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    T

    Simple TruTh

    bot t

    Gender

    pay Gap

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    1

    Foreword 2

    Introduction 3

    What Is the Pay Gap? 5

    Is the Pay Gap Really about

    Womens Lie Choices? 8

    How Does the Pay Gap Aect Women

    o Dierent Demographics? 10

    Is Tere a Pay Gap in All Jobs? 14

    How Can I Make a Dierence? 16

    What Should I Do i I Experience

    Sex Discrimination at Work? 21

    AAUW Resources 22

    Notes 23

    Tb of Cotts

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    2

    I you take one simple truth rom this guide, I hope its this: Te pay gap isreal. Tis guide backs up this assertion with the latest evidence and presents

    new ideas or what we can do about it.

    Te American Association o University Women (AAUW) has been on the

    ront lines o the ght or pay equity since 1913. AAUW members were in

    the Oval Oce when President John F. Kennedy signed the Equal Pay Act

    o 1963 into law, and almost 50 years later, we continue to lead the push or

    policies and legislation to encourage and enorce air pay in the workplace.

    Pay equity is a priority or AAUW, and it will continue to be until women

    everywhere earn a air days pay or a air days work. In January 2009, Presi-

    dent Barack Obama signed the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act into law, thanks

    to the hard work and leadership o AAUW, our members, and our coalitionpartners. But in November 2010, the Senate ailed to pass the Paycheck

    Fairness Act, which would have given women additional and much-needed

    equal pay protections. Clearly, our work is not yet over.

    oday, most mothers are in the paid labor orce, and about one-third o

    employed mothers are the sole breadwinners or their amilies. When women

    earn less money than men do, the whole amily pays the price.

    Tis guide is designed to empower our members and other advocates with

    the acts and resources they need to tell the simple truth about the pay gap.

    Its real, its persistent, and its undermining the economic security o Ameri-

    can amilies. We hope you will join us in the ght.

    Linda D. Hallman, CAE

    AAUW Executive Director

    Fowo

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    3

    Did you know that in 2009, women working ull time in the United Statesstill earned just 77 percent, on average, o what men earn, a gap o 23

    percent? Te gap has narrowed since the 1970s (Figure 1), due largely to

    womens progress in education and workorce participation and to mens

    wages rising at a slower rate. Progress has stalled in recent years, and the pay

    gap does not appear likely to go away on its own.

    100%

    80%

    60%

    40%

    20%

    0%

    1971

    1975

    1980

    1985

    1990

    1995

    2000

    2005

    2009

    60%

    77%

    itocto

    Fg 1.Wos egs s pctg of ms eg fo F-t,

    y-o Woks, 197120091

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    4

    Equal pay is not simply a womens issueits a amily issue. Families

    increasingly rely on womens wages to make ends meet. In typical married

    households in 2008, womens incomes accounted or 36 percent o totalamily income, up rom 29 percent in 1983. A large majority o mothers are

    in the paid labor orce, and about one-third o employed mothers are the

    sole breadwinners or their amilies.2

    For the 34 percent o working mothers who are their amilies sole bread-

    winnereither because they are single parents or their spouses are not in

    the labor orcethe gender pay gap can contribute to poor living condi-

    tions, poor nutrition, and ewer opportunities or their children.3 For these

    women, closing the gender pay gap is much more than a point o pride.

    Tis guide provides key acts about the gender pay gap in the United States,

    along with explanations and resources. Inormation is organized around six

    common questions:

    1. What is the pay gap?

    2. Is the pay gap really about womens lie choices?

    3. How does the pay gap afect women o diferent demographics?

    4. Is there a pay gap in all jobs?

    5. What can I do to make a diference?

    6. What should I do i I experience sex discrimination at work?

    AAUW hopes this inormation will help you to eectively and condently

    advocate or pay equity or all workers in your community.

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    5

    Wt is t p G?

    Te pay gap is the dierence in mens and womens typical earnings, usu-ally reported as either the earnings ratio between men and women or as an

    actual pay gap, as dened below. Te median value is the middle value, with

    equal numbers o ull-time workers earning more and earning less; it is used

    to prevent especially high salaries rom skewing the results.

    Earnings ratio =Womens median earnings

    Mens median earnings

    Pay gap =[Mens median earnings Womens median earnings]

    Mens median earnings

    In 2009, median annualearnings in the United States or women and men

    working ull time, year round were $36,278 and $47,127, respectively.

    2009 Earnings ratio =$36,278

    = 77%$47,127

    2009 Pay gap =[$47,127 - $36,278]

    = 23%$47,127

    In terms o median weeklyearnings, the pay gap was 20 percent in 2009 and

    19 percent in 2010, according to the U.S. Department o Labor.

    W o t t co fo?

    Federal agencies such as the Census Bureau, the Department o Education,and the Bureau o Labor Statistics conduct surveys o individuals, house-

    holds, and businesses to gather inormation about peoples salaries and other

    earnings.

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    6

    Most reports on national workorce participation, pay, and pay dierences

    depend on data rom the Current Population Survey (CPS) (www.census.gov/cps), the countrys primary source o labor orce statistics. Te CPS is a

    monthly survey o about 50,000 households conducted by the U.S. Census

    Bureau or the Bureau o Labor Statistics.

    Te estimate o the pay gap using weeklyearnings is based on the annual

    average o weekly median earnings or the previous year, usually released in

    January by the Bureau o Labor Statistics (www.bls.gov/cps). Te estimate

    o the pay gap using annualearnings is based on the CPS Annual Social

    and Economic Supplement data, which is published each September by the

    Census Bureau and the Bureau o Labor Statistics. In recent years, this data

    has been published in Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the

    United States.4

    Stt-v t

    Te pay gap can also be calculated or each state (Figure 2). Te American

    Community Survey (ACS) (www.census.gov/acs) is oten used to make esti-

    mates o the pay gap at the state level because it includes more households

    than the CPS. Te Census Bureau began the ACS in 1996 as the successorto the long orm o the decennial census. Te ACS results are released

    annually in September, and bries based on the survey can be ound on the

    bureaus website.5 According to ACS data, in 2009 the pay gap was smallest

    in Washington, D.C., where women earned 88 percent o what men earned,

    and largest in Wyoming, where women earned 65 percent o what men

    earned.

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    39 Alabama $41,331 $30,658 74%

    30 Alaska $51,019 $39,017 76%

    3 Arizona $41,916 $34,651 83%

    15 Arkansas $36,465 $28,640 79%

    2 California $48,389 $40,019 83%

    11 Colorado $47,983 $38,058 79%

    40 Connecticut $59,387 $43,900 74%

    17 Delaware $48,038 $37,645 78%

    1 Washington, D.C. $61,993 $54,698 88%

    6 Florida $39,122 $32,109 82%

    14 Georgia $42,667 $33,665 79%

    18 Hawaii $45,911 $35,977 78%

    45 Idaho $40,440 $29,122 72%

    26 Illinois $49,336 $37,841 77%

    44 Indiana $43,631 $31,762 73%

    42 Iowa $42,634 $31,431 74%

    31 Kansas $42,494 $32,341 76%

    38 Kentucky $40,748 $30,481 75%

    50 Louisiana $44,174 $29,350 66%

    27 Maine $42,156 $32,314 77%

    7 Maryland $55,116 $44,937 82%

    12 Massachusetts $56,902 $45,062 79%

    46 Michigan $48,066 $34,542 72%

    16 Minnesota $48,492 $38,025 78%

    32 Mississippi $37,528 $28,506 76%

    25 Missouri $41,660 $31,993 77%

    m Woegs

    rtom Wo

    egs

    rto

    47 Montana $39,830 $28,461 71%

    22 Nebraska $39,516 $30,562 77%

    5 Nevada $43,425 $35,691 82%

    41 New Hampshire $50,837 $37,527 74%

    29 New Jersey $57,738 $44,166 76%

    23 New Mexico $39,562 $30,578 77%

    4 New York $49,174 $40,584 83%

    8 North Carolina $40,359 $32,576 81%

    43 North Dakota $40,693 $29,742 73%

    34 Ohio $44,563 $33,616 75%

    35 Oklahoma $39,174 $29,413 75%

    28 Oregon $44,572 $34,121 77%

    33 Pennsylvania $46,747 $35,301 76%

    10 Rhode Island $49,439 $39,248 79%

    20 South Carolina $39,648 $31,010 78%

    24 South Dakota $36,977 $28,515 77%

    13 Tennessee $39,509 $31,222 79%

    9 Texas $40,621 $32,578 80%

    49 Utah $45,800 $31,186 68%

    21 Vermont $45,234 $35,276 78%

    19 Virginia $50,236 $39,354 78%

    36 Washington $51,305 $38,521 75%

    48 West Virginia $40,231 $27,855 69%

    37 Wisconsin $44,812 $33,611 75%

    51 Wyoming $47,828 $31,308 65%

    United States $47,127 $36,278 77%

    Fg 2.Stt m a egs egs rto, b G, 20096

    * The small blue numbers indicate a states rank in the earnings ratio for 2009.

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    8

    is t p G r botWos lf Cocs?

    Critics charge that pay dierences between men and women are simply a

    matter o personal choices. In 2007, AAUW addressed this argument in

    our report Behind the Pay Gap, which analyzed earnings data or emale and

    male college graduates one year and 10 years ater graduation. We ound

    that just one year ater college graduation, women earned only 80 percent o

    what their male counterparts made. en years ater graduation, women ellurther behind, earning only 69 percent o what men earned.7

    In part, these pay gaps did refect mens and womens choices, especially the

    choice o college major and the type o job pursued ater graduation. For

    example, women are more likely than men to go into teaching, and this

    contributes to the pay gap because teachers tend to earn less than other

    college graduates. Tis portion o the pay gap is considered to be explained,

    regardless o whether teachers wages are considered air.

    Yet not all o the gap could be explained away. Ater accounting or college

    major, occupation, industry, sector, hours worked, workplace fexibility,

    experience, educational attainment, enrollment status, GPA, institution

    selectivity, age, race/ethnicity, region, marital status, and number o chil-dren, a 5 percent diference in the earnings o male and emale college

    graduates one year ater graduation was still unexplained.

    A similar analysis o ull-time workers 10 years ater college graduation

    ound a 12 percentunexplained dierence in earnings. Other research-

    ers have also ound that the gender pay gap is not ully accounted or by

    womens and mens choices.8,9

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    10

    how dos t p G affct

    Wo of dfft dogcs?

    Te pay gap aects women rom all backgrounds, at all ages, and o all levels

    o educational achievement, although earnings and the gap vary depending

    on a womans individual situation.

    rc/tct

    Among ull-time workers in 2010, Hispanic, Latina, and Arican American

    women had lower average weekly median earnings compared with white

    $669

    $508

    $592

    $684

    $773

    $824

    $560

    $633

    $850

    $936

    $0

    $200

    $400

    $600

    $800

    $1,000

    Total Hispanic orLatina/o

    AfricanAmerican

    White Asian

    81%

    91%

    94%

    80%

    83%

    xx%= women's earnings as a percentage of men's earningsWomen Men

    Fg 3.Wk m egs of F-t Wg S Woks,

    b rc/etct G, 201011

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    11

    and Asian American women. But within racial/ethnic groups, Arican

    American and Hispanic or Latina women experienced a smaller gender

    pay gap compared with men in the same group than did white and AsianAmerican women (Figure 3).

    Using a single benchmark provides a more inormative picture. Because

    white men are the largest demographic group in the labor orce, they are

    oten used or that purpose.

    Compared with the salary inormation or white male workers, Asian wom-

    ens salaries show the smallest gender pay gap, at 91 percent o white mens

    earnings. Te gap was largest or Hispanic and Latina women, who earned

    only 60 percent o white mens earnings on average in 2010 (Figure 4). Te

    smaller gender pay gap within their racial/ethnic groups among Arican

    Americans, Hispanics, and Latinos is due solely to the act that Arican

    American, Hispanic, and Latino men, on average, earned substantially lessthan white men in 2010.

    Fg 4.rto egs fo Wo, b rc/etct, 201012

    As a percentage of mens

    earnings within race/ethnicity

    As a percentage of white

    mens earnings

    Hispanic or Latina 91% 60%

    African American 94% 70%

    White 80% 80%

    Asian 83% 91%

    Note: Based on median usual weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers, 2010 annual averages

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    $323

    $445

    $634

    $709 $712$727

    $602

    $356

    $479

    $715

    $916$967 $965

    $791

    $0

    $200

    $400

    $600

    $800

    $1,000

    16 to 19 years 20 to 24 years 25 to 34 years 35 to 44 years 45 to 54 years 55 to 64 years 65 years and older

    Age

    91%

    93%

    89%

    77% 74% 75%

    76%

    xx%= women's earnings as a percentage of men's earningsWomen Men

    ag

    Earnings or both emale and male ull-time workers tend to increase withage, with a plateau ater 45 and a drop at age 65 and older. Te gender pay

    gap also grows with age, and dierences among older workers are consider-

    ably larger than the gap among younger workers.

    Te gender pay gap is smallest among the youngest workers. In 2009,

    among ull-time workers ages 1619, women earned 91 percent o what

    men earned. Among workers 65 years and older, women earned only 76

    percent o what their male peers earned. In general, women earn about

    90 percent o what men earn until around the age o 35, at which point

    median earnings or women start to grow much more slowly than median

    Fg 5.avg Wk m egs of F-T Wg S Woks,b G ag, 200913

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    $382

    $542

    $674

    $891

    $1,126

    $1,269 $1,243

    $500

    $716

    $878

    $1,200

    $1,458

    $1,772 $1,754

    $0

    $200

    $400

    $600

    $800

    $1,000

    $1,200

    $1,400

    $1,600

    $1,800

    $2,000

    Less than highschool diploma

    High schoolgraduate

    Associatedegree

    Bachelor'sdegree

    Master'sdegree

    Professionaldegree

    Doctoraldegree

    76%

    76%

    77%

    74%

    77%

    72%71%

    xx%= women's earnings as a percentage of men's earningsWomen Men

    earnings or men. Ater age 35, womens median earnings all to between 70

    and 80 percent o the median earnings o men and remain there until retire-

    ment (Figure 5).

    ecto

    As a rule, earnings increase as years o education increase or both men and

    women. While more education is an eective tool or increasing earnings, it

    is not an eective tool against the gender pay gap. At every level o academic

    achievement, womens median earnings, on average, are less than mens

    median earnings, and in some cases, the gender pay gap is larger at higher

    levels o education (Figure 6).

    Fg 6.Wk m egs of F-t Wg S Woks, ags 25

    O, b G lv of ecto, 200914

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    is T p G a Jobs?

    Yes, in nearly every line o work, women ace a pay gap. Among the 108occupations or which the Bureau o Labor Statistics collects data that

    allow or valid comparison, womens earnings are higher than mens in only

    threecounselors, combined ood preparation and serving workers (includ-

    ing ast ood), and stock clerks and order llers.15

    While a pay gap exists in nearly every occupational eld, jobs traditionallyassociated with men tend to pay better than traditionally emale jobs or the

    same level o skill required. And even in 2011, women and men still tend to

    work in dierent kinds o jobs. Tis segregation o occupations is a major

    actor behind the pay gap.16,17

    In 2010, the U.S. civilian workorce included 139 million ull- and

    part-time employed workers; 53 percent were men, and 47 percent werewomen.18 Almost 40 percent (39.7 percent) o working women were

    employed in traditionally emale occupations such as social work, nursing,

    and teaching. In contrast, less than 5 percent (4.5 percent) o men worked

    in these jobs.

    Forty-our percent o men worked in traditionally male occupations, such as

    computer programming, aerospace engineering,and reghting, compared

    with only 5.5 percent o women in those jobs.19 Overall, women are more

    likely to work in proessional, oce and administrative support, sales, and

    service occupations, and men are more likely to work in construction, main-

    tenance and repair, and production and transportation occupations.

    Although men and women still tend to work in dierent jobs, occupationalgender segregation has decreased over the last 40 years. Te reduction in

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    gender segregation is largely due to women moving into previously predom-

    inantly male jobs, especially during the 1970s and 1980s,20 and to aster

    growth o more mixed-gender occupations in the 1990s.21

    Increasing the number o women in traditionally male elds is likely to

    improve wages or women, but it is unlikely to be a ully successul strategy

    to end the pay gap. Women in male jobs such as computer science still

    ace a pay gap compared with their male counterparts (see Figure 7), even

    though they may earn higher salaries than women in traditionally emale

    elds. It will take more than individual women pursuing careers in male

    elds to ensure air pay or all.

    Financial managers

    Lawyers

    Medical scientists

    Computer scientists andsystems analysts

    Pharmacists

    Registered nurses

    Editors

    Secondary school teachers

    Counselors

    0 $500 $1,000 $1,500 $2,000

    66.1%

    77%

    77.5%

    78.2%

    83.1%

    86.5%

    88.3%

    92.9%

    104.8%

    xx%= women's earnings as a percentage of men's earningsWomen Men

    Fg 7.T G p G fo Wk egs, Sct Occtos, 201022

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    Te gender pay gap is unlikely to go away on its own, but there are manythings that we can do in our workplaces and in our communities to make a

    dierence. Here are some steps that can be taken by employers, individuals,

    and governments to ensure air pay.

    ivs

    Many personal decisions have proound implications or our economic

    security. Pursuing a college education has long been viewed as an important

    step toward ensuring a middle-class liestyle. But not all college majors will

    provide equal oundations or uture nancial security. In addition, the

    kinds o jobs we pursue early in our careers set the stage or an entire career

    o earnings. Because benets and subsequent raises are based on our initialwages, a lower starting salary could mean a lietime o lower compensa-

    tion and smaller retirement benets. Decisions about whether and when to

    get married, have a amily, and the division o labor in the amily also play

    important roles in our economic utures.

    Developing negotiation skills can help workers earn air pay. Men are our

    times as likely as women to initiate negotiations or a pay raise, according

    to research by Babcock and Laschever.23 Because most employers have some

    latitude when it comes to salaries, negotiating can oten literally pay o.

    But negotiation skills are especially tricky or women because some behav-

    iors, like sel-promotion, that work or men may backre on women.24

    AAUW, in partnership with the Wage Project, oers trainings on eective

    negotiation or women.

    how C i mk dffc?

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    Beyond their personal lives, individuals can also take steps to infuence

    employers and governments. Tere are more ways to make your voice heard

    than ever beoreletters to your legislators and local papers, blogs, andtweets are just a ew examples. Joining an organization like AAUW can

    make all these activities a little easier, especially i you use our Programs in

    a Box and other resources and connect with our ready-made network o

    activists.

    eos

    Companies should know by now that paying workers airly is necessary or

    legal and ethical reasons. Indeed, air pay can be good or the bottom line.

    Believing that an employer is air improves workers morale,25,26 and employ-

    ees are less likely to be absent when they perceive that their employer is air.

    Work perormance has also been linked to the perception o organizationaljustice.27 In other words, a worker who believes that she or he is paid airly is

    more likely to contribute her or his best eort to the job.

    As U.S. Supreme Court Justice Louis Brandeis once noted, Sunshine

    is the best disinectant. But not every employer has taken this lesson to

    heart. Companies like Home Depot, Novartis, and Smith Barney have paid

    hundreds o millions o dollars to settle cases o gender pay discriminationbrought by women employees under the Equal Pay Act and itle VII o the

    Civil Rights Act. Wal-Mart has already spent billions o dollars deending

    what could be the largest class-action lawsuit in history, brought by emale

    employees alleging systemic pay and promotion discrimination.

    ransparency in compensation is one example o a policy that can make

    a dierence. A recent survey by the Institute or Womens Policy Research

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    (IWPR) ound that about hal o employees said they worked in a setting

    where discussions o wages and salaries are either ormally prohibited or

    discouraged by managers. According to IWPR, pay secrecy is much morecommon in the private sector, where 61 percent o employees are either

    discouraged or prohibited rom discussing wage and salary inormation.

    In contrast, only 14 percent o public-sector employees reported that pay

    discussions were either discouraged or prohibited. Tis greater degree o

    transparency in the public sector may be related to the greater gender pay

    equity ound in the ederal government. Federal workers can easily see how

    their salaries compare with others at their grade level and geographical loca-

    tion because the U.S. Oce o Personnel Management makes public the

    DannyShanahan/TheNewYorkerCollection/www.cartoonbank.com

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    salary and wage range or each level o ederal worker and additional locality

    pay or areas where the cost o living is higher.28 Among ederal workers,

    women earn 89 percent o what men earn, compared with 77 percent in theworkorce as a whole.29

    Employers can also use audits to monitor and address gender pay dier-

    ences. Te state o Minnesota requires public-sector employers to conduct

    a pay equity study every ew years and eliminate pay disparities between

    emale-dominated and male-dominated jobs that require comparable levels

    o expertise. Employers use a job evaluation tool to compare jobs on dimen-

    sions such as the complexity o issues encountered, the depth and breadth

    o knowledge needed, the nature o interpersonal contacts required, and the

    physical working conditions. Tis allows employers to identiy jobsor

    example, delivery van drivers and clerk typiststhat, despite being dier-

    ent, require similar levels o knowledge and responsibility. An analysis is

    then done to compare wages or predominantly emale jobs with those opredominantly male jobs o comparable skill levels. I the results o the study

    show that women are consistently paid less than men or jobs requiring simi-

    lar levels o knowledge and responsibility, the employer makes the necessary

    salary increases. For more inormation on the audits, visit Minnesotas pay

    equity web page.30

    Govt

    In 1963, Congress passed the Equal Pay Act, which requires employers

    to give men and women employees equal pay or equal work. One year

    later, in 1964, the Civil Rights Act was passed. itle VII o that act bars all

    discrimination in employment, including discrimination in hiring, ring,

    promotion, and wages on the basis o race, color, religion, sex, or national

    origin.

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    Yet these legal protections have not ensured equal pay or women and men.

    Te rst piece o legislation signed into law by President Barack Obama, the

    Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act o 2009, restores protection against discrimi-nation. Te law claries that pay discrimination occurs when a pay deci-

    sion is made, when an employee is subject to that decision, or at any time

    an employee is injured by it; employees have 180 days rom any o those

    instances to le a claim.31

    Tis is an essential law, but it is by no means sucient. Additional legisla-

    tion is needed to provide more eective equal pay protections. During each

    session o Congress since the Equal Pay Act was passed, bills designed to

    update it have been introduced and sometimes voted on. Most recently,

    in 2009, the House o Representatives passed the Paycheck Fairness Act, a

    comprehensive bill aimed at updating the Equal Pay Act by closing loop-

    holes, strengthening incentives to prevent pay discrimination, and prohibit-

    ing retaliation against workers who inquire about employers wage practicesor disclose their own wages. Despite widespread backing rom the American

    public, the strong leadership o AAUW, and the diligent eorts o our mem-

    bers and coalition partnersnot to mention the support o a majoritiy o

    senators and the White Housethe Senate deeated the Paycheck Fairness

    Act in November 2010 in a procedural vote (58-41).

    AAUW continues to advocate or strong pay equity legislation, regulation,and enorcement to protect employees and assist employers. AAUW also

    works to educate the public about this persistent problem and its eect on

    working amilies. Tese eorts are critical elements as we work to close the

    gender pay gap.

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    1. pt t wtg. Always put everything in writing so you have a record

    and a timeline.

    2. do o owok. For more inormation on your rights, call the

    U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) hotline at

    800/669-4000.

    3. Sk . alk to your supervisor or human resources representative at

    work to learn about the grievance procedure.

    4. avo oos s. While the desire to talk about your case is under-

    standable, the threat o countersuits or deamation is real.

    5. Gt g vc. alk to a lawyer who has specic experience with sexdiscrimination in the workplace. For a reerral in your state, e-mail the

    AAUW Legal Advocacy Fund at [email protected].

    6. act qck. Tere is a statute o limitations on ling complaints with

    the EEOC.

    7. Wtc o cks s. alk to a lawyer or an accountant

    about the nancial burdens o a lawsuit.

    8. Vst o octos, o octo. You may experience a physical

    and emotional toll that should be addressed and documented.

    9. p fo t og . Filing a discrimination lawsuit is a long

    process, but others have succeeded in ghting discrimination, and you

    can too.

    10. F sot twok. Te AAUW Legal Advocacy Fund can con-

    nect you with women who have gone through similar experiences.

    Wt So i do f i exc

    Sx dscto t Wok?

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    VisitAAUWspayequityresourcepageontheAAUWwebsiteatwww.aauw.org/payequity or current inormation on the status o legislation,

    ederal policies, and actions that you can take to narrow the pay gap.

    Join AAUWs Action Network to keep up with equal pay advocacy

    and receive great opportunities to tell your legislators what you think:

    capwiz.com/aauw/home.

    Visit the LAF resource library to learn more about pay equity and what

    you can do i you believe youre being paid unairly: www.aauw.org/act/

    la/library/payequity.cm.

    Get ideas or programming and advocacy with the AAUW Pay Equity

    Resource Kit: www.aauw.org/act/issue_advocacy/actionpages/payequity.

    cm.

    Visit AAUWs $tart $mart salary negotiation page on the AAUW website

    at www.aauw.org/learn/LeadershipPrograms/StartSmart.cm or the Wage

    Project website at www.wageproject.org to nd out how to attend a salary

    negotiation workshop.

    Read more about the pay gap in AAUWs Behind the Pay Gap report at

    www.aauw.org/learn/research/behindPayGap.cm.

    Join AAUW and help ensure pay equity or all: www.aauw.org/about/join.

    aauW rsocs

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    1. Source: DeNavas-Walt, Carmen, Bernadette D. Proctor, and Jessica C. Smith. (2010).U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports. Income, Poverty, and Health InsuranceCoverage in the United States: 2009. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Oce.

    2. U.S. Senate Joint Economic Committee. (2010) Invest in Women, Invest in America: AComprehensive Review of Women in the U.S. Economy. A Report by the Majority Sta othe Joint Economic Committee, Representative Carolyn B. Maloney, Chair. jec.senate.gov/public/index.cm?p=Reports1.

    3. Ibid.

    4. U.S. Census Bureau. (2010). Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the UnitedStates: 2009. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Oce. www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/income.html.

    5. www.census.gov/acs/www/data_documentation/acs_bries.

    6. Sources: U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2009, and PuertoRico Community Survey, 2009. Reported in Getz, David M. U.S. Census BureauAmerican Community Survey Brie ACS BR/09-3: Mens and Womens Earnings orStates and Metropolitan Statistical Areas: 2009. (September 2010). www.census.gov/prod/2010pubs/acsbr09-3.pd. National data include workers ages 15 and older and are

    based on Current Population Survey data, U.S. Census Bureau. Source: U.S. CensusBureau. (2010). Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2009.Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Oce.

    7. Dey, Judy Goldberg, and Catherine Hill. (2007). Behind the Pay Gap. Washington, DC:AAUW Educational Foundation.

    8. Blau, Francine D., and Lawrence M. Kahn. (2006). Te U.S. gender pay gap in the1990s: Slowing convergence. Industrial and Labor Relations Review60 (1): 4565.

    9. Bobbitt-Zeher, D. (2007). Te gender income gap and the role o education. Sociology of

    Education 80, 122.10. Correll, Shelley J., and Stephen Benard. (2007). Getting a job: Is there a motherhood

    penalty? American Journal of Sociology, 112 (5), 12971338.

    11. Source: Current Population Survey, reported in U.S. Department o Labor, U.S. Bureauo Labor Statistics (January 20, 2011). Usual Weekly Earnings Summary Economic NewsRelease, USDL-11-0062. www.bls.gov/news.release/wkyeng.nr0.htm.

    12. Ibid.

    13. Source: Current Population Survey, reported in U.S. Department o Labor, U.S. Bureau

    o Labor Statistics. (June 2010). Highlights of Womens Earnings in 2009. www.bls.gov/cps/cpswom2009.pd.

    14. Source: Current Population Survey, reported in U.S. Department o Labor, U.S. Bureauo Labor Statistics. (December 2010).Women in the Labor Force: A Databook. www.bls.gov/cps/wl-databook2010.htm.

    nots

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    15. U.S. Department o Labor, U.S. Bureau o Labor Statistics. (January 2011). Employmentand Earnings. able 39. www.bls.gov/opub/ee/empearn201101.pd.

    16. Reskin, Barbara F., and Denise D. Bielby. (2005). A sociological perspective on genderand career outcomes. Journal of Economic Perspectives19 (1), 7186.

    17. Institute or Womens Policy Research. (September 2010). Separate and not equal?Gender segregation in the labor market and the gender wage gap. IWPR Brieng Papers.www.iwpr.org/publications/all-2010/separate-and-not-equal-gender-segregation-in-the-labor-market-and-the-gender-wage-gap.

    18. U.S. Department o Labor, U.S. Bureau o Labor Statistics. (January 2011). Employmentand Earnings. www.bls.gov/opub/ee/empearn201101.pd.

    19. Institute or Womens Policy Research. (April 2010). Te gender wage gap by occupation.

    IWPR Fact Sheet. Retrieved February 7, 2011, rom www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/the-gender-wage-gap-by-occupation.

    20. Blau, Francine D., Marianne A. Ferber, and Anne E. Winkler. (2006). Dierences inoccupations and earnings: Overview. Te Economics of Women, Men and Work, 5th edi-tion. Englewood Clis, NJ: Prentice Hall.

    21. Institute or Womens Policy Research. (September 2010). Separate and not equal?Gender segregation in the labor market and the gender wage gap. IWPR Brieng Papers.www.iwpr.org/publications/all-2010/separate-and-not-equal-gender-segregation-in-the-labor-market-and-the-gender-wage-gap.

    22. Source: U.S. Department o Labor, Bureau o Labor Statistics. (January 2011).Employment and Earnings . able 39 Annual Averages 2010. www.bls.gov/opub/ee/empearn201101.pd.

    23. Babcock, Linda, and Sarah Laschever. (2003). Women Dont Ask: Te High Cost of Avoid-ing NegotiationAnd Positive Strategies for Change. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UniversityPress.

    24. Reskin, Barbara F., and Denise D. Bielby. (2005). A sociological perspective on genderand career outcomes. Journal of Economic Perspectives19 (1), 7186.

    25. Cohen-Charash, Y., & Spector, P. E. (2001). Te role o justice in organizations: A meta-analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 86, 278321.

    26. Kim, H. (2009). Integrating organizational justice into the relationship managementtheory. www.allacademic.com.

    27. Colquitt, J. A., D. E. Conlon, M. J. Wesson, C. O. Porter, and K. Y. Ng. (2001). Justiceat the millennium: A meta-analytic review o 25 years o organizational justice research.Journal of Applied Psychology86, 42545.

    28. www.opm.gov/oca/10tables/indexGS.asp.

    29. www.gao.gov/new.items/d09279.pd.

    30. www.mmb.state.mn.us/comp-pay-equity.

    31. Te law came in response to Ledbetter v. Goodyear ire & Rubber, which overturned 40years o EEOC policies and precedents on statutes o limitations in discrimination cases.

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