She r pa architecture Centrededocumentation d'Informationet a Rt cherche pourle dveloppementcnl'ur^l She r pa architecture ValerioSestini and Enz oSomigli TranslatedfromItalian byTimoth yPaterson luresoo Th edesignationse mploye dand the presentationofthematerialin this publicationdo notimplytheexpression ofanyopinionwhatsoeveron thepart oftheUne scoSecretariat concerning thelegal statusofanycountry, territory, cityorareaorofits authorities,orconcerning the delimitationofitsfrontiersor boundaries. Publishedin1978 by theUnited Nations Educational,Scientifica nd Cultural Organization 7PlacedeFontenoy,75700Paris PrintedbyJournaldeGe nveS . A . , Ge ne va ,Switzerland IS B N92-3-201612-5 Unesco1978 PrintedinSwitzerland Preface Forma nyyearsNe palh a dbeenclosedtovisitors,exceptforrare permissiongiventogroupsseekingtoclimb itstowering peaksorto small numbe r sof scientists carrying out research on the flora andfauna oftheHimalayas.Th e resultantstaticsituation,inwhichtheart, architecture,religionand wa yof liferemainedmedievalincharacter duringmuchofthetwentiethcentury,ca metoa nabruptendinthe 1950s with therestorationofthemona r ch ytop owe randthe opening ofthecountry tovisitors. Th elongperiodofisolationensuredthesurvivalofma ny examplesoftraditionalarta nd architecture.Dur ingthepasttwenty yearschangeshavebeenacceleratingthroughout Ne pa la nd partic-ularlyinK a t ma ndu.Th egovernment,consciousoftheneedto protectortorecorditsheritagebeforechangesb e cometooradical has calledup onUne sco,a ndinturnUne scoismobilizingthe support ofthe internationalcommunity,toaiditincarryingoutap r ogr a mme ofconservation. Thispublicationisoneoftheme a nsthroughwhichoneofthe architecturaltraditionsofNe p a lisbeingrecorded forposterity and theinformationwidelydiffused.Th ereport,preparedbytheItalian architectsValerioSestinia ndEnz oSomigli,hasbeenillustrated withtheirdrawingsand aselectednumb e roftheirphotographs.It hasbeentranslatedintoEnglishbyTimoth yPatersonofFlorence, Italy,andintoFrenchbyR a y mondeFrin,ofParis,France. Th eopinionsa nd viewsexpressedarethoseofthe authors. Acknowledgements Th esurveyofSherpaarchitecture, the results of whicharepublished inthe followingpages,wa sma dein1975duringthe expeditionto Ne palorganizedby theAlpineClubofItalyandfinancedbythe NationalResearchCouncilofItaly.Excerptsfromthesurveyfirst appearedinLhotse75, publishedin1977by theAlpineClubof Italy in associationwithTa ma r iofBologna. Particularthanksaredue tothe CounciloftheAlpineClub of Italyand itsPresident,SenatorGiovanniSpagnolli,forhaving includedusintheexpedition,thusenablingustocarryoutthis study,a ndtoProfessorGiuseppeNangeriniforhelpandadvice duringthe initiala nd final stagesofthesurveybeforeand afterthe expedition. W eshouldliketoexpressour appreciationtothefollowing: Th eNationalResearchCouncilofItaly,forhavingfinancedthe survey,a nd theCh a ir ma nofitsTechnologicalCommitte e , ProfessorM a r ioSilvestri. Une sco,forpublishingthe resultsofthesurvey ; thattheyarep ub-lishedisalsoduetothekindassistanceofH . E .theItalian Amba ssa dorandPe r ma ne ntDelegateofItalytoUne sco, Amba ssa dorLudovicoCarducciArtenesio. Allthosewh ohavehelpeduswithexpertadviceandsuggestions: H . E .Amba ssa dorGianfrancoPomp e i ,theItalianNational Commissionfor Une scoa ndin particular ProfessorAldoSestini. Ourfriendand translator,Timoth yPaterson. Florence, ItalyVAL E R IOSESTINI June1978E NZ OS OM IGL I Contents Foreword,byTrailokaNa thUpraity9 Theenvironmentand population of Khumbu11 Essential g e o g r a p h y . . .11 Th eSherpasofK h u mb u.14 ArchitectureinKhumbu19 Generalcharacteristics.19 Th eSherpahouse. . .21 Religious architectureinKhumbu31 Origin, formandsymbolism ofthestupa. . . .31 Th echortenin Tibet..38 Th echorteninK h u mb u40 Th egompainK h u mb u50 Building materialsand building art inKhumbu61 Environmentand building materials61 Building materials and construction details.64 Ne wtrends in building materialsandmethods.74 Select bibliography77 Foreword byHisExcellency TrailokaNa thUpraity, NepaleseAmb a ssa dor ExtraordinaryandPlenipotentiary toFrance, Pe r mane ntDelegatetoUne sco Ne palis a landofcontrasts.Th e Teraialongits southernborder is lowandwithlittle relief,coveredwithjungleandswa mp sinwhich arefoundtigers,elephants,rhinoceroesanddeerofdifferentspecies aswellash u ma nhabitationsa ndcultivatedareas.Th eTeraisoon giveswa ytoamountainouscentralarea300-2,500mhigh,dissected byvalleys,ofwhichthelargest istheK a t ma nduValleythrough which thesacredBagmatiRiverflows.Itsnorthernbordersareformed bytheHima la ya s,theworld'shighestmounta inrange,including suchwor ld-r e nowne dpeaksasSagar matha(M tEverest),K a nch e n-jungaM a ka luandma nyothers. Th epeopleswh osettled inNe pa loverthecourseof centuries were protectedbytheruggedterrainand isolationhascontributedtothe survivalofma nydifferenttraditions.Thistendencywa sreinforced duringmuc hof thenineteenthandthe first halfof thetwentieth centuries,asa policyofisolationlimitedcontactswiththerestof theworld.Th us,whileelsewherein Asiacountrieswereinfluenced bythespreadof industrializationandtheeffectsof colonization, Nepalesesocietycontinuedrelativelyunaffected.A s a result, itswa y oflife,religiouspracticesa ndarchitecturalstylescontinuedwith little change until1951,wh e nthemona r ch ywa s restoredtop owe r . Inthebriefperiodof timewhichhasfollowed,changeshave takenplacewithrapidity,asoneofthemostimportantresults wa s thedecision toop e nthecountrytovisitors a nd tostimulatecomme r ce withtheoutsideworld.Th e cityofK a t ma ndu,fore xa mple ,which onlyafewyearsagohadmu ddyroadsandno facilitiesforvisitors, nowhaspavedhighways a ndseveralhotelsofinternationalcalibre. Educationhasbe comewidespreadwithinthevalleya ndma king ma r ke dprogresselsewhere.Notallaspectsof changehavebeen desirable.W hilelivingstandardshavebeenimproved,buildingsof outstandingbeautyhavebeendestroyedormarredbyunsightly ' mode r n'additions. Th egovernment,takingthesefactorsintoconsideration,has decidedtoadoptamasterplanfortheconservationofthecultural heritageinK a t ma nduValleywiththeaidofUne scoandtheUnited NationsDe ve lopme ntPr ogr a mme .Thisistoensureforourpeople continuedidentificationwiththeirpastand tobringtofuturegener-ationsknowledgeofourtraditions.Thisp r ogr a mmewillalso preservethehar moniousrelationshipbetweenma nandhisenviron-me ntwhichhasbeenthehallmarkofourarchitecturalheritage. Inevitably,similarstrikingchangestothosetakingplaceinthe city ofK a t ma ndu,no wlinkedbyairwithma nyothercities,by road withneighbouringcountries,aregraduallyoccurringinthemor e remoteareasofthecountry.W h e nonetakes intoaccountthevaried originsofourpeoplea ndthedevelopmentswhichhavetakenplace inisolation,itisobviousthatweareinurgentneedofdetailed documentationbeforeourancientwa ysoflifea ndtraditionsdis-appear.Th eSherpaswh ohavesettledinthesouthernslopesof Sagar mathaformoneoftheethnicgroupsthatareknowntoall theworldbecauseoftheirroleasguidesandportersformou n-taineering expeditions.Itis difficult today toconceiveofa nyexpedition tothehigherpeaksinNe palwithoutSherpas.Howe ve r ,theyalso wor kwithma nytouriststrekkingthroughthemountainousareasof Ne pala nd,asaresult,ma nyareknownpersonallytosuch visitors. M u c hoftheSherpas'incometodayresultsfromsuchwor k. Oldpatternsofsubsistenceagricultureandanimalhusbandryare beingaffectedbythechange toamone ye conomy .Patternsofliving andresultantchangestothearchitecturaltraditionsarenowtaking placewithincreasingrapidity.He ncethisstudyrepresentsavery usefula nd uniquerecordofastyleofarchitecturewhichma ylargely disappearinafewgenerations.Iwish,therefore,toexpressmy appreciationtothetwo architects,ValerioSestinia ndE nz oSomigli, wh ohavecarriedoutthissurveyofSherpaarchitecture.Their documentationisanimportantcontributiontothestudiesoftradi-tional architecture ofapeopleaccustomedtoliving ina very challeng-ingenvironment. Finally,Iwouldliketotakethisopportunityalsotoexpressmy appreciationtotheDirector-GeneralofUne scoand totheme mb e r s ofhisstaffwh ohavesupportedmy countryinthewor ktorecord andtoconserveour cultural heritage. 11 Theenvironment and population o f Khu mbu Essentialgeography Th eHimalayanmountainranges,thegreatestmountainsystemin theworld,are parallelrangesextendingfromeasttowestinbroad belts,whichvaryasregardsaltitude,ge omor phology,climatea nd vegetation.InNe pal,threesuccessive parallelbeltsextendfromthe hot,steamyplainsborderingonIndiainthesouthtotheTibetan frontier in thenorth. Thesethree belts are thesouthernmostouter belt, thesub-Himalaya foothills; thecentral belt, the pre- orlowHimalaya range,withpeaksrisingtoover3,000m ; a nd,withadifference in altitude of3,000m ,the northern beltor ma inrange,the highHi ma -layas,thecharacterofwhichisdistinctivelyAlpine.Ofunequalled majesty, thepeaksof thehighHimalayassoar ashigh as 6,000-8,000m a ndaredominatedbyM ountEverest(8,848m) , the highestmountain intheworld.IneasternNepal,closetothema in,northernmost rangeofthehighHimalayas,lies theK h u mb uregion,theh omeof theSherpas,apeopleofM ongoloidstock,Tibetanculture and Lamaistreligious beliefs. Th eK h u mb uregion(Fig.1) spreadsoutfanwisetoforma series ofdeep,wide,convergent valleys,downwhichrush torrential streams totheconfluencewiththeD u dhKosi,thenaturalboundaryof K h u mb u ,flowingthroughanarrowgorgeina n outerrangeof the northernmostHima la yabelt.Attheheadofthevalleys,ma nyof whichbranchoutintosmallerside-valleys,magnificentcrestsa nd peaksvaryinginheightfrom6,500m to8,800m , riseupabovethe ma individeseparatingNepalfromTibet.IntheEverestmassif,in additiontoEverest(8,848m) , Lhotse(8,501m ) and LhotseShar (8,383m) , aswellasCh o Oy u (8,153m) farthertothewest,all exceed8,000m .Th e crests of thespursseparatingthe valleys andthe passescommunicatingwiththemexceedthe5,000mma r k.Such highaltitudes,whichinevitablyaffectclimateand vegetation,are 12 impressivechieflyonaccountofthegreatdifferencesinheight,Fig.1 varyingf r om2,000mto4,000m ,betweenthebedsofthevalleysTh eKhumt>uregion, a ndthepe akstoweringa boveth e m.Th evalleys,apartf r ombeing deep,arewide ,formingU-sh a p e dcross profilesasaresultofPleisto-ceneglaciation.Thissa mecharacteristicisfoundinthevalleysof theAlps.Th eheadsofthesewidevalleysareobstructedbyglacier tonguesformingice-streams,whilethelowerendsarecoveredwith morainedepositsalternatingwithshortstretchesofflatalluvial terraina ndthesilted-upbedsofoldlakes.Th e gentlysloping glaciers overhangthesteepsidesofthevalleys,eitherofbarerockorcoated withsnoworicewithdeepgroovescutbyavalanches. Th emountainsofK h u mb uarecomp ose dofgraniticrockwith aprevalenceofcrystallineschists,thatis,gneissandotherme ta -mor p h ose drock.Sedimentaryrockisalsofoundinthemounta ins oftheEverestmassifdatingf r omthePalaeozoic,interspersedwith yellowveinsofcrystallinelimestone.Th egeologicalcomposition ofsuchrockgivesrisetosharpoutlinesa ndcrestsasaresultofthe effectsofweathering,whichhereareparticularlysevere,mainlythe abruptrisea ndfallintemperature,thatis,intensecoldfollowed byasuddentha w;themountainpeaksare usuallypyramidalin shape.Th emountainsides atthelower ends ofthevalleys,incontrast tothoseat theupperendsoverhangingtheglaciers,tendtobe less steep,andthereforegrassy,thusprovidingpasturefor theSherpas' herdsofcattleandyak. Togetherwiththemountainsoverhangingthe m,glaciers are theoutstandingfeatureof theK h u mb uregion.Th e largestvary in lengthfrom5 to19k m,threeofwhichareas longas16-19k m. Inlengththeyarecomparablewiththoseof theAlps.Butitmust beborneinmindthat justastheaveragealtitudeof themountains inthe regionisconsiderable,so isthatoftheclimaticsnow-line, whichvariesfrom5,000to6,000m , despiteheavyrainfallduring thesumme rmonsoon.Furthermore,therearefewnaturalbasins in theareatocatchmeltingsnow,so thattheglaciersarefedmainly byavalanches,both largeandsmall,sliding downthesteepmountain-sides.Th e tonguesof theglaciersarefurrowedwithcrevassesa nd strewnwithmorainedebris.S omeofthesmallerside-valleysare blockedwithmorainedepositscarrieddownby the glaciers,thus forminge mba nkme ntsa nd, consequently,lakes. Therearefewwoodsand forestsinK h u mb u ,thoughthetree-lineextendsto ashighas4,000m .Apartfromtherebeinglittlesoil belowthe4,000-mline,theSherpas,too,haveplayedtheirpart in cuttingdowntrees toprovidegrazinggroundsfortheir herds.W o o d s inlowerK h u mb uconsistmainlyof firs andrhododendrons,while inthoseofupperK h u mb ubircha ndjuniperpredominate.Athigher altitudes,wherenosnowor ice,morainedeposits,barerock or rockfallsexist,the lowerslopesofthevalleystendtobegrassy. Th equalityand quantityofthegrassdependonwhetherthesideof thevalleyismor eoftenexposedto thesunor lies intheshade.If thesideof thevalleyisexposedto the sun,thegrowthof grassis mor eabundantand thesoilmor eh umi d.Curingthesumme rmonth s theSherpasputout theirherdstograzeonthesepastureswhich extendto ashighas5,500m. Th eSherpaspractisehigh-altitudee conomy .At theendof wintertheyleavetheirvillages,towhichtheyreturnin thea utumn, a ndleadtheirherdsnotonlyto the highpastures,butto thelow hillsand slopesaswell.Theirlivestockincludesyaka ndsheep.Th e formerprovidemilk,me a t,hides,hairforblanketsand coarsecloth, a ndevenfuel;inadditiontoploughing,theyare usedaspack-animalsandfor riding.Th eSherpasarealsofarmers,though the landtheycancultivateisexceedinglyscarceonaccountof thegeo-graphicalandgeologicalnatureofthecountry;the smallplots of landtheysucceedin cultivatingareindeedscatteredoases.Further-mor e ,thecropsthatcanbegr ownatsuchhighaltitudesmust of necessitybe me a gr e ;abovethe3,500-mlineonlypotatoesa nd buckwheatareplanted.W intersarelongand coldinK h u mb uwith moderatesnowfalls.D a m pmistsswirlupthevalleys;duringthe summe rmonsoontheyenvelopvillagesa nd fields fordaysonend. W h e r e a sintheouterrangesthe fields oftheSherpaslie on terraced slopes,inK h u mb u ,smallplotsofcultivatedlandareenclosedwith lowstonewalls. Th ema invillagesinthewidevalleys of K h u mb u1arebuilt on alluvialcones,onoldmorainedeposits,thebedsofsmallsilted-up lakes,a nd onledgeson thelowermountainslopes.Th e ytend tobe uniforminlayout,thoughthedwelling-houses are scattered,isolated orgroupedtogetherinshortr owsinthemidstoflandunder cultiva-tion.Agompa,(temple), usuallystands in thecentreof thevillage. Subsidiarysettlementsusedduringthesumme rmonth s,wh e nthe herds are put out tograze,are similarinlayout.Onthe otherh a nd,in bigger villages wheretrade iscarriedout, as wellas in religious centres withmonasteries,thehousesarebuiltdosetogether.Pa ngpoche , thehighestvillageinhabited all theyearr ound,lies atan altitudeof nearly4,000m .Subsidiarysettlementsin thelowerpastures,c om-prisinggroupsof houses or scatteredhuts similartothose ofhe r dsme n intheAlps,are tobe foundashigh as4,750m . InnorthernNe pa l,communicationswithTibetbyme a ns of pathsareeasierthanwithsouthern Nepalonaccountofthe gorges thathavetobe travelledthroughorby-passed.Th esa meholdsgood forK h u mb u ,despitethehighaltitudesofthepassesintoTibet obstructedbyperennialsnows,thehighestofwhichistheNa ngp a L astanding at theheadofa longglacier5,716 mabovesea-level. TheSherpas ofKhumbu Since1951,wh e nsystematicexplorationofK h u mb uwa s first under-taken,muc hhasbeenwrittenabouttheregion.A mo ngwritersof noteareHa ge n,Fr e r -Ha ime ndor fandHaffner,wh ohaveabove all dealtwiththeethnographic,anthropologicalandgeographical aspectsofthevalleysofK h u mb u .Theirwritingsareessential toan understandingofthesocialand economicstructureand customsof theSherpaswh oinhabitth e m,as wellas their daily lives andreligious beliefs. Itisnowgenerallyagreedthatthena me'Sherpa'isderived fromtheTibetanshar-pa,whichme a ns'peoplefromtheeast'(shar, 1.Thesevillages are Na mch eBazar,K humjung,K h umde ,Phortse,Pangpoche andTha mi. 'east,pa,'people'),toindicatetheiroriginf r omeasternTibet.1 Th ena me'S h e r p a 'isalsousedtoindicateotherpeoplesinhabiting valleysa ndmounta i nslopesborderingonK h u m b usuchasSolu, Ph a r a ka ndthehighR olwa lingvalley,aswellasregionsfarther west,na me lytheup p e rreachesoftheS unK osiriverinY e l mu,the A r u ngor gea ndthesouthernslopesoftheHi ma la y a s.Sharinga c o m m o norigin,theS h e r p a softheseregionsh a vemaintaine d traditionsa ndcustomsthatdistinguisht h e mf r omtheBhotias,the otherpeopleofM ongol oi dstockinhabitingthehigherHi ma l a y a n valleysofNe p a l,totheextentthataseparatena metoidentifyt h e m isjustified. A m o n gtheS h e r p a sinhabitingtheseregions,thoseofK h u m b u arethemostrepresentative.A sFiir e r -Ha ime ndor fwrites : AlthoughthepopulationofK h u mb urepresents onlyafractionofthetotal numb e rofSherpas,itisagroupofvitalimportancefortheunderstanding ofthecharacteristicfeaturesoftheSherpawa yoflife.Forinthehigh valleysofK h u mb u ,r e motefromtheinfluenceofpeoplesinhabitingthe middlerangesofNe pa l,Sherpasocietyandculturehasdevelopedonits ownlines : adaptationtoa ninclementhabitathasledtointensive speciali-zationinsuche conomicactivitiesasyak-breedingandtradewithTibet.2 Tr a dewithTibet,beforethefrontierwa sclosed,providedthe She r pa sofK h u m b uwitha nassuredlivelihood.Conce r ningthe f or me rtradewithTibet,ToniH a g e nwrites: 1.Ontheoriginofthena me'Sherpa'C.vonFiirer-Haimendorfcommentsas follows:'Thena meSherpaissaidtobederivedfromtheTibetan shar-pa, whichme ans"easterner",butitisnotclearinwhatmannerthistermca me tobeassociatedwiththeparticulargroupnowknownasSherpa.Fr omthe TibetanpointofviewSherpasaresouthernersratherthaneasterners,and evenwithinapurelyNepalesesettingthereisnorealjustificationforthe term,asBhotias {a term bywhich peoplesofMongoloid stock originating from Tibetinthenorthare generallyknown)notdescribed asSherpasdwelltothe east aswellastothewestoftheSherpacountry.Butwhether justified ornot, thetermhascometostayandisusedbytheSherpastodistinguishthem-selvesfromotherBhotiagroups.'('TheSherpasoftheK h u mb uRegion', MountEverest : Formation,PopulationandExplorationofthe Everest Region, p.124,London,OxfordUniversityPress,1963.) ResearchcarriedoutbyM .Oppitzintotheoriginofthena me'Sherpa' basedonbothTibetanandNepalesedocumentsandSherpaoraltradition,is ofparticular significance.Th eSherpas'placeoforigin couldwellaccountfor theirbeingcalledthe'peoplefromtheEast',sincetheyemigratedtothe K h umb uregionbetweenthe fifteenth andsixteenthcenturies A . D .through theNa ngp aLa (5,716m)fromthedistrict ofSalmoGa ngintheprovinceof K h a mineastern Tibet.('GeschichteundSozialordnungderSherpa',Khumbu Himal,Vol.VIII,Innsbruck/Munich,UniversittsverlagW a gne r ,1968.) 2.Frer-Haimendorf,op.cit.,p.126. OfcoursetheSherpashad nogoodsoftheirownbesidestheir cattleand dairyproducewithwhichtocarryontrade.Th e yweretherefore first and foremostmiddle me n,wh otradedinvariousproductswithTibet,the NepalM idlandsandIndia.Fr omTibettheyimportedprincipallysalt, whichisnotfoundinNepal.Anotherimportantcommoditywa swool. The yexported,besidestheirowncattleandbutter,aboveallrice,paper, sugar, dyestuffsandkerosene.In formerdays,ironextractedinthe Nepalese mines atThosewasalso ofimportance;but forsometime nowtheSherpas' once-profitableirontradewith Tibethas beenatacompletestandstill.Th e reasonforthis isprobablythat thenewly-openedroutetoTibetviaK a lim-pongisconsiderablymor econvenient.M or e ove r ,thesalttradewiththe southernMidlandshadalreadybeguntofalloffalongtimebeforethe Tibetan frontier wa s closed, for since theimprovementof the roads fromthe southIndian salt hasbe comecheaper.1 Howe ve r ,theShe r paswe r esoonto findanotherme a nsoflivelihood, ofgreaterimportanceperhapsthantradewithTibet,atatimewh e n ith a d alreadybe guntoflag.OncetheHima la ya sofNe p a lha dbeen op e ne duptomountaine e r s,explorersa ndtourists,itwa s notlong beforetheSherpas provedthemselvesskilledportersinhighmountainsforthenume r ous expeditionsever since thetwenties.Th eformerHimalayaClubinDarjeeling setupan exemplarysystem ofrecruiting andregistering theSherpas,which hasbeenofinvaluableservicetomountaineersfromallovertheworld. EachSherpaisgivenan official'service book'inwhichallhisachievements andqualificationsareenteredwithincorruptibleobjectivity,andma nyof theseSherpabooksaretodaydocumentsthatbeareloquentwitnesstothe history oftheopening up oftheHimalayas.2 Itmustbepointedoutthatthisne wme a nsoflivelihood,wh ich e mp loysma nyy oungSherpasofbothsexes,hasp r ove dsuccessful notonlyonaccountoftheirnaturalresistancetofatigue,butalso becauseof their ability tolive a ndwor kathigh altitudes withoutundue effort.T othismustbea dde dtheircheerfulnaturee nh a nce dby innatequalitiesofgoodne ssa ndwillingnesstodoalmostanything askedofth e m,mor eofwh ichwillbesaidlater.Sherpaswor king asportersformountaineeringa ndtrekkingexpeditions,everonthe increase,arerecruitedthr oughseveralagenciesinK a t ma ndu . Th elayoutofS h e r p avillages a nd thekindoffarminga ndbreed-ingtheye nga geinareconditionedbyclimatea nde nvir onme nt.A s regardsthelatter activity,theSherpascross-breedy a k with Nepalese cattle,aswellaskeepingflocksofsheepa nd goats.A spasturesare scarce,theyareforcedtomovewiththeir flocksa ndherdsformost ofthesu mme rmont h s.Dur ingthis seasonalnoma di sm,theh e r dsme n 1.T.Hagen,Nepal, p. 92,Bern,K mme r ly& Frey,1971. 2.Hagen,op.cit.,p.89. liveinsubsidiarysettlementssituatedashighas5,000m ,knownas yersa orphu;theystayineach of these settlements foronlya fewdays. Sherpah e r dsme nalsomovetoanotherkindofsubsidiary settlementknownas gunsasituatedatloweraltitudesbelow the ma invillages.He r e ,inadditiontotherebeingricherpastures for theirherds,wh e ntheme a dowsr oundthema i nvillagesareclosed to alllivestockto allowforrecuperation,therearemor eopportunities forplantingpotatoeswhichareliftedearlierthanin the fields near thema invillages. AprominentfeatureoftheSherpawa yoflifeconcernsbureau-cratica ndadministrativematters.Th e factthatStatea nddistrict administrationaffectstheK h u mb uregiononlyinparthasledto thevillagers'organizingtheirdailylifewithami ni mumofexternal interference,a nd,consequently,totheir appointingtheirownofficials froma mongthemselvestoadministertheir affairsand settledisputes. S uchahighdegreeofself-governmentisalsofoundinSherpafamily life,wh ichisindependenta ndself-sufficientwithoutina ny wa y underminingthec ommuna lsolidaritycharacteristicofSherpa villages. Anoth e rprominentfeatureoftheSherpawa yoflifein K h u mb u is theSherpas'attitudetowardsreligion,e mbodie dintheirprofound Lamaistbeliefs,which is atonceevidenttoa nyonetravellingthrough thehighvalleysoftheregion.Th a treligionplaysa vitalpartinthe Sherpas'dailylives is reflectedinthechorten, mani-wallsa ndprayer-flags fluttering ontheirhouses.Th emantr asandothersacred Buddhistinscriptionsonthe stonesofthemani-or prayer-walls impressonthetravellerthefactthatreligionwiththeSherpasis not onlydeeplyfelt,buta boveall is tobe livedwithand practisedinthe privacyof theirdomestictemplesa ndin theirdealingswiththeir fellows.S uchaninnatereligiousattitudeisincharacterwiththe serene,kindlynatureof theSherpas,wh oareh umblea ndtolerant ofh u ma nfailings. Closecontactinthe nearpastwithTibetanB uddh i smhas givenrise tonume r oustemplesa ndmonasteriesinK h u mb u ,which arethefocalpointofSherpareligion;centresin whichtheeternal spiritualprinciplesunderlyingthep h e nome naof materialexistence areeverkept alight. 19 Architecture in K h u mb u Gener alcharacteristics Theinfluenceof Buddhistculture,aboveall fromtheNepalmidlands andTibet,reachedtheremotehighvalleysoftheHimal ayasin suc-cessivestages,havinglosts o meof theinitial intensityaccompanying its creationin an earlierage.If,on theone hand,theremoteness of thehighvalleys,resultingfromhazardouscommunicationsin incle-mentsurroundings,has sloweddo wnthespreadingofBuddhist culture,and thereforeany furtherprogress in architectureand other works,o n theother,ithas tendedtomaintainintactancestral traditions.So mu chsothatthehighvalleysareveritableislands of cultureinwhichlivingartisticformsare condensedand preserved, whereas elsewhere they are o n thewane ,or alreadybelong tothepast. Thetideof BuddhistculturereachedK h u mb uin recentyears embodiedinLamaistphilosophicalthoughtfromTibetacross the border tothe north, wher e it haditsbeginningsmanycenturies earlier. Butthatdoesnotme a nthatarchitectureandotherwor kscreated undertheinfluenceofBuddhistculturehavelost any of their original integrityasopposedtointensityofthoughtandexpression.On thecontrary,suchinnateintegrityinSherpaarchitectureisnotso mu chamatterof ageor chronology,wherebyitsoriginsma y be traced,asofunchangedprinciples o n whichit is based.1 1.ReligiousarchitectureinK h u mb uis fairlyrecentdespitetheSherpas'having settledintheregionat amuchearlierdate.AccordingtoOppitz,Sherpa immigrationintoK h u mb utookplacein foursuccessivestages:theproto-clansarrivedbetween1530 and1600, followedbythenewerclansbetween 1750a nd1850, the pseudo-clansbetween1800 and1850, and, finally, the K h a mb a safter1850. Th e first gompawa sbuilt at Pangpocheabout1860,a secondatTh a mi about1870,andthoseatK h umjungand Na mc h eBazarearlyin the present century.Th e mostimportantgompainK h u mb uisatTe ngpoche ;built in 1921-1922,itwasdestroyedby anearthquakein1933, andrebuiltshortly InadditiontoBuddhis m,theremoteness, ruggednessand over-whel minggrandeurof theK h u mb uregionarealso importantfactors thathave left theirmar ko n the culture and traditions of theSherpas, wh oovertheyearshaveadjustedthemselvestoaninhospitable environmentand learnt tolive inbalancedhar mo nywithit. AlthoughreligiousarchitectureinKh u mb u inparticular,the gompaormonastery,1 and thestupa-like chortenisnotsoimposing andmagnificentas thatinneighbouringTibet,aboveallinLhasa,it neverthelessrepeatsbyandlargethes ameformsand dimensions, thoughwitha definite style allitso wn. ArchitectureinK h u mb udiffersconsiderablyfromthatinthe valleysofcentralNepal ,Katmanduinparticular,populatedinthe mainbyNe war s .AsregardsthehighvalleysinnorthernNepal southoftheHimalayas,this differenceisallthemo r emar ked,even thoughthevariouspeoplesinhabitingthemareofTibetanstock withthes amecultureandtraditions.Amo ngthesepeoplesarethe Thakalis2andotherSherpaswh o ,settlinginareasfarthersouth, haveinduecoursebeenabsorbedbythelocalpopulationand lost manyoftheirformercustomsandtraditions.Otherfactorsleading totheir graduallybecomingreadjustedand absorbedareclimateand environment. Inthevalleys ofK h u mb u ,architecture,too,hasbeeninfluenced byclimateandenvironment. The roofsofhouses, forinstance,are differentfromthose in Tibet. Wher eas in Tibet roofs are flat on account oflight rainfall, inK h u mb u ,as in other regionsofcentral and southern afterwardstothesa meplan,thoughwith oneor twomodificationsin the porch beforethe entrance. (SeeM . Fantin,Sherpa,Himalaya,Nepal,Bologna (Italy), Ta ma r iEditore,1971.) 1.InTibet,L a da khand otherregionswhe r eLamaistcultureprevails,theterm 'gompa'referstoamonastery,whichma ycontainoneormor elha-khang, (temple(s)).In K h u mb uthewor d'gompa*isusedindiscriminatelyforamo n-astery,templeorchapel. Generally, a single lama residentin the village performs seasonaland domesticritual,aswellasattendingtothespiritualwelfareof thevillagers.Th emonasteryatTe ngp och eandthenunneryatDe vuch e , wherethecommunitiesofmonksa ndnunslive inhousesstanding roundthe temples,are quiteexceptional. Concerningthespellingofgompa,FoscoMaraini,reviewing Lhotse '75 intheBollettino-NotiziariooftheAlpineClubofItaly(FlorenceBranch), Nos.2-3,1977,writesthus:'Gompa,inEur opeand America,iswrittenina varietyofwa ys:gonpa,gnpa,gomba,gonda.Suchvarietyisduetotravellers' havingtranscribeddifferentlocalpronunciations.W h e nwritten,gompais spelt gon-pa,andthereforeshould be pronouncedgmpaorgompa.' 2.Th elayoutof villagesa ndgroupingofhousesinThakaliandthe region north ofM usta ngare similartothose in Tibet. House s,in fact, are built close together rounda n innercourtyardon towhichther oomsopen : thecentringofr ooms roundthecourtyards hasanimportantpsychologicaleffectinthatitunites thevariousme mbe r softhe family. Ne p a lwhe r erainfallis heavy,theyareoftheridgeorslopingtype. Ontheotherh a nd,roofsof housesinK h u mb u ,thoughdiffering fr omthosein Tibet,resemblemor ecloselythoseof housesacross theborderinBh uta n,1south-eastoftheHima la ya s.R oofsofhouses inPuna kh aDz onga nd TsongsaDz ong,forinstance,inaddition to affordinga mp leshelterf r omheavyrainfall,areof interest,archi-tecturally,bothasregards styleandthewa ytheyare built. InordertobetterunderstandthearchitectureofK h u mb u ,one mustlooktotheSherpasthatinhabittheregiona nd consider their greatinnerstrengthsustainedbyprofoundreligiousbeliefs.Only then will it be clearh owtheyhavesucceededinadjusting themselves totheruggedcountryofK h u mb ua nd,by dintof sheerback-breaking toil,builtvillagesonthebedsofoldlakesin broadervalleysor on sizeableledgesbetweenmountainsidea ndrivergorge. Th r ough outK h u mb u ,Sherpavillages are the inevitable result of aconscious,co-ordinated choiceofthesites on whichtheyare built, aswellasofadeeprespectfortraditiona nd religiousprinciples.A n importantfeatureofthevillages,whichdoesnotstriketheonlooker at first sight,butwhichgraduallyemergesonfurtheranalysis,is the invisible thoughdefinite link existingbetweenthescatteredgroups ofhouses.He r eagaintheoriginof thelinkis to befoundin the Sherpas'c o mmo nreligioustradition;thelinkissostronglyforged thatithasgivenrise to socialintegrationa ndfirm spiritualunity, whichnotonlycausesday-to-dayvillagelife to belived tothefull, butalso enables the villagers toenduretherigours ofa nexceptionally harshenvironment. E mb e dde dinthepreceptsof TibetanLamaisttraditiona nd civilization, theSherpavillages ofK h u mb u ,despiterecentsociala nd politicalupheavals,are still inthema inunspoilt,thoughthedanger oftheirbeingspoiltbyso-calledinnovationin thefutureisever present. TheSherpa house Architecturally,the style ofSherpahousesinthe villages ofK h u mb u is mor eor less ofthreetypes,one ofwhichis theprototype onwhich theremainingtwoarebased. AllthreetypesofSherpahouseareelongatedinshape, two-storeyed,with a ridgeroof;thegr oundfloor is partlybuiltintothe 1.A notablefeatureof monasteriesinBh uta nisthevarietyof functionsthey fulfil.Onoccasiontheyb e comeadministrative centres,farmsa nd even military strongholds.It thusfollowsthattheyaresolidlybuiltand resemble fortresses. W i ndows,roofsa ndcarvedwoodwor kareelaboratelydecoratedinbright colourswhichheightena nd completetheoverallarchitecturaleffect. slopeofthehillormounta inbehindit.Th e simplesttype,naturally less sociallyevolved,consistingofasingleblock,isalsothepattern mostusedbySherpas wh e nbuildingtheirhouses.Storagespace a nd abyre forcattle incoldweather areontheground floor, whileonthe upper flooristheliving-roomwhe r ethedomesticandsociallifeof thefamilytakesplace. A sregardstheremainingtwotypesofSherpahouse,twoor mor eblocks,conspicuousfromtheoutside,areaddedtothesingle block,thuselongatingstillfurtherthebasiclinearpattern,or elsecausingittobe jointedsoastofor manL-shape.Th eupper floor ofthelarger,modifiedpatternofhouseisusedasaprivate placeofworship. Th ejointed,L-shape dpatternofhouseisnotfoundinall villages.ExceptionstotheruleareNa mc h eBazarandK h umj ung. DetailedexaminationofL-shapedhousesrevealstheirhavingbeen builtearlierthantheremainingtwopatterns,onaccountofthe conditiona ndcolourofthewoode nfixtures,whichtendtobe considerablywor nasaresultofweathering,whilethewallsare crackedowingtogr oundsubsidence,a nd, likethewoode nfixtures, arewor nbytheweather.Tothesemustbeaddedotherfactors concerningform,stylea ndbuildingme th odsnotfoundinhouses builtmor erecently. A sarule,housesinthevillagesofK h u mb ustandsinglyorin smallgroups,thoughatNa mc h eBazar(Plate1)theyarebuilt close togetherontheslopesofanaturalamphitheatre,a ndthereforein asemicircle.Infrontofeachhouseisasmallopenspaceoryard (Plate2)whe r erice,buckwhe ata ndmilletarespreadtodryinthe sun.He r e ,too,weather permitting,newlyharvestedcropsaresorted a ndgraded priortostorage,andfirewoodispiledupforthewinter month s. Itisusualforallhousesinavillagetobebuiltwiththedoors a ndwi ndowsfacinginthesa medirection,thatis,south-east,in ordertobebetterexposedtothewa r mt hofthesun.Thereareno doors,wi ndowsorotheropeningsinthebacksofthehouses,partly becausetheyarebuiltintotheslopes,a ndpartlybecausetheydo notfacethesun. Th eprincipleunderlyingtheconstructionofSherpahousesis indeedremarkable.At first sight theyappear tobe ofsimple,c o mmo n-placebuild,whereas,oncloserexamination,variousinteresting factorsemergeconcerningform,colour,buildingme th odsandthe purposeforwhichtheyarebuilt.Thesehouses,infact,aresolidly built,withanouterprotectivewallenclosingan innerwoode nframe, theformerseparatefr omthe latter. A sforstyle,aprominentfeatureofSherpaarchitectureisthe 23 Plate 1 Na mch eBazar with itschorten inthe foreground. largewindo ws(Plate 3) inthefrontsof thehousesfacingthevalleys ; like theadjacentdoors,theyaremadeofwo o d,and are finely carved inkeeping withhonouredtradition.Thegeometricaldesigns carved inthewo o d,thoughofexquisitewor kmans hipandundoubtedly enrichingit,areoccasionallyover-decorativeindetail.Thevivid coloursinwhichthewindo wsarepaintedlendatouch ofbrightness to,andsooffset,thes ombr etonesofthewallssurroundingthe m. Thu s ,architecturally,thevividlypaintedwindo wsareofprime importanceasthey greatly heightentheoverall effect. Asmentionedabove,Sherpahousesaretwo-storeyed.On the ground floor, one ortwo r o o msprovideabyreforlive-stock, while othersareusedforstoringfodder,firewoodandfarmimplements. Aflightofwo o de nstairs,usuallyinthebyre,leadstotheupper floor.Ashortpassagewayfacingthestairs inturnleadstothelarge ^^te.^eS?*i^Ti AVif e * E S& * \3J 5$*K^j*"*) Vv: -fcr24 living-room.1Th esa meshortpassagewayoftengivesontoapartly roofedterrace(Plate 4)wherethelavatoryishousedinasmallshed. Th echoicea ndarrangementoffurnishingsintheliving-room aresuchastoaffordthegreatestpossiblecomforttothefamily usingit.Th efocalpointistheope nhearth forcooking andheating, roundwhichthevariousme mb e r softhefamilyforgather.Th eseat ofthehouse -owne risbesidetheopenhearth,andnexttoh imis theseatofh onour :here,aselsewhereinNe p a l,guestsareheldin highesteem.Business,too,istransactedr oundthehearthasthere 1.VariationsinthecustomarypatternofSherpaarchitecturearetobefound inanumb e rofhousesrecentlybuiltoralteredinNa mc h eBazar.W hilethe living-roomisinnowa ymodified,itisenteredthrough aseparatepassagewayPlate 2 leadingofftootherr ooms,generallybe dr oomsfortravellers,tradersand otherAdwelling-house guests.atTh a mi . 25 Plate 3 W indow-f r a me swith geometricalpatterns inSherpadwelling-houses. arenopublicbuildingsfor thispurposeinSherpavillages.Th e functionofthehearthingatheringtogethertheSherpafamily, theirrelatives,friendsa nd guestsis allthemor eimportantduring themonsoon,wh e nd a mppenetrateseverycorner ofthehouse a nd onlyheatfromtheope n fire cancounteractthegeneralfeelingof discomfort. Onfestiveoccasionsthe living-roombe come sadancehall. Relatives,friendsandguestsof thefamily,wh e nnotdancing,sit onabroadbenchrunningunderthewi ndowsto theope nhearth behinda long,lowtable.Bothbencha nd tablearelow in keeping withEasterntraditiona nd religiousprincipleswherebythegreater partoffamilyand sociallifetakesplaceat floor level.Familylife at floor levelaccounts forthecarefulchoiceofwoodforthefloor-boardsa nd thewidespreaduseofcarpets.Atnightme mb e r softhe 26 at Namche Bazar. familyandtheirguestssleepo nsoftcarpetsandbrightlycoloured blanketsspreado n thebenchandfloor. Onthe oppositesideof the living-room,betweenthe hearth andthestaircase, is a kindofalcovecontainingthebedsteadofthe house-owner'swife,wh osleepso n itwiththeyoungerchildren.On shelves by thehearthstandthefamily'scooking-pots, teapots, crock-ery,butterchurn,awo o de njug orcask filled withchang,and, abreastof mo de r ntimes,apressure-cooker.Allfoodiscookedo n theopenhearth.The highopenhearth ismadeofslabsofstone. As there is no chimney,s mo kefromthe fire escapesthroughan opening inthe roof.Stripsof yakmeatare s mo ke do nwo o de nslatssus-pendedfromtheroofabovethehearth. T ocomplete thefurnishingsof theliving-room,thewallopposite thewindo wsis linedwithlong,darkwo o de nshelves.Onthese stand r owsof shiningbrassandcoppervessels forholdingwater,as well aswo o de nbottles and otherornaments finely carvedinunmistakablePlate 4 Tibetanstyle.Beside, and in sharpcontrast to themareshinyplasticPa r to f thfl o8 S'a knick-knacksand theinevitable thermos flask madein China,which, N J ^ . , " !5 6aswiththepressure-cooker,hasalreadyfounditswayintoSherpa ho me s . Thewalloppositethe shelvesof brassandcoppervessels is well lito naccountofthetwo or threewindo wslet into it;theplay oflightands hadowo nthe wallbetweenthe windowsisseen to better advantagefromthemiddle ofther o o m. Inadditionto adancehall, theliving-roomof aSherpahouse isusedas aprivateplaceof worship. In ahousewithoutasmall gompacontainingplasterorwo o de n figures of tutelarysaintsand deitiesof theBuddhistpantheon,propitiatoryritesare performed inthe living-roomtoprotectthe houseanditsoccupantsagainst theforcesofeviland to invokeprosperityandwell-being.Onsuch occasions,amo nkassistedby a disciple taketheirseatso nthelong benchunderthewindo ws ,o n whichthehouse-owner'swife has spreadsoftcarpets,andbegintosayprayersand readsacredtexts. During theperformanceof the propitiatory rites, both themo nkandhis disciple ares ho wnnumer ous little attentions by thehouse-owner and hiswifewh oservesthemTibetanteainsilver cups.Meanwhil eother mo nksgou po n to theroofandterraceswher etheygiveblessings andhangoutcolouredprayer-flagso nlongb amb o ocanes.Thusa Tibetantraditionof venerablestandingisperpetuatedwhereby the house is protectedagainst evil by thepowersof light. The combined living-roomand privatechapelis indicativeoffamilyunityand reli-giousbeliefsalike,whicharefurtherreflectedin the mentalityand daily lifeofthe villagers. Well-to-doSherpa familieshavea smallprivatetemple intheir 27 ">"W f-i ;.'"'V:V; ,*.^ 28 Fig. 2 Dwelling-house at Phortse.Th eground floor of thehouseat Phortse has ar oomat the far e nd of theupper floor whichisused as a privateplace of worship.Similarthoughsmallerthan thelha-khang in a gompa,thema inwall oftheprivate temple islinedwith shrines containingtutelary deities of the Buddhistpantheon,a nd shelvesholdingsacredtexts a nd otherliturgicalvessels. Th eremainingwalls arepanelledand decoratedwithgeometricalpatterns. Th edouble woode nceiling, too,isdecoratedwithgeometricalpatternsinthe shapeof squares inwhichareinscribed circles representingthemnda la . Vie we dfromtheoutsidetheconspicuous featuresare theparticularshape oftheroofa ndthelargewi ndowwhichilluminatestheshrinescontaining the deities. Th eliving-roomof thehouseat Phortse isbiggerthan insomehouses a ndbetter finished. It is litbythreewi ndowsa nd has a store-roomatthe headof the stairs. houseswhereallritesa ndservicesareperformedinaccordance withtheTibetancalendar(Fig.2).Th etemple isusually a squarer oom witha large wi ndowa ndpanelled walls decoratedwith vividlycoloured religiouspaintings.Th e ceiling isdividedintosquaresin whichare inscribed circlesrepresentingvarioustypesofmnda la .Oppositethe wi ndowstandsthealtar withtutelary deities oftheBuddhist pantheon. Oneithersideofthealtarareshelvesholdinga smallcollectionof sacredbooksprintedonr oughpaperfromwoode nblocksa ndother liturgicalvessels,suchas cupsforwatera ndofferings,a ndbutter la mp s;a numb e roftankhaorthang-ka(paintedscrolls),h a ngfrom theceiling. M a nydifferencesinconstructionforexample,layoutemerge froma comparison betweenSherpaa ndTibetanhouses.Th e layout ofTibetanvillages,too,isquitedifferentfromthatoftheirSherpa counterparts.House sin aTibetanvillagearebuiltcloselytogether withwindowsfacinganinnercourtyarda nd smallstreets inbetween. Tibetanhousestobebuiltr ounda courtyard,ontowhichop e nthe inthehighKaliGa nda kivalleyfromLeteonwa r ds,a ndalso in M usta ng. A sinK h u mb u ,thelayoutof Tibetanvillagesandhouseshas beenshapedby climatea nd environment. To a certain extentTibetan domesticlifetakesplaceontheroofsof houseswhichare flat on accountoflowrainfall.Severecolda ndicywindshavecaused Tibetanhousesto bebuiltrounda courtyard,ontowhichop e nthe wi ndows;eveninspellsofverycoldweather,sunshineis trappedin thecourtyard,thusaffordinga littleheatwhichis reflectedintothe housethroughthewi ndows. Tibetanhousesma y consistof severalr oomsononeormor e floors;thecombine dkitchenandliving-room,knownaschakangor thapang,togetherwiththehearth,isthefocalpointoffamilylife. A sin theSherpahousesof K h u mb u ,itbringstogethera ndunites thevariousme mb e r sof thefamily.Th ekitchenleadsto theother r oomsofthehouse,usuallybe dr ooms,whichareoccasionallyused asstore-rooms,aswellasthema instore-room,inwhichthefamily's mor evaluablepropertyiskept,andtheprivatetempleorplaceof worship.Th etempleisoftensituatedonthe flatroof,inkeeping withreligiousprincipleswhe r e byther oomsusedfordailydomestic lifearebuiltinsuccessive,ascendinggradesa ndculminateinthe templeontheroof. 31 Religious architecture inK h u mb u Origin,formand symbolismofthestupa Inordertounderstandthesymbolical and religioussignificanceof thestupa-likechortenofK h u mb u ,theorigin andearlydevelopments oftheIndianstupa,datingbacktothebeginningsofBuddh ism, mustbetraced. Ove rthe yearsfollowingthe foundingofBuddh ismbyGa ut a ma , theAll-EnlightenedOne ,innorthernIndiainthe fifth centuryB . C. , thebuildingofstupasreliquarymoundsusuallydome dorshaped likeabeehivecametobeassociatedwithplacesconsideredsacred bythe greatmajority ofconvertstothene wreligionandlatervisited bypilgrims. A mo ngconvertstoBuddh ismtheEmp e r orAsokaoftheM a ur y a dynasty,1whichthrivedinIndiafromthefourthtothesecondcen-turiesB . C. , isworthyofnote.A sAsokaintendedBuddh ismto spreadthroughouthisvastkingdomandbe comeitsofficialreligion, hecomma nde dthatreligiousmonume nt sbe builtinlargenumbe r s. Th eearliestmonume nt sbuiltbyAsokawerestonepillarswith capitals intheformofastylized lotussimilartothoseatPersepolis. Ahigh,circularstonerailingorscreen wa splacedr oundthe pillar toseparateitfromtheoutsideworld;intheinterveningspacethe rite ofcircumambulationwa sperformed.2 Th esignificanceoftheseearlymonume nt scannotbe overlooked as,fromthestandpoint ofarchitecture,theyma yrepresent aninter-mediatestagebetweenamnda la ,orcosmiccircle,a nd thestupa 1.For a historical accountofBuddh ismduringtheM a ur y adynasty,seeC.Eliot, Hinduism andBuddhism,Ne wY or k,Barnes&Noble,1971(first published1921). 2.Forthesymbolicsignificanceofthepillars,see:NelsonI.W u ,Chinese and Indian Architecture,Ne wY or k,Ge or geBraziller, 1963. 32 proper1(Fig.3).F r o mthestand-pointof religion,thestonepillar istheverycoreofB uddh i sm:thecentral,verticalaxis is thespiritual heartofdivinelawasrepresentedbyB uddh i sm,f r omwh ichsprings thematerialbodyofB uddh i sm,a nd,inturn,theunpersonified rupaorima geof theB uddh ahimself.Aga infromthestandpoint ofarchitecture,theplacingofthecircularrailingorscreenr oundthe stonepillarto separateitfr omtheoutermaterialwor ld,thoughof religioussignificance,sufficesto givebothpillara ndrailingstrictly architecturalvaluebycreatinga definitespacebe twe e nthe two. Furtheranalysisofthesignificanceofthestonepillara nd surroundingrailingreveals a spatialtriad:thenon-existenceofinner 1.Thesignificanceof themndalaisdealtwithsuccinctlyby MadanjeetSingh inHimalayanAn,Lo ndo n,Macmillan,1968;and atlengthby G .Tucciin Teora e Pratica delMndala,Ro me ,1969. spacein the solidstonepillar;a n interveningspacebetweenthe foot ofthe pillara nd the railing;a nd thespacebe yondthe railing. All later architecturaldevelopmentsof thestupaare basedon thisspatial triad. Fe wtracesofearlyreliquarymoundsbuiltoverthesacred relicsoftheLor dB uddh a ,or elseinhisme mor y ,are tobefound today.Th ereasonfor this isthatthematerial used tobuildth e mwa s eitherclayorwood.Ontheotherh a nd,earlymonume nt sbuilt of stonehavesurvivedthepassageoftime.Architecturally,Buddhist monume nt sof thiskindare of greatimportance,for itisfromth e m thatthestupaaswe knowittodayeventuallydeveloped.Unf or -tunately,ofthelargenumb e rofstupaserectedbytheE mp e r or Asokaveryfew stillstand;afew ofthesewerelaterincorporated intobigger stupas built in successivestages. Earlymonume nt ssuchastheseconsistedofalarge,solid hemisphereordome ,insidewhichfour or so intersecting,supporting stonewallswerebuilttooffsetthe thrustcausedby the earthused to fill the dome .A s arule,the innersupportingwallswe r earranged soastoforma squarewithin a circle,theendsofthewalls coinciding withthe four cardinal points; the resultantinvisible pattern resembled amnda laor cosmic circle. Astonecube,or kiosk,knownas harmika,wa s placedontop ofthedomein line withthe centralvertical axis.Acircular balustrade wa sinturnbuilton the cube,fromthe centreofwhichroseashaft supportinganumb e rofringsor'umbrellas',1thatis,astylized versionofcanopiedumbrellasusedtoprovidecoverforroyalty or otherimportantpersonages;the ringsor 'umbrellas'werelatercon-siderablymodified.Ahighstonerailingorscreenwa s builtr ound thefootofthedometoseparateitfromtheoutside;therite of circumambulationwa s performedintheinterveningspace.Four monume nta lgateways,knownastorana,representingthefour cardinalpointswerebuilt in thecircular railing.2 Theseearlyreliquarymoundsor stupas weregreatlytransformed overthe centuriesthatfollowed,mainlyas a result oftheevolution a ndspreadofB uddh i smthroughoutEastAsiaChina,Tibet, Ne p a l,SriL a nka ,Japana nd K or e ainparticular,whichmor ethan otherAsiaticcountriesca medirectlyunderthe influenceofIndian culture.StupasinTibetwerestronglyinfluencedby thosebuiltin Ne pal.A swiththe earlystupaserectedoverthe relicsofB uddh a , 1.Concerningthesymbolismofthecanopied'umbrellas',cf.A .Volwahse n, Indian Architecture,Fribourg, Officedu Livre, 1968. 2.AdescriptionofthetoranainthestupaatSanchiisgivenbyH . Goe tzin India,p .54,M ilan,IISaggiatore,1959. 34 orinhisme mor y ,thelaterstupaswerebuiltasmonume nt sto comme mor a t ethe deador toholdrelics. Th emostrepresentativeofIndianstupasbuilttotheabove planisthegreatone erectedatSanchioveran earliermonume nt datingfr omthe secondcenturyB . C.(Fig. 4).Th e stupastandsona hilloverlookingthesurroundingplain,and canbeseenfroma considerabledistance:themagnificenceandmajestyoftheLor d B uddh aa nd thereligion hespreadareexpressedin itsmassivedime n-sions.Alignedwiththe fourcardinalpoints,itisbuiltin accordance withtheprinciplesofBuddhistcosmology,as,fore xample ,the basicsymbolsofcirclea ndsphere.Fortunately,thestupawa snot destroyedduringtheM ogulinvasionof Indiain thesixteenth century A . D .as the Buddhistmonkshad alreadya ba ndone ditthree centuries earlier.Buried indense jungleundergrowth,itwa s eventuallydiscov-Fig. 4 Th eIndianstupa atSanchi. 35 eredbyGeneralTaylor in1818.Th eruinedstupawa spartly restored attheturnofthepresentcentury,thoughwithlittlerespectfor traditionalBuddhist architectural style. Anothe rBuddhist stupaworthyof noteistheone atBor obudur , intheislandof Java,built a thousand yearslater (Fig. 5).Comp a r e d withthestupaatSanchi,f r oma narchitecturalstandpointitis considerablymor eevolved.Itstandson alowhill inawidevalley; itscontours repeatthoseof thechain of mountainsin thebackgr ound. Th ema ssof thestupaisbuilton apolygonalbasealignedwith the fourcardinalpoints.Fr omthe latterrisefour flights of stepsleading uptoawideterrace,onwhichstand five high,polygonalstepssur-mounte dby threecircularsteps.Asuccessionofseventy-twosmall TheBuddhist stupastupasbuilton thecircularstepswindsitswa yroundthe central atBorobudur.domewhichsymbolizesthe'supr e metruth'.Be twe e neachof the fivepolygonalstepsareinterminablegalleriesofbas-reliefsrepresent-ingJataka(orbirth-)storiessaidtoillustratetheLaiita Vistara, a celebratedbiographyoftheL or dB uddh abyDh a r ma r a kch a .Ca r ve d withma r ke drealism,theascendingsuccession of bas-reliefs personifies theBuddhist conceptof'pluralitythatperishes'before'eternalunity' andthe'supr e metruth'. M e ntionofthestupaatBor obudurisincompletewithout referencetothegiganticchortenorkumbum(literally,'thehundr e d thousandimages'),atGyantse ,inTibet.1Th e final effectofthe realisticallycarvedreliefsoftheformerandthevividcolouringof thepaintingsinsidetheseventy-threechapelsofthelatterissimilar inthatbothblendwiththespatialdimensionsa ndarchitectural styleofthemonume nt stheya dor n. M e ntionmustalsobema dehereofthestupaatBodh na th , thecentreofTantricB uddh i sminNe pa l(Figs.6a nd 7).Th egr ound planofthestupaisclearlyinspiredbyamnda la .Three flights of high,widestep-liketerracesf or mthebaseofthebiganda(literally 'egg')orcirculardome .On thedomestandsada dosupportingthe stupatowerwhichtapersup tothecirculartopcr ownina succession oflow,squarestep-like'umbrellas'.Th emonume nt a leffectofthe stupaisenhancedbythealternationofsquaresa nd circlesascending fromthebasetothecr ownr oundthecentral vertical axis.Th eoverall effectisinturnenhancedbythesimplehousesofthepilgrimmonks clusteredinsharp contrastr oundthestupa. A swiththesuccessionofseventy-twosmallstupaswinding roundthecentraldomeoftheBor obudurstupa,thealternating squaresa nd circlesatBodh na tharesuggestiveofarotatorycosmic move me ntroundacentralverticalaxisorcentreoffar-reaching symbolicaland religioussignificance.Foursmallstupasstandatthe cornersofthe first step-like terrace,while flights ofsteps alignedwith thefourcardinalpointsleaduptothema indome .Th efourcardinal points together withthevertical axis ofthetower causethemonume nt tobeprojectedin five directions. A sexplaineda bove ,thegr oundplanofthestupaiscircular roundacentralverticalaxis.Itisthusnotonlyvisiblefr omall directions,butalsoshedsitsreligiousmessageinalldirections.In otherwor ds,thestupa,ashasbeenwritten,is'all-seeinga ndis projectedinalldirectionsatthesa metime'.2 Asimilarspatialconcept,two-dimensionalasoppose dtothree-dimensional,istobefoundintheBuddhistmnda la .Assumi ngthe patternofthemnda la ,thoughtwo-dimensional,tobeathree-1.Foranexhaustive studyofthekumbumatGyantse,seeG .Tucci, Indo-Tibetica, Vol.IV,p.168-300,R ome ,RealeAccademiad'ltalia,1941. 2.Th esymbolismofthestupaisdealtwithatlengthbyNelsonI.W u ,op .cit. 37 Figs.6 and7 Thestupa at Bodhnath. dimensionalprojectionseenfroma bove ,thefiguresrepresentedin itappear tobereversed,facingtheonlooker,asitwere.Thisreversed effectcoincideswiththebelief thatB uddh aalways faceshisfollowers wherevertheyma ybe.Tha tistosay,hefacesth e minalldirections, a ndthereforecanbeseenbyth e mfr omalldirections.Thissa me effectisfoundinthearchitectureofallthosereligionswhichhave astheirkeynotethecirculargr oundplan. Afurtheraspectofthestupaisthatitsymbolizes'theknowle dge ofG o d ,thea bodeofG o d ,a nd thebodyofGod' .1Itisalso indicative ofma nwh osucceedsintransmutingmatter intothelikenessofGod. Itma ythereforebea ssume dthatthearchitecturala nd religious basis ofthestupaisvastu purushamnda la ,thatis,'place'(vastu),'essence' (purusha)a nd'form'(mndala),bearinginmi ndthatthebasic geometricalpatternisalways thatofthecircle ina square. ThechorteninTibet AfteritsintroductionintoTibet,theshapea nddimensionsofthe Indianstupaweresome wh a ttransformed,aswa s thena mebywhich itwa slaterknown,thatis,mChhod-rten,pr onounce d'chorten' (literally,'areceptacleofofferings').Despitethistransformation, thesymbolismoftheTibetanchortenisstill thatoftheIndianstupa. Justh owthetransformationca meaboutisop e ntoconjecture; sufficeittosaythattheTibetanchortenhasretainedthespiritual a ndreligious,aswellasthesymbolical,significanceoftheIndian stupa,asproofofitshavingoriginatedinthelatter.Infact,itis certain thatmodifiedversionsoftheIndianstupawerebuilt inGa nd-hara,borderingonIndiainthenorth-west,asearlyas100A . D . ,and successivelyinK a sh mirtotheeast,a nd finally inTibet. Tha ttheTibetanchorten originatedintheIndianstupaisborne outbycomparisonwiththestupasatSanchi,inIndia,a nd atB odh -natha ndCar umatiinNe p a l,thoughthetransformedshapeand dimensionscharacteristicoftheformer,incontrasttothelatter, areevident.Th eTibetanchortenislessponde r ous,andmor eslender a ndelegantthanitsIndiancounterpart,especiallyasregardsthe andaordome .IntheIndianstupathedomeraisedonasquarebase isspherical inshape, whereas intheTibetan chortenitisovala ndmor e elongatedonaccountofitsreduceddiameter.Th elighter,oval effectisheightenedby thetaperingshaftorspiresupportinga greater numb e rofring-shaped'umbrellas',sur mounte dinturnbyacrescent cradlingadisc. 1.Concerningvastupurusha mndala,seeVolwahsen,op.cit.,andW u ,op.cit. Althoughthe transformationofshapea nddimensionsundergone bytheTibetanchorten wa s paralleledbyagradualtransformation ofBuddh ismasitspreadfromIndiatoTibet,theessentialspirit a ndsymbolismofthereligionareeverpresent.Infact,tangible manifestationsofBuddh isme mbodie dinLamaisttraditionareto beseeneverywhereinTibetinthelargenumb e rofchorten,which inturnareamanifestationoftheprofoundBuddhistfaithofthe Tibetanswh obuiltthe m. Structurally,the Tibetan chortenishighlycomple x;sacredbooks translateda nd studiedsofardescribeeightorsobasicmodels a nd instructionsastoh owtheyaretobe built.Theseeightmodelscor-respondtothe eightmajoreventsinthe life ofGa ut a matheB uddh a : tradition,infact,hasitthateightstupaswerebuiltintheeight placeswhe r etheseeventsoccurred.1 Th emode lsfromwhichchorteninTibetaremostfrequently builtarethosewhichsymbolize'thesupr e meEnlightenment','the descentfromHe a ve n',a ndbyfarthemostmonume nta lofall eightthatof'thema nygates'. Th echortensymbolizing'thesupremeEnlightenment'consists ofasquarebasesurmountedbyseveralsteps,onwhichstandsthe domeorprincipalpartoftheshrine.Th edomeisnotaplainh e mi-sphere in the strict sense of thewor d,but rather aninverted, truncated coneknownasa bumpa.Ataperingshaftor spire supporting thirteen 'wheels'or'umbrellas'risesfromthecentreofthedomeand ter-minatesinanornatecr ownorringtoppedby acrescentmo o na nd thediscofthesun.Thislaste mb l e mwiththeotherpartsofthe chortenma keupacomple xsymbolicstructureorsche meofthe Buddhistuniverse initsLamaistversion.2 Th echorten symbolizing 'thedescentfromHe a ve n'differsfr om thatof'thesupremeEnlightenment'inthatfour flights ofstepsare placed atthe four sides of theshrine.Besides representing the descent 1.ForadescriptionoftheeightmodelsofTibetanchorten,seeG . Tucci,Indo-Tibetica,Vol.I,R ome ,RealeAccade miad'ltalia,1932.Th eeightstupas up onwhichtheTibetanchortenarebasedareasfollows:stupaof'thedescent fromHe a ve n'atKapilavastu,theBuddh a 'sbirthplace;stupaof'thesupreme Enlightenment'atM a ga dh a ,wheretheB uddh aattainedsupremeEnlighten-me nt;stupaof'thegreatmiracle'atKusinagara,wheretheB uddh aentered Nirvana;stupaofthe'proclamation'ofBuddh ismatBenares,wherethe B uddh abeganproclaimingorpreachingBuddh ism;the'K anika'stupaat Vaisali,wheretheB uddh ameditatedonhislife-span;stupaof'thema ny gates',alsocalled'victorious',atSravasti;the'noble*or'shining'stupaat Ts'adge;the'lotus' stupaatTikacasi. 2.L a ma ismisdealtwithatlengthbyD .Seckelin/ /Buddhismo,p.49,70, Milan,IISaggiatore,1963;byL .A .W addellinTheBuddhismof Tibet, Cambr idge ,W .Heffer,1934;andbyD .Snellgrove& H .RichardsoninA Cultural History ofTibet,L ondon,W eidenfeld&Nicolson,1968. 40 ofB uddh afromthe TushitaHe a ve n,the stepsleadup to thebase ofthedome ;byascendingth e mandwalkingroundthedome , pilgrimsperformtherite ofcircumambulation. Th echorten symbolizing'thema nygates',inadditionto being byfarthemostmonume nta lof theeighttypesbuilt in Tibet,differs fromthoseof'thesupremeEnlightenment'and'the descentfrom He a ve n'onaccount of itsgreatsize.Th emostrepresentativechorten of'thema nygates'standsbythemonasteryatGyantse ; as already mentioned,itisagiganticstructureknownas akumbum,me aning 'thehundredthousand(images)'andreferstothepaintingsa nd statues to beseenin theseventy-threechapelsof thebuilding.W hile ascendingthe stepsduringthe riteofcircumambulation,pilgrims passby each of thechapelswhichma ybe considered,architecturally andsymbolically,an integralpartof thewhole. The chorteninKh u mb u Th evariouschorten in K h u mb u ,in the villagesofNa mc h eBazar, Pangpoche ,Th a mi ,PhortseandK h umjung(Fig. 8), are allbased onthetwostupas atCarumatiandBodhnath.A nexception,however, isthe chortenstandingby themonasteryatTe ngpoche ,whichis clearly of Tibetan origin. Th echortenatTe ngpoche(Plate5)symbolizes'thesupreme Enlightenment',thatis,the typeof chortenmostfrequentlyfound inTibet,as, forinstance,on the outskirtsofLhasa,Gyantseand Shigatse. Th epedestalof this chortenconsists ofa plinth orbase onwhich standsalarge,squareda dosurmountedbytwocornicesabove paintedwoode n dentils (smallsquarewoode nblocks).Foursymbolical steps risefromthepedestalto thedomeor chorten proper.Th ebase ofthedomeiscircularand symbolizesthe five powers;inwoode n modelsandpaintingsthecircularbaseis,as arule,decoratedwith stylizedlotusblooms.Ratherthana plainhemisphere,the domeis a ninverted,truncatedconesymbolizingthe'sevenconcomitantsof Enlightenment'.1Onthe sidesofthedomefacingnorthand south aretwolargemedallionsbearingthe rupaorimageoftheseated B uddh a .Th edomeissurmountedbya circulardr umcappedwith moulde dlotusblooms,fromwhichrisesashaftorspireadorned withthirteenceremonial'umbrellas'. Th espireisinturntopped by acircular,frettedcr own,aninvertedcrescent,adisc,and asmall Plate 5 1.Foranexplanationofthesymbolism oftheTibetanchorten,see Tucci,Indo-Th e chortenat Tibetica,Vol. I,op . cit.Te ngpoche . 41 : im 'u 42 a ft n. a) ! i...., r-^P -Pw ~L-^1t^j !r ' 6; Varioustypesofchortensurveyedin K h u mb u .Chortenarebestdescribedas abstractBuddhistconceptsma devisibly concrete:asinneighbouringTibet, soin K h u mb utheyaresymbolicalofthepresenceofma nthroughoutthe region,aswellofhisdevoutreligious faith. Th evarioustypesofchortensurveyedin K h u mb uaresh ownhere. Ty p e(a)basedonNepalesestupas,thoseatCarumatia ndBodhna thin particular,isfoundinnearlyallthevillages ofK h u mb u . Ty p e(b),theonly chortenofitskind,standsnearthemonasteryat Te ngp och e ;itsymbolizes'thesupremeEnlightenment',atypefrequentlyfound inTibet,as,fore xample ,atGyantse. Apartfrom slight differencesinform anddimensions,similar typesofchortenarefoundinM usta ngandma nyparts ofL a da kh .Th enume r ouspaintingsofstylized chorten,usuallyontankha, symbolizing'thesupr e meEnlightenment',arefurtherevidencethat this type isfrequentlyfoundinregionswheretheLamaist faith prevails,andistherefore themode lonwhich othersarebased. Ty p e(c)issome wh a tofararityasregardsformanddimensions. UndoubtedlyofIndo-Nepaleseorigin,itispossiblethatthe five kenjiraflanking thefoursides ofthed omea nd ontopofthespire respectively,symbolizethe fiveDh ya ni(orJina)Buddh a s. Th esmallchorten,asrepresentedin(d)a nd(e),werefoundnearthebig chortenatTe ngpoche .ClearlyofTibetanorigin,theyare,however,limited asfarassymbolicexpressionisconcerned,oftenbeingfoundnearbigger,mor e important chorten. sphericalpinnacle:thecrescentwiththedisca nd thespherical pinnaclesymbolizeair andtheether respectively. Th edomeof the chortenin particularis in a poorstate of preser-vationsinceitissomeconsiderabletimesinceitwa s lastplastered withclay.Despitetheerodedsurfaceof thedomea ndthecrumbling stepsa nd cornices,thelinesofthechortenarestillreasonably pronounced. Tha tthe chorten wa s builtinaccordancewithTibetanca non isborneout by comparingitwiththedescription,dimensions a nd interpretationofitsvariouspartsgivenby Tucciinhisgreatwor k Indo-Tibetica.Unfortunately,this could notbe donewith the chorten inthevillagesofNa mc h eBazar,Pa ngp och e ,Th a mi ,Phortsea nd K h umj ung,whichareallofIndo-Nepaleseorigin.Howe ve r ,a comparativearchitecturalstudyofseveralwoode nmodelskeptin theTe ngp och emonasterywa spossible. Thesemodelsare of undoubte dinterest as they arerepresentative ofthechortenmostfrequentlybuilt in K h u mb u ,as wellas of others less frequentlybuilt.A mo ngthe modelsisonewhichseemstohave beenusedforbuildingthe chorten outsidethemonastery.Anothe r mode lof interest isthatof the chortensymbolizing 'thedescentfrom He a ve n',of whichthedomeandda doin thepedestalare decorated inbrightcolours.Araremode lof particularinterestisonewith a diminishingsuccessionof stepsbuiltonaneight-sidedgr oundplan. ItsoriginisundoubtedlyTibetan,as isborneout by thechorten standingoutsidethemonasteryof Tashigang,in westernTibet. Ofparticular interest,too,isthemode lin whichthebaseofthe dome ,insteadof theusualascendingsuccessionof steps,isa gentle curveadornedwith stylized lotusbloomscarved in relief.Thismode l symbolizes,appropriately,the'garland of lotusblooms'. M ode lsof chortenarealsokept in Buddhistmonasteriesoutside K h u mb u ,as, fore xample ,L a ma y ur u,inL a da kh ,andPemiangtse, inSikkim.A swiththemodelsin the Te ngp och emonastery,these, too,are ofgreathelpwh e ncarryingout asurveyof chorten;the detaila ndaccuracyoftheirdimensionsma ke seasierthetaskof compar ingth e mwith thelargechorten.Onecan onlyhopethatthese preciousmodelswill continue to be preserved. Concerningmodels,mentionmustbema deof thesmallvotive chortensymbolizing'thegreatEnlightenment'inthe middleshrine oftheupperlha-khang,' God' shouse'or 'temple',at theTe ngp och e monastery.Th e chortenisma deofsilverandbrassstuddedwith preciousstones;despitetheprofuselydecorative,e mbosse dsilver basea nddome ,itisclearlyacopyofthewoode nmode linthe monastery.A similar votive chorten is represented in a wood-engraving atTe ngp och e(Fig.9); in itan explanationis givenof thesymbolical significanceofitsvariousparts,includingthe ritual flagshanging fromthe cr ownofthespireabovethedome .Th ecorrespondence betweenthesilvera nd brassvotivechorten a nd theone represented inthe wood-engravingisallthe mor eevidentinthatthe frame of theshrineholding the chorten is a repetition ofitsstylizedcounterpart surroundingthewood-engraving. Inthesurveyof chortenma deinthevillagesofK h u mb u ,only thelargerof thesewereexamined,a nd ame r elist wa s compiledof thesmalleronesalongpaths,usuallynearma w-wa llsa ndsacred inscriptionson rockfaces.Thesechortenwereobviouslybuilt by devoutSherpaswh o h a dno guidelinestowor kfrom,letalone woode nmodels.Theirvalue,architecturally,isthereforelimited, especiallywh e nitcome sto ma kingcomparativestudies withwoode n models,thoughitcannot bedeniedthatthesesimplechorten are an overtexpressionoftheSherpas'Lamaistfaith. Concerningthe chortenatNa mc h eBazar,itssimplelinesare suchthatoneisled toplaceitin the classsymbolizing'thema ny gates',themostrepresentativeofwhichisatGyantse,inTibet. Althoughthereisaclosesimilaritybetweenthe two,thechorten atNa mc h e ,fromthe standpointofarchitecture,isnot strictly of 45 Fig.9 W ood-engravingof avotive chorten atTengpoche. It wW T M i um ^^H 1 46 Tibetanorigin,butratherisderivedfromthetwoolderstupasat Carumatia nd Bodh na thintheK a t ma nduValley,inNepal.Evidence forthis istobefoundintheinnumerablephotographsofTibetnow available:carefulexamination ofth e mshowsthatthemostfrequent chortenarethosesymbolizing'thegreatEnlightenment' and'the descentfromHe a ve n',whereasthoseof'thema nygates',apart fromtheone atGyantseandseveralotherselsewhere, areunc ommon. Th echorten inthevillageofNa mc h eBazar(Plate1) issituated ina naturalamphitheatreandisvisible on allsides.Builtof inferior-qualitymaterial,itsbaseconsistsofthreediminishingpolygonal stepswhichsymbolize earth.Ontheplintha bovethetopstepstands thedome ,whichis flattened asopposedtohemispherical,asifover-burdenedby theweightofthetowerabove ; inshapeitresembles the ancientIndianstupaorreliquarymound.On theflatteneddome standsacubickioskorharmika,fromwhichrisesthepyramid-shapedtowerorspiresupportingthirteen'umbrellas',cappedbya circularmetalcr own,towhichareattachedritualcurtain-likeflags. Th eumbrella-toweristoppedbyakenjiraastylizedarchitectural ornamentma deofgold-lacqueredwooda ndshapedlikeapinnacle. Unfortunately,thechorten atNa mc h eBazarisinapoorstate ofpreservation.M or ethanonotherpartsoftheshrine,theouter layerofclayonthedomehasallbutwor na wa ythroughlong exposuretotheelements.As aresult,theunderlyingbrickworkhas beenda ma ge d. Lyingonthestepsofthebaseofthechorten areslabsofstone bearingsacredsymbolsand mantras,mostlytheubiquitousformula O mManiPadmeHum.Th e outermeaningofthismantrais'Hail totheJewelintheLotusFlower',referringbothtotheBodhisattva Avalokiteswaraa ndtohisincarnation,theDalaiL a ma ,though othermystic,exotericreadingsare possible. Similartothechorten atNa mc h eBazar,bothasregardsshape anddimensions, arethetwoatK h umjung,thetwoatDingpoche , andthesingleoneatK h u mde .Theirvariouspartsareillustratedin detailinthefigures. W ithregard tothechortenatPa ngpoche ,itisalmostimpossible toexplainthesymbolicalsignificanceofitsvariouspartson account ofitsparticularshape,whichma ke sitdifficulttocomp a r ewiththe woode nmodels.Ontheotherh a nd,itispossiblethat the five kenjira flankingthefour sides of the domeandon topofthe spire respectively, symbolizethe five Dh ya ni(orJina)Buddh a s. AformofarchitectureinK h u mb uinspiredbythechortenis thefree-standinggateway.Threeofthemaretobefoundnearthe villagesofNa mc h eBazar(Plate6)andK h umj ung,and themona s-teryofTe ngpoche .Th e gatewaysareclearlyofTibetanorigin,as Plate 6 Th echortenand free-standing gatewayatNa mc h e Bazar. 47 . ' . ' ^ ~2F, .'-"T-'iC; :jw-- * ^'~.'