identity can well be applied in a comprehensive way to study Muslims as a religious minority,

    and maintain its significance. The importance and relevance of identity paradigm can be

    explicated, thus by studying it as an integral part of sociology of religion that insists on necessity

    of taking into account the various dimensions of human personality (Gopalan:1978:120-121).

    The application of the theory of identity in the context of Islam with concern of what this

    theory particularly explains, provides an appropriate base for more concrete interpretation.

    Although various other religious communities were studied under the paradigm, the Korea

    Muslim minority were studied for the first time using this theoretical model in 1999 in which a

    comparison was also made with the Muslim minority of Nepal (Thapa:1999:1-166). In this

    connection, Islam is not considered as a product of human thinking but a process. The

    personality development in Islam does not merely relates to individual psychology but it

    connotes the meaning to a stage which transcends the stage of obtaining the state of restfulness.

    This is the stage in which perfect identity is realized. Hence, the practicality of Islam is

    understood. The human attribute to Allah for His being everywhere and looking everything or

    absoluteness, the one and only, has deep significance. It further leads to devotion, commitment

    and transcendence of human mind. So, identity of an individual in Islam is associated with his

    trust in God. Therefore, his true identity is possible only through devotion to the God-religion

    dichotomy. The deeper significance of the religious philosophy is that it originates from Him and

    revolves around Him. It provides proper base to find potential in an individual or group and find

    true identity. It is an ideal for a devoted Muslim. It is not only an ethical category but also a

    complete civilization in which lives of people are set. The holy Quran mentions that Allah is not

    only the God of Muslims but of the entire humanity. However, his diversified role does not

    influence non-followers beyond the boundary of Pan-Islamism. A true Muslim is fully devoted to

    the will of God.

    In general, an individual is concerned with the Almighty in such a way that identity of a

    Muslim individual, thus is the reflection of devotion to Him and His extended sovereignty. He

    commanded people to believe Him and obey his just orders. A true Muslim is supposed to repose

    his ultimate faith in Allah. The faith derives from religion itself in His inmate nature i.e. his

    existence and development. Since, individuals differ to each other in temperament, inclination,

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    ideals and aspirations, it can not be same for all and same for the person all the time. Religion as

    such is dynamic. Consequently, the religious faith of individuals differ during different stages of

    life (Gopalan:1978:129). The faith reposed in the five pillars of Islam largely determines the basis

    in the interpretation of identity of Muslims. But regarding the Hindus, it is Svadharma (owns

    own duty) that plays decisive role in the interpretation of individual identity. The five pillars,

    which are the basis of Islam, are based on the unity of God and his extraordinary powers. In the

    same way, it provided the basis for broader Islamic civilization where an individual maintains his

    identity only through belief and dedication to those principles. But devotion of a Muslim religion

    and commitment towards the words of the God and the sayings of the holy Quran, often results

    in communality, militancy and fundamentalism because their identity can perfect itself only in the

    political system set up by Islam. Therefore, identity of Muslims is visualized in the commitment

    to faith without question in hand. There are practices in which collective unity in the society is

    often attained or emphasized. The Hajj, Zakat and the concept of Islamic brotherhood, of

    course, within the same sects, are practices that strengthen social unity and provide an

    opportunity to make contribution or strengthen group identity. The practice ofNamaz prayer

    and observing Roza fasting always sacralizes the behaviour enlarging the area of concern in

    which an individual is truly identified. Everything in Islam either sacred or profane is attributed

    to the Allah and further integrated in a single whole. Since, Allah claims that He has created men

    and women in the universe, entire humanity is believed to be his offspring. It has greater

    connotation in different aspects of identity, which is associated with the ultimate being, and

    strengthening of sacralization. This obviously means that the, true identity is realized only in this

    way. The Islamic identity rests upon collective feeling making the world onto humanity and with

    concern for entire Muslim brotherhood. So, it has intensive concern for society and humanity.

    The theory thus can be applied in the study of various segments within the Muslim society in

    varied geographical regions.

    Islam as a full-fledged religion has developed socio-cultural traits, which abide all the

    Muslims in a linear form of cultural unity. It contributed to strengthen identity. The entire

    Muslim society is motivated to follow sacred rules and Quranic injunctions because Allah desired

    so. The echo of identity components at the level of popular belief and practices consolidated

    them under an umbrella of entirely unique and separate identity. Consequently, it separates aparticular society from rest of other worldly societies. This kind of consolidation is also prone to

    identity alienation, which leads to bitter outside relations. The result of this kind of identity

    phenomenon always leads to religious fundamentalism no matter the type of religion. As the

    matter of fact, there are extremists or fundamentalists who manipulate social forces and confront

    with outsiders in the name of protecting religion. It also plays certain kind of role in the identity.

    The Ulemas (council of learned persons), Hindu sect leaders or ascetics as well as the

    Protestants are representative examples of religious extremism. Islam as a religion reinforces

    collective identity. It has developed or enforced powerful identity elements within the frameworkof religion. The Muslims maintain both existence and collective identity through faith on the

    tenets of religion.

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    It is believed that the conceptual frames of modernization and post-modernism are not

    helpful for humanity to resolve spiritual and emotional problems. Now, there has been a growing

    realization that religion has to be taken out of its historical and material contexts. The

    sociological aspect of religion has immense impact on the belief system as well as its structural

    changes. Therefore, changes occurred due to historical and sociological contexts need to be

    taken into consideration. The true essence lies in its sociology but not in its conservative factors

    created at the time of its origin. Thus, the changing forces always remain powerful in the study

    of religion and identity. So, the study of Islam in the form contained only in the compendium of

    primary sources could be bias since it has been changed to greater extent from its originality at

    the foot of practice. So, a comparison of Quranic citations and contemporary contexts is

    preferable to analyze identification of groups on the basis of the theory of identity under

    consideration. The fact to be taken into account is that religious as well as other concepts have

    lost much of their purity in the process of materialization in time-space categories

    (Moazzam:1995:113-114) while considering Islam in the identity perspective it is more

    important to note that most of the basic concepts and beliefs are understood or even followed in

    their original form. Muslims are widely divided on the matter of applied versions of Quranic

    teachings. It has immense significance in the study of Islam on the identity theory paradigm.

    Some conservative Islamic scholars are of opinion to avoid all such contemporary

    considerations. They rather emphasized to maintain theocratic originality and study only that

    Islamic material which is not hostile to Quranic teachings. But it is a prejudice to avoid these

    factors occurred within the social sphere during its application. Islam, as a religion, is a complete

    way of life, and a system of universals, recognizing religious pluralism. Religions may differ in

    fundamental belief, objectives and ways to achieve those objectives. No religion can provide

    conceptual room for enmity with those who differ to its world view. If a religion does so, it

    would cease to be religion and degenerate into a short sighted anti-human ideology

    (Moazzam:1995:114).

    There is nothing more sacred Islam than the holy Quran itself. Thus, the higher emphasis

    is laid upon the sacred objects on which the faith of the entire Islamic world rests. It represents a

    basic uniformity in religious behaviour. There are persons (Maulvi, Imam, and Qadi) and sacred

    alters (Shrines or the Majars, Masjids etc.) which constantly guide people on religious matter.Those institutions further contribute to maintain existence and identity. But in both the Islamic

    and non-Islamic societies where Muslims maintain a considerable numerical strength, they have

    established various socio-religious and charitable institutions intended to foster religious

    advancement. But, sometimes, those institutions have differences of opinion on working policies.

    Such differences with each other act as instrumental factor in performing sacred jobs. But it is

    less important than similarity in sacralization mechanisms, ordering objectification, loyal

    sentiments, national rituals and myths (Mol:1979:32-33). The practical nature and basic content

    of sacralization may differ from one religion to another. But its implication as a theoretical frameof reference has similarities. The religious components such as Quranic ordinances, importance

    of prayer, role of congregation, sacred personalities (Imams) rituals, religious ceremonies etc.

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    are components to reinforce significant effects in the life of Muslim individuals. These are the

    bases that support and perfect Muslim identity. The trend of modernization brought about

    significant changes in the perception of religion and belief. This situation remains vital in the

    overall development of religion.

    The weakening traits of devotion and commitment and 'the Muslims without prayer' playthe role of immense significance in the changing perception of religion. It further affected

    identity of Muslims as a religious minority. The communal or denominational identity might get

    benefit from the weaknesses of each other. So, the group identity could use social identity to its

    own advantage leading to stronger workable and advanced identity. The religion of Muslims and

    their way of thinking on communal basis are integrated in identity as an object.

    In the Muslim societies, group identity is essentially reflected in the individual's identity.

    However, the social identity as a whole is not focused in the identity of an individual. The

    mission of Islam including all of its secondary efforts, by and large, provides spiritual strength to

    its alienated followers. The leadership of Muslim World League (Rabita-al-alam-al-Islami) and

    politico-religious leadership combined with economic strength in one side and appealing

    opportunities on the other is proved to be an effective support to the 'Muslim Youth

    Movements', in contemporary times. At the same time, this part of material culture welded them

    in a rather modified, if not new, group identity. The opportunity and support extended by Arab

    economies to the Muslims in other Asian countries including those in Nepal, Korea, Japan,

    Taiwan and so on where Muslims constitute a religious minority, played significant role in

    maintenance of existence, communal identity and the sacralization of religious behaviour. But

    such types of material support do not always create positive results. Sometimes, it tend to create

    negative impacts as well in the identity behaviour thereby creating negative nature of identity

    necessarily a reversal trend of the sacralization process. In fact, this is opposed to the

    components of conceptual frame of identity which help understand religious behaviour of

    Muslims as a religious minority. The negative way of thinking is not friendly to the traditional

    values and norms of religious culture. It may be termed as a kind of cocktail in the culture,

    religion and identity.

    The identity model in the sociology of religion is a process in which, on the level of

    consciousness, reference to the supernatural, the holy and sacred and the other reality are being

    lost. In fact, it is related to the growing independence of institutional spheres. Each of these

    variables has developed its own rationale which implies rejection of over arching claims of

    religion. Usually, it is accompanied by reduced involvement in community religious activities,

    lesser community participation and a growing unbelief. This happens because of the dialectical

    relationship between consciousness and the social and cultural structures (Dobbelaere:1979:1-2).

    During the course of Islamic history, it is often found in both Islamic or non-Islamic

    countries that the leadership always attempted to make expansion of religion by striping

    membership of other non-Muslims. In this case, they successfully welded them in new identity.

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    Thereafter, the sects and sub-sets, ideas etc. further contribute to revitalize the social order and

    guide to changes by detachment and attachment.

    In Islamic countries and in other places where religion has forceful role in the social level,

    the followers are committed to religion thereby following mandatory practices prescribed so far.

    Therefore, the newborn are supposed to take to shrines sacred places for well being. It is the firststep to begin with individual identity as a group member. It has been a common practice among

    the Muslims everywhere. Performing various rituals approves the admittance of a new Muslim in

    the social order. But assimilation of tenets of alien culture within Islam in lesser societies proves

    to be a threat to create undesired influences. As a minor culture, Islam is prone to cultural

    assimilation without any other choice to avoid such influences. So, Muslim culture in non-

    Muslim societies where it remains as a minor community has been assimilated with the local

    indigenous majority culture such as Korea, Nepal, Japan, Taiwan and others. As a minor

    religious group, Muslims have to under go through such situation without room for any kind of

    changes. But, Islam is well equipped to maintain its identity even if other cultures influence it.

    The local Muslims are careful enough to maintain their identity and defend any kind of undesired

    cultural penetration from outside the boundary, which ultimately threatens to the basic

    components of Islam and goes against its holiness. The integration of feeling and commitment

    within the sphere of unity and identity in terms of belief system is spectacular during the Zumma,

    Id and other routine and special prayers, and life cycle rituals are regulated by the Quranic

    citations.

    In all activities motivated by religion and culture, a Muslim is supposed to abide by

    various sacred rules. The strict observance of rules leads to a sense of unity and integration of

    cultural traits. But everywhere and in all ages, there are always certain groups of people who are

    not fervent followers of the path set aside by the God. Those people are known as- Kafireen

    (those who refused the Prophet's invitation) and Munafiqueen (who embraced Islam only

    outwardly). The newly converts in East Asia in particular are likely to this situation. So, there is

    always high possibility of breaking sacred rules. Obviously, higher emphasis is not laid upon such

    rules. But it is not always necessary that they break customary rules. However, they prefer

    flexibility of rules. Therefore, those people are already pre-occupied by tenets of their former

    cultural background.

    Majority chauvinism influences minority groups there by leading to the forceful cultural

    assimilation. In the contexts of Korea and some other societies, it can be said that the temporal

    or transcendental factors largely derived from national ideological homogeneity have superseded

    Islamic identity. This situation is crucial in the study of the term itself. Obviously, this situation is

    crucial in the study of identity of Muslim minorities living in non-Muslim countries such as

    Korea, Japan, Nepal, Taiwan, Macao, mainland China and so on. Islam as an ideology

    introduced egalitarianism in human relationship. Therefore, there is no distinction between its

    followers as mentioned in the holy scripture. However, social dimension or hierarchical variation

    in the Muslim society in the South Asian countries still exists. These components are, rather

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    found to be very powerful to act within the social boundary of Muslim society. (Thapa:1995:78-

    87). This aspect of the Muslim social system is considered very important in the South Asian

    countries. But it is obvious to note that Allah taught men which they did not know before; but

    the servants of the literate Lord were nearly all illiterate. Hence, Islam, although in theory an

    egalitarian religion, was stratified since the early days in terms of literate urban elite and an

    illiterate tribal majority. There was the difference between direct and indirect access to God

    (Gellner:1969:127-38).

    The entire Muslims are considered to be the procreation of the Almighty. They emphasize

    to live as a single brotherhood. This notion works without considering political boundaries.

    Thus, Jame Masjids (Friday mosques) are usually found to be the center of international

    interaction. It serves also as a place to foster brotherhood for both alien and native Muslims.

    This feeling is well reflected in the Quranic citations as well as in practice reinforcing its identity.

    The unity of god is the major concept which brings about unity in the belief system as well as

    keeps the believers in a linear form. In fact, it keeps entire civilization winding in the same thread

    as serial of cultural and religious integration. The guidance of Allah and Quran always expect

    followers to be prepared for Jihad (the holy war) to strengthen Islamic identity. The Islamic

    organization worldwide is linked with each other in a bond of universal brotherhood. There is a

    kind of connection between all the Muslims but not a kind of discriminatory distinction at least in

    theory. The practical aspect is varied to it, which has profound impact on identity consolidation.

    The Islamic organization either liberal or conservative intends to foster identity. All these

    activities, however lead to strengthen communal identity in a traditional way.

    The performance of prayer, charity, pilgrimages and fasting signifies and strengthens

    group identity. Such a practice also develops strong inter-group relations. It is very important to

    examine its contribution in strengthening group identity.

    The practical aspect of religion requires reciting various injunctions from the holy text of

    Quran and follows the traditions (Hadith). The recitation of Quranic injunctions confirms their

    firm devotion in religion and at the same time, it maintains its traditional values too. It has

    something to do with integration of religious tenets in the diverse society. But at the same time,

    the converted society still has various problems. Their behaviour sometimes varies to that of

    traditional Muslim followers. The former is not orthodox but liberal in religious matter. In fact,

    the indigenous traditional cultural values in non-Muslim societies have greater impact on

    behaviour of converted Muslims.

    The minority Muslim culture is a kind of assimilated cultural form. In the case of Nepal's

    Muslim minority in remote hill villages, they are assimilated with the Hindu culture to the extent

    that they are now completely on the verge of cultural disintegration. ( Thapa:1998:40-48 /

    Siddika:1995:166-271). This is very important in the maintenance of identity. But the Muslims in

    countries like Korea and Japan are in different situation. They still have to go a long way to

    attain maturity. They are very liberal in religious system and their belief is designed accordingly.

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    It, however does not mean that their faith is doubtful. Of course, they are faithful but

    there is circumstance, which tends to create this kind of situation. A vast majority of population

    is still unable to take on board the notion of Korean Muslims. So, the elements of

    fundamentalism in that society is not strong enough to go hand in hand with conservatism

    prevailed in other Muslim countries. The reasons are the lack of numerical strength and the

    views the converts once shared with the secular society.

    The identity model as such often takes religion as a dramatizing the evolutionary dialectic

    (Mol:1979:35). The ways of negative and positive principles (Japanese: Onmyo ; Chinese: Yang

    and Yin; Sanskrit: Purusha and Prakriti or existence and non-existence) also represent to this sort

    of dialectic. Even very similar dialectic is found in the Islamic philosophy. It emphasizes on the

    popular notion that "God has no shape and existence but exists everywhere".

    When we discuss about Islam, it is obvious to discuss about fundamentalism too because

    the term itself is very important while dealing with identity of a particular religious group. If

    fundamentalism refers to doctrine of inerrancy, then all Muslims are fundamentalists

    (Perry:1991:129). The personalization of faith in the level of identity is a core element of

    fundamentalism. This very, personalization is effective and forceful in Islam as well as

    Protestantism. This is ineffective among the Buddhist and the Jain monks.

    This sort of nature of Islamic philosophical tradition and integration of individual to the

    will of God is core to the identity of Muslims either individually or collectively. This conceptual

    paradigm is very positive to study religious minorities.

    Reference:

    1. Bloom, William,Personal Identity, National Identity and International Relations, London,

    Cambridge University Press, 1993.

    2. Burk, Peter J., and Tully Judy, "The Measurement of Role and Identity", Social Forces, 55,

    1977, pp. 280-297.

    3. Christian, William,Person and God in a Spanish Valley, New York, Seminar Press, 1972.

    4. Dobbelaere, Karel, Professionalization and Secularization in the Belgian Catholic Pillar, (ASeminar Paper presented at the International conference in Tokyo organization by CISR

    (Conference International de Sociologie Religien) Hosted by Japanese Institute for the

    Study of Religions (JISR) 1979

    5. Durkheim, Emile, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, New York, The Free Press,

    1965.

    6. Durkheim Emile, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, London, George Allen and

    Unwin, 1976.

    7. Erikson, Erik, Identity, Youth and Crisis, New York, Faber Books, 1968.

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    8. Gellner, Ernest, 'A Pendulum Swing Theory of Islam', in Roland Robertson, Sociology of

    Religion, Harmodsworth, 1969.

    9. Gopalan, S., 'Identity Theory Against the Backdrop of Hindu Concept of Dharma: A

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    Cross-Cultural Perspective, London, Sage Publication, 197810. Grunebaum, G.E. Von, Modernization Islam-The Search for Cultural Identity, Berkeley,

    University of California Press, 1962.

    11. Haebarmass, Jurgen,Legitimization Crisis, London, Heinemann, 1976.

    12. Heideggar, Martin,Identity and Difference, New York, Harper and Row, 1969.

    13. Manju and Braj Sinha, 'Ways of Yoga and Mechanism of Sacralization', in Hans Mol (ed.),

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    14. Moazzan, Anwar, 'Islam and Plurality of Religions', in K.Sachitananda (ed.) The

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    15. Mol, Hans, 'The Identity Model of Religion: How it Compares With nine other Theories of

    Religion and How it Might Apply to Japan', Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, Vol. 6,

    Nos 1-2, IISR, March-June, 1979.

    16. Mol, Hans, 'Maori Identity and Religion', in Hans Mol (ed.), Identity and Religion:

    International Cross-Cultural Perspective, London Sage Publications, 1978.

    17. Mol, Hans, The Sacralization of Identity, Oxford, Balckwell, 1976; Morioka Kiyomi and

    Shimpo Mitsuru, 'The Impact of the Physical Movement of Population on Japanese

    Religions After the World War II', in Jacques Verscheure (ed.), Acts of the 11th Conference

    of the CISR, Lille, CISR, 1971.

    18. Perry, G., The Islamic World-Egypt and Iran, in G. Moyester (ed.), Politics and Religion

    in the Modern World, London, Rouletge and Kegan Paul, 1991.

    19. Robertson, Roland and Holzner Buckhardt, Identity and Authority: Exploration in the

    Theory of Society, Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1980.

    20. Siddika, Shamima, Muslims of Nepal, Kathmandu, Gazala Siddika, 1995.21. Thapa, Shanker, Inter-Ethnic Stratification... Tribhuvan University Journal, Vol. XIII,

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    22. Thapa, Shanker, Muslim Identity: The Theory of Religious Identity and A Comparison

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    23 Thapa, Shanker, "Some Aspects of Muslim Minority and Problem of Identification", A

    Research Report submitted to the Research Division, T.U., Kathmandu, 1997.

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    ****