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Early Intervention Foundation Chapter 2, Lesson 1 

 Slide 1: No Narration  Slide 2: By the second half of the 20th century, new ideas in biological science, psychology, and human services had begun to redirect thinking about disability.  Evidence of this can be found in the provisions of education law that has been enacted since the 1960s.    Slide 3: Chapter 2 presents four influences that gained prominence during the later decades of the 20th century.  These trends have had significant impact on medical, therapeutic, and educational treatment.  As a result of these fundamental ideas, social expectations and opportunities for children with disabilities and their families have changed in significant ways.   These four trends are: 

• The theory that intelligence is “plastic” and can be changed by environmental influences • Systems theories, which take social interactions as well as biological heredity into account • A social model of disability, which reframes the nature of disability • The normalization principle, which redefined objectives for human services  

 Slide 4: Lesson 1 of this chapter focuses on a theory of intelligence that emerged during the latter half of the 20th century, to revolutionize our understanding of human learning potential.   Slide 5: Through the first half of the 20th century, most psychologists maintained that intelligence is genetically determined and “static,” or impossible to change (Safford & Safford, 1996).  However, a growing body of research began to indicate that intelligence is influenced by environmental factors (Ramey, 1984).  For instance, studies found that identical twins who were raised in different environments often scored differently on intelligence tests.  Identical twins are the same biologically; therefore, the differences in IQ must be attributable to something else.  Slide 6: In 1939, a study conducted by two psychologists in Iowa produced surprising evidence of environmental influence on intelligence.  Harold Skeels and Harold Dye (Skeels & Dye, 1939) compared developmental outcomes for two sets of orphaned infants.  The psychologists’ original task was to test infants at an overcrowded orphanage to identify children who were “unfit” for adoption due to mental deficit.  Those babies were committed to a state institution.  Children who scored in the normal range of intelligence were to be raised in the orphanage, unless they were adopted.  Skeels and Dye followed both groups of children, and discovered astonishing changes in the children’s developmental progress (Levine & Havinghurst, 1989; Safford, 1989).    Slide 7: The 12 infants in the control group at the orphanage were from similar family backgrounds, and had tested mental ability in the normal range.  Due to the crowded conditions at the facility, all of these babies were housed with 30 ‐35 other very young children.  They received basic care, but orphanage personnel were too busy to provide individual attention and affection to so many babies.   Slide 8: Skeels and Dye found that, with one exception, the infants at the orphanage quickly began to lose points on subsequent measures of intelligence.  The children lost between 8 and 45 points, causing many to score below the normal range.    

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Slide 9: The experimental group was comprised of 13 infants, who were considered unadoptable, because their IQ scores indicated mental deficiency.  They were placed in a state institution for people with mental disabilities.  Each baby was housed in a ward with older, brighter female residents of the institution.  These children were the focus of attention, encouragement, playful interaction, and affection from both residents and staff members.   Slide 10: Although these infants had been written off as hopeless cases, repeated testing showed increasing IQ scores.  By about 4 years after the start of the study, all but one child tested within the normal range of intelligence.  Two of the children achieved above average scores, and 3 children added 45 points to their original scores.  On average, the group gained 27.5 points.   Slide 11: Skeels and Dye attributed changes in the test scores to the children’s social environments.  Children who had been deprived of responsive attention and affection had lost ground cognitively; whereas, children in environments that offered responsive social interactions, had made unexpected progress. However, the results and explanations offered by Skeels and Dye violated the common precept that intelligence is a hereditary and static trait (Anastasiow & Nucci, 1994).  In the absence of corroborating evidence, implications of this study were largely disregarded by the scientific community.  But, research on the relationship between early environments and developmental outcomes continued.  In 1966, Skeels investigated the long term outcomes for both groups of orphans (Safford & Safford, 1996).  (109)   Slide 12: The children who had initially scored low on their intelligence tests had all been adopted.  Their long term outcomes for education and adjustment as adults are quite positive, as compared with the outcomes for the group who had remained in the orphanage.    Slide 13: Other researchers investigated the relationship between early environments and cognitive ability.  In 1961, psychologist J. McVicker Hunt published his review of the research literature entitled, Intelligence and Experience.  He concluded that findings did not support the premise that intelligence is genetically predetermined and unchangeable (Anastasiow & Nucci, 1994; Hunt, 1961; Spodek & Saracho, 1994).  Science had amassed compelling evidence of “plasticity” in development.   This information generated optimism about the potential of children who might otherwise have been dismissed as “hopeless cases”. Hunt’s book stimulated interest in discovering what kinds of early environments and experiences could optimize young children’s intellectual growth (Anastasiow & Nucci, 1994; Safford, 1989; Safford & Safford, 1996).   Slide 14: Policy‐makers began to shift their focus from controlling human reproduction to promoting initiatives to improve children’s early environments.  In 1965, Project Head Start was launched to provide environmental supports for young children in poverty.  In 1968, the federal government established the Handicapped Children’s Early Education Program (HCEEP) (Bailey, 2000; Safford & Safford, 1996).  It’s purpose was to fund model programs of comprehensive services for infants, toddlers and preschool age children with identified disabilities (Bailey, 2000).  The initial appropriation for HCEEP was just one million dollars to support 25 projects.  Ten years later, the investment in HCEEP had grown to 22 million dollars that funded 214 grants and contracts (Ysseldyke, Algozzine & Thurlow, 1992).  Bringing together research and practice, the HCEEP demonstration projects began to establish the knowledge base for today’s field of early intervention (Safford & Safford, 1996; Safford, Sargent, & Cook, 1994; Ysseldyke, et al., 1992).     Slide 15: During the last few decades of the 20th century, research evidence disproved the theory that intelligence is static.  Research demonstrated that intelligence is plastic and can be influenced by experiences – especially during the first five 

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years of life.  Based on this evidence, federal policy began to fund programs to promote early development for young children in poverty, and young children at developmental risk due to disability.  Hope for the potential of all children was raised, and many professionals from an array of disciplines began to focus on applying their skills to early childhood development.   Slide 16:   References: 

Anastasio, N. & Nucci, C. (1994). Social, historical, and theoretical foundations of early childhood special education and early intervention. In B. Spodek & O.N. Saracho (Series Ed.) & P. L. Safford (Vol. Ed.), Yearbook in early childhood education: Vol. 5. Early childhood special education (pp.7‐25), New York, NY: Teachers College Press.   

Levine, D. L. & Havinghurst, R. J. (1989). Society and Education, 7th Edition.  Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.  

Ramey, C. T., Yeates, K.O. & Short, E. J. (1984). The plasticity of intellectual development: insights from preventive intervention Child Development, 55(5), 1913‐1925.   

Safford, P. L. (1989).  Integrated teaching in early childhood: Starting in the mainstream. White Plains, NY: Longman.  

Slide 17:   References: 

Safford, P. L. & Safford, E. J. (1996). A history of childhood and disability. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.  Safford, P. L., Sargent, M. & Cook, C. (1994). Instructional models in early childhood special education: Origins, issues, and trends.  In B. Spodek & O.N. Saracho (Series Ed.) & P. L. Safford (Vol. Ed.), Yearbook in early childhood education: Vol. 5. Early childhood special education (pp. 96‐117), New York, NY: Teachers College Press.  

Skeels, H. M. (1966). Adult status of children with contrasting early life experiences. Monograph of the Society for Research in Child Development, 31(6), Serial 105. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. 

       Slide 18   References: 

Skeels, H. M. & Dye, H. B. (1939). A study of the effect of differential stimulation on mentally retarded children.  Proceedings and addresses of the American Association of Mental Deficiency. 44(1): 114‐136. 

Spodek, B. & Saracho, O. N. (1994). Early childhood education and early childhood special education: A look to the future. In B. Spodek & O.N. Saracho (Series Ed.) and P. L. Safford (Vol. Ed.), Yearbook in early childhood education: Vol. 5. Early childhood special education (pp. 242‐246). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.   

Ysseldyke, J. E., Algozine, B. & Thurlow, M. L. (1992). Critical issues in special education, 2nd edition. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company. 

 Slide 19   Resources: 

Office of Head Start, U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/ohs/    

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Chapter 2: Later 20th Century Influences on Treatment and Opportunity for Children with Disabilities

Lesson 1: Theory of plastic intelligence

Early Intervention Early Intervention Core Competency 1.0Core Competency 1.0

Outcome: Early intervention personnel demonstrate an understanding of the theoretical, historical, philosophical, legal and organizational

Early Intervention Policy and

Practice

and organizational components that provide the foundation for Part C of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and South Carolina’s BabyNet early intervention system.

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HistoricalPhilosophical

Theoretical

Family Systems and Ecological

Systems Theories

Social model of disability

Treatment and

Opportunity

Theory of plastic intelligence

Normalization principle

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Theory of

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Treatment and

Opportunity

yplastic

intelligence

Heredity may not determine intelligence.En ironment ma

Heredity may not determine intelligence.En ironment ma Environment may influence mental development.

Identical twins raised in different conditions had different IQ scores.

Environment may influence mental development.

Identical twins raised in different conditions had different IQ scores.

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Study observed whether different environmental

Study observed whether different environmental

Infants in Iowa Orphanage

Control Group•12 infants•Normal

Experimental Group•13 infants

Skeels & Dye, 1939Skeels & Dye, 1939Skeels & Dye, 1939Skeels & Dye, 1939

environmental conditions effect change in children’s IQ.

environmental conditions effect change in children’s IQ.

intelligence•Remained in orphanage , unless adopted

•Below normal intelligence

•Committed to state institution for mentally disabled

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12 infants remained in orphanageSimilar family backgrounds

12 infants remained in orphanageSimilar family backgroundsMean IQ score = 90Housed with 30-35 other young childrenReceived only custodial care

Mean IQ score = 90Housed with 30-35 other young childrenReceived only custodial care

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All but one infant lost IQ pointsChildren lost 8 to

All but one infant lost IQ pointsChildren lost 8 to 45 points45 points

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13 infants 7-30 months oldMean IQ score = 64.5“unfit for adoption”Placed in institution for “mentally

13 infants 7-30 months oldMean IQ score = 64.5“unfit for adoption”Placed in institution for “mentally for mentally retarded”Housed in wards with older, brighter female residentsReceived individual attention and affection from residents and staff

for mentally retarded”Housed in wards with older, brighter female residentsReceived individual attention and affection from residents and staff

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Within 6 to 52 months all but one scored in normal range of intelligence

Within 6 to 52 months all but one scored in normal range of intelligenceTwo scored above averageThree individuals gained 45 pointsGroup average gain = 27.5 points

Two scored above averageThree individuals gained 45 pointsGroup average gain = 27.5 points

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Follow-up study 21 years laterIncluded all 25 original participantsFollow-up study 21 years laterIncluded all 25 original participants

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EXPERIMENTAL GROUP CONTROL GROUP

100% of the “unfit” children had been adoptedA d ti l

100% of the “unfit” children had been adoptedA d ti l

Average educational level = less than grade 31 was in a mental h it l

Average educational level = less than grade 31 was in a mental h it lAverage educational

level = grade 124 had entered college1 had a bachelor’s degree11 were married9 of them had children

Average educational level = grade 124 had entered college1 had a bachelor’s degree11 were married9 of them had children

hospital3 were in institutions for mentally retarded1 died in an institution½ were unemployed3 girls had been sterilized as a condition for being allowed to leave the institution

hospital3 were in institutions for mentally retarded1 died in an institution½ were unemployed3 girls had been sterilized as a condition for being allowed to leave the institution

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Intelligence and Experience (1961) by J. McVicker Hunt

Reviewed literature on early environment and intelligence

Intelligence and Experience (1961) by J. McVicker Hunt

Reviewed literature on early environment and intelligenceintelligenceFindings refute the view that intelligence is staticCompelling scientific evidence demonstrates that intelligence is plastic and responsive to environmental conditions

intelligenceFindings refute the view that intelligence is staticCompelling scientific evidence demonstrates that intelligence is plastic and responsive to environmental conditions

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1968

# of HCEEP Model Programs

25

15 000 00020,000,00025,000,000

Dollars to Fund HCEEP

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1978# of HCEEP Model

Programs 214

05,000,000

10,000,00015,000,000

1968 funding

1978 funding

•Intelligence is not fixed at birth; it is characterized by plasticity.•Early IQ scores do not reliably predict later intellectual performance.

•Environmental conditions influence cognitive development.

P li

• Support development of model programs for young children with disabilities.

•Research effectiveness of programs to enhance development of

Theory ofplasticity

Policy Research effectiveness of programs to enhance development of vulnerable populations of young children.

Effects

•Expectations for positive developmental outcomes for young children with disabilities are raised.

•Professional educators and therapists begin to focus on programming for very young children.

•Hopeful parents seek services to support them in meeting the special needs of their young children with disabilities.

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Anastasio, N. & Nucci, C. (1994). Social, historical, and theoretical foundations of early childhood special education and early intervention. In B. Spodek & O.N. Saracho (Series Ed.) & P. L. Safford (Vol. Ed.), Yearbook in early childhood education: Vol. 5. Early childhood special education (pp.7-25), New York, NY: Teachers College Press.Levine, D. L. & Havinghurst, R. J. (1989). Society and , g , J ( ) yEducation, 7th Edition. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.Ramey, C. T., Yeates, K.O. & Short, E. J. (1984). The plasticity of intellectual development: insights from preventive intervention Child Development, 55(5), 1913-1925. Safford, P. L. (1989). Integrated teaching in early childhood: Starting in the mainstream. White Plains, NY: Longman.

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Safford, P. L. & Safford, E. J. (1996). A history of childhood and disability. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.Safford, P. L., Sargent, M. & Cook, C. (1994). Instructional models in early childhood special education: Origins, issues, and trends. In B. Spodek & O.N. Saracho (Series Ed.) & P. L. Safford (Vol. Ed.), Yearbook in early childhood education: Vol 5 Early Yearbook in early childhood education: Vol. 5. Early childhood special education (pp. 96-117), New York, NY: Teachers College Press.Skeels, H. M. (1966). Adult status of children with contrasting early life experiences. Monograph of the Society for Research in Child Development, 31(6), Serial 105. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

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Skeels, H. M. & Dye, H. B. (1939). A study of the effect of differential stimulation on mentally retarded children. Proceedings and addresses of the American Association of Mental Deficiency. 44(1): 114-136.

Spodek, B. & Saracho, O. N. (1994). Early childhood education and early childhood special education: A l k t th f t I B S d k & O N S h (S i look to the future. In B. Spodek & O.N. Saracho (Series Ed.) and P. L. Safford (Vol. Ed.), Yearbook in early childhood education: Vol. 5. Early childhood special education (pp. 242-246). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Ysseldyke, J. E., Algozine, B. & Thurlow, M. L. (1992). Critical issues in special education, 2nd edition. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.

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Office of Head Start, U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families

http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/ohs/

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